Bwindi Region Republic of Uganda

US Forest Service Technical Assistance Trip Virunga – Bwindi Region Republic of Uganda

Continued Support to the International Gorilla Conservation Program in Analyzing the Region’s Watersheds for Water Supplies to Local Communities:

An Addendum to the 2005 Mission Mission Dates: March 31–April 14, 2008

Joseph Gurrieri Jason Gritzner Regional Geologist Hydrologist Intermountain Region Idaho Panhandle NF 324 25th Street 1500 Hwy 2, Suite 110 Ogden, UT 84401 Sandpoint, ID 83864 801-625-5668 208-265-6654 [email protected] [email protected] Kame Westerman USDA Forest Service Office of International Programs 1099 14th St NW Washington DC, 20005 (202) 273-4739 [email protected]

Also available at: www.frameweb.org/fsip

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The team would like to thank the International Gorilla Conservation Program (IGCP) staff in Uganda, particularly Dr. Arthur Mugisha and James Byamukama, for logistical support in planning the trip and ensuring that the trip was productive. Thank you to James for driving, arranging meetings, and above all being patient with our many questions. We are also grateful for the valuable insight provided by Edwin Kagoda on our many hikes in Bwindi, and the other UWA staff who guided us.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 4

DESCRIPTION OF THE MISSION’S SCOPE OF WORK 5

ISSUE IDENTIFICATION 6

WATERSHED CONDITIONS 9

HYDROLOGY OF THE REGION 13

WATER RESOURCES IN REGION 18

RECOMMENDATIONS AND NEXT STEPS 26

REFERENCES 34

APPENDIX 1: Mission Summary and Itinerary Overview 37

APPENDIX 2: Attendees at Kanungu Workshop 40

APPENDIX 3: Contacts Made 41

INTRODUCTION

This mission was designed as a follow up to and expansion of the trip in 2005, and thus should be read in conjunction with the 2005 report (USDA Forest Service 2005) which can be found at: (http://www.frameweb.org/ev_en.php?ID=12283_201&ID2=DO_TOPIC)

The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service International Programs (USFS IP) has a long history of promoting sustainable forest management and the conservation of biodiversity in Africa. USFS IP provides targeted technical assistance by working in collaboration with host-country government forest and natural resource management institutions, the US Agency for International Development (USAID), and local and international NGOs. By linking the skills of its field-based staff with partners overseas, the USFS, through the International Programs office, provides its partners with access to the wealth and diversity of skills that the agency possesses. USFS technical experts are able to apply sound natural resources management principles and lessons learned, gleaned from over 100 years of forest and grassland management in the USA, to similar issues faced by partners overseas, and help them address critical resource issues and concerns.

The USFS and the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) have a well established partnership, particularly in relation to watershed assessments, having worked together in the Virunga area in 2005 and projects in northern Tanzania and the Zambezi River. This mission to the Virunga-Bwindi region of Uganda was requested by the International Gorilla Conservation Program (IGCP) as a follow up to the 2005 scoping trip. Several attempts to return to the area failed between 2005 and present, due to security issues. This landscape encompasses Mgahinga Gorilla National Park (MGNP) on the boarder with Rwanda in the south and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) (Fig 1).

Located in the Albertine rift, a region of enormous biodiversity importance to the world, this part of Africa has a human population density which is among the highest on the continent. Communities surrounding the parks suffer from a lack of access to reliable water sources, forcing them to encroach upon the parks in search of water, increasing the pressures upon this unique and fragile ecosystem. Capitalizing on the broad level of expertise contained within the USFS and gained over many years of managing landscapes at the watershed level, IGCP has partnered with the USFS for the provision of technical assistance to help find solutions to the water supply problem of the area. IGCP wants to better engage the local community in conservation efforts, and sees potable water as an entry point to help local people understand the importance of the forest and the need to protect and conserve.

The USFS team consisted of Jason Gritzner (Hydrologist, Idaho Panhandle National Forests), Joe Gurrieri (Regional Geologist, Intermountain Region), and Kame Westerman (Africa Program Specialist, International Programs). While two days were spent in Mgahinga Gorilla National Park assessing the Rugezi swamp and water projects in the Kisoro area, the majority of time was spent in and around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park.

Figure 1. Protected areas of southwestern Uganda.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SCOPE OF WORK

USFS technical experts provided guidance on structuring an analysis of the hydrology of the region, with a particular focus on the improvement of the water supply for local communities. The specific goals of this mission were as follows: 1. Evaluate the overall state of water resources in Mgahinga and Bwindi National Parks; 2. Identify appropriate methods for surveying water sources of sufficient quantity and quality for local communities, wildlife, and forest ecosystems. Perform on-the-ground

surveying of water sources with IGCP staff in as many areas as possible, given time restraints; 3. Assess, to the greatest extent possible, the demand on water resources by local communities and forest ecosystems; 4. Provide recommendations on sustainable management of the source areas in order to assure long term water availability; 5. Present a half-day workshop for local natural resource managers on water resource issues and recommendations for the region.

ISSUE IDENTIFICATION

Over the course of the mission – field visits to developed and undeveloped water sources, meetings and discussions with representatives of government land and natural resource management agencies as well as local and international NGOs, and review of as much of the existing data as we could obtain – the USFS team identified the following issues of concern regarding the watersheds of the region and the state of available water for consumption by local communities. In our previous report (USDA Forest Service 2005) we identified the following issues.

• Communities closest to the parks are under the greatest threat • Lack of leadership, centralized information, and data for water resources • Lack of research, inventory, or monitoring of aquatic ecology and hydrology • Erosion and long-term effects of land use/cover change

These issues are still relevant and can be reviewed in USDA Forest Service (2005). During our 2008 assessment in Uganda we identified these additional issues.

Recharge areas of springs outside of the parks are unprotected

In the Bwindi area, there are a number of viable springs that have already been developed outside of the park. In many cases the recharge areas of these springs are being threatened by land use practices and human settlement. The effects of intensive agriculture and human settlement on groundwater recharge can be considerable. With excessive erosion, soil compaction, and depletion of organic materials in the soil, the water holding capacity of soils and infiltration rate can become diminished as runoff increases. This can negatively affect the annual freshwater yield of springs and may lead to periods of reduced or interrupted flow. The infiltration and runoff of petrochemical agricultural inputs and contamination from latrines can affect water quality with increased settlement in catchment areas. As these water resources become diminished in either quantity or quality, it is possible that populations near protected areas will rely more heavily on water resources within protected areas, and collateral natural resource damage will continue to occur. There is a need to halt such processes and to institute protective land management practices within spring recharge zones.

General lack of riparian buffers on surface water features

During our field observations of areas outside of parks and forest reserves, we found that riparian buffers were very rarely established for surface water features, subjecting these waters to accelerated degradation. Streams and rivers were commonly turbid and exhibited signs of instability including rapidly eroding banks. Many small lakes and wetlands were being inundated with sediment. In some cases open water ecosystems were in the process of transition to a marsh or wetland owing to excessive sedimentation.

In communities such as Ndego, where the stream runs through agricultural, pasture, and residential land with no riparian buffer, surface runoff from the surrounding watershed transports a variety of bacterial and chemical pollutants, as well as sediment. In terms of the beneficial uses of water for that area, this does not only threaten aquatic and riparian ecosystems, but human health. In the case of the Ishasha River and other rivers flowing into national parks, degraded waters caused by a lack of riparian buffers upstream can pose a threat to larger ecosystems and biodiversity.

Poor success rate for boreholes

While ground water development using boreholes has met with success in many parts of Africa, this technology remains elusive in southwestern Uganda. For example, in Kisoro District only 3 out of 13 boreholes drilled have remained viable water supplies. Many of the areas facing poverty and poor health are where it has proved difficult to develop safe water supplies. Groundwater supply projects in these areas have a history of failure and are now often avoided because of their low success. However, spending time understanding how groundwater occurs in these difficult areas can lead to successful water projects being developed in areas once avoided (IAH). The following discussion summarizes some of the important issues discussed at the Workshop for Groundwater Professionals held in Uganda in 2006.

Water resources monitoring, assessment and data management have been going on in Uganda only since about 1998. Groundwater plays an important role in the socio- economic development of Uganda and the water and sanitation sector is an important component of the Poverty Eradication Action Plan and part of the Millennium Development Goals. Ineffective construction, supervision, and non functionality of water sources (near 30%) are undermining efforts to reduce poverty. Groundwater resources are also under threat from overexploitation and pollution, calling for sustainable development and management. The constraints to sustainable groundwater management include complex geology, limited knowledge of groundwater resources, limited technical capacity, limited financial resources, poor quality of groundwater data, limited yields of sources, and pollution.

Ecological impacts of spring developments within parks - environmental flows

Spring water sources within the protected areas are valuable potential water supplies for the surrounding communities. There are three main advantages to developing springs within protected areas, 1) the forested watersheds in the parks create a constant flow of groundwater

that supports spring flow through drought periods, 2) the recharge areas for the springs are protected from contamination sources, and 3) the local communities receive a service from the adjacent forest and begin to perceive the forest as critical in maintaining a steady supply of clean water to their villages.

The disadvantages to developing springs within protected areas are 1) flow reduction and possible damage to aquatic habitats, and 2) pipelines and associated developments in the forest incrementally fragment forest habitat and may, in some specific cases or cumulatively, diminish the viability of some species. It is important to realize that there are a substantial number of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems in the parks which depend upon or utilize groundwater and/or surface water, and this aspect of water ecological services and its potential constraint on other uses, should be appreciated (Foster et al 2006). One way to prevent damage to aquatic ecosystems is through the concept of environmental flow allocations. Environmental flows have not been determined for springs, streams and swamps that are proposed for development.

Climate change and drought

The impact of climate change on future water resource availability is a concern for the region. Southwest Uganda is becoming warmer and the resulting changes in rainfall patterns, aquifer recharge, and vegetation patterns has implications when trying to design drought resistant water supplies for local communities. Climate change forces us to think in terms of achieving greater drought-proofing of rural livelihoods. It is also important to note that groundwater sources are much less drought prone than surface water sources due to the large natural storage of aquifers. The impact of drought on groundwater levels lags considerably behind the actual failure of rains and surface water runoff. Thus, it is important to invest in advance in the appraisal of drought susceptibility of aquifers, drilling of new wells, and deepening of existing wells (Foster et al 2006).

Lack of technical capacity

Professional expertise on how to evaluate, develop, and manage water resources appear to be decreasing in Uganda (especially in government offices), due to lack of appropriate training, poor recognition of water resource professionals, and reductions in public spending. Uganda is blessed with high quality universities that produce many well qualified and motivated water resource professionals. Unfortunately, they become frustrated with the lack of funding, slow pace of development, low pay, and poor use of their skills. As such, most of the well qualified professionals end up leaving Uganda for better opportunities elsewhere. Existing capacity needs to be used much more effectively.

Knowledge and data are not readily available

Existing information that is vital for developing water resources is not readily accessible. Lessons learned from successful as well as unsuccessful projects are not being used as a basis for new projects. Basic information, such as geological and groundwater maps, and borehole logs are missing or difficult to get. Grey literature, such as consultants, and NGO reports, are

not collated and the knowledge is lost to other projects and future generations. Databases of borehole data and water quality, which have proved so useful in many countries, are poorly maintained or at worst not available. As a result, ground water developments often have poor success rates and poor quality water (IAH).

WATERSHED CONDITIONS

In a 2006 USAID report, “Uganda Biodiversity and Tropical Forest Assessment” it was stated that southwest Uganda is a key component of the Albertine Rift, and constitutes one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world. Much of this biodiversity resides in isolated pockets of protected land. In these areas watersheds are functioning well. Forested hillsides protect and build soils, headwater streams are relatively stable, and wetlands function to provide a range of services for water quality and ecosystems. However, on a landscape level, this region of Uganda faces a great deal of natural resource degradation (Fig. 2). Watershed conditions that were described in USDA Forest Service (2005), largely for the Virunga area, continue into 2008 and are similar for the Bwindi area. The largest and most persistent threat to water, soil, and biological resources in the region is the widespread conversion of land from forest to agropastoral land cover types, and the predominant lack of conservation-based land-use systems.

Figure 2. Sedimentation from agricultural runoff in an open water environment is hastening the conversion of this ecosystem type to a wetland.

The issue of soil erosion continues to increase each year, and very little is done at the policy level to significantly address the situation (USAID 2006). As agricultural practices such as cultivating steep slopes and overstocking rangeland continue to occur without abatement, and conservation-based land-use systems are not widely implemented, the fundamental components of soil, water, and vegetation that support lives and livelihoods continue to be jeopardized. Current policies of agricultural modernization will further exacerbate the situation as cropping systems become monocultural, agrochemical-intensive farming systems pollute

soils and water resources, and genetic diversity diminishes (USAID 2006). As this trend continues and these fundamental resources are increasingly rendered incapable of supporting the livelihoods of the people on the landscape, pressure will continue to increase on protected areas to provide the resources required for survival.

There are several areas around the world where once productive lands were so profoundly impacted by intensive and damaging land-use practices that they are no longer fit to sustain human life, let alone a viable ecosystem. In the Nyando Basin of Kenya, which drains into Lake Victoria, non conservation-based land-use systems have stripped the land of its native vegetation, left the earth susceptible to heavy erosion, and rendered the entire region incapable of supporting the growing human population that inhabits the area. Steep hillsides and river banks that were once heavily farmed and grazed now consist of huge gullies that run unchecked, carrying tons of sediment, critical nutrients and organic material into Lake Victoria (Fig. 3). It is estimated that an area of more than 120,000 hectares has lost up to 1.5 meters of soil worth millions of dollars in a period of approximately 100 years (Mbaria 2006).

Figure 3. Example of the results of negligent land-use practices in the Nyando Basin (Mbaria 2006)

Other unsustainable land-use practices affecting the fundamental natural resource base in the Nyando Basin include the over-extraction of forage vegetables, firewood, materials for thatching, mats and papyrus ropes from wetlands. The use of wetlands for small-scale farming and grazing, as a source of sand and soil for brick making, and as a water supply has directly compromised the habitat of bird, reptile, rare mammal, and endangered fish species. The most unfortunate consequence of degraded wetlands in the region is their inability to filter pollutants, which has impacted lake ecosystems and threatens biodiversity throughout the basin (Mbaria 2006).

In terms of the overall effects to human populations in the Nyando Basin resulting from widespread resource degradation, agricultural production is low, fisheries production is low, and torrents from storm water runoff regularly flood villages, causing death and damage to livelihoods. The Nyando Basin it is now considered one of Africa’s most severe hunger spots. Poverty is the norm and has given rise to a high mortality rate from malaria, tuberculosis, cholera, typhoid, and HIV/AIDS (Mbaria 2006).

Although the natural resource base that sustains populations in southwest Uganda in the Virunga and Bwindi region have not been degraded to the extent they have in the Nyando region of Kenya, all of the same risk factors that led to the degradation of human and ecological resources of that region exist in southwest Uganda today. In our 2005 report (USDA Forest Service 2005) we addressed our observations of the effects of land-use/land-cover change on soil resources, erosion and sedimentation, and ultimately biodiversity as they related mostly to the Virunga area. In the Bwindi region, where the geology is dominated by Precambrian crystalline basement rock, there is a greater abundance of springs, streams, rivers, and wetlands. The same issues of land-use/land-cover change that threaten the integrity of fundamental natural resources throughout this landscape give rise to issues of water quality, bank stabilization, and aquatic and riparian ecology when it occurs in spring recharge zones, on the banks of streams, and around or within wetlands. In the Nyando project, reducing pressure on water catchments, and restoring wetlands and riverbank buffer strips were among the few focal areas for intervention during the implementation of the project in addition to the widespread implementation of agroforestry systems (Mbaria 2006).

Water Resource Protection

In pursuing the question of how to best provide water to communities on the periphery of protected areas to decrease the need for people entering the park to gather water, attention has to be given to the issue of conserving and protecting developed and undeveloped water resources outside of the park. In the Bwindi region, agropastoral land-use practices and human settlement were commonly observed in the recharge area of springs, throughout the riparian areas of streams and river and within areas that once functioned as wetlands.

Spring Recharge Areas

The effects of intensive agriculture and human settlement on groundwater recharge can be considerable. With excessive erosion and depletion of organic materials in the soil, and increased runoff, the water holding capacity of soils can become diminished. This can negatively affect the annual freshwater yield of springs and may lead to periods of reduced or interrupted flow. In a study of the water quality of springs near Kampala where similar patterns of land-use cover the landscape, Haruna et al (2005) found that 90% of springs sampled exceeded World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for fecal coliform and 60% exceeded WHO guidelines for nitrate levels among other pollutants. This put 70% of the springs into a high risk category and 30% into a medium risk category. The most common aspects of mismanagement for all springs surveyed were that they lacked a perimeter fence, pit latrines were present uphill and/or within 30 meters of the spring, animals were allowed to within 10 meters of the spring, and no uphill diversion ditches existed.

In speaking with the District Water Officer in Kabale, he stated that relatively large spring sources were supposed to have a100 meter buffer where only certain tree species were planted, and that smaller sources were also supposed to receive protection, but rarely do. During our field visits, we observed no formal buffered areas on developed spring sources outside of protected areas. Land use practices ranged from moderately to highly intensive in these areas, and human settlement is on the rise.

The institution of spring recharge area protection measures and land-use planning for developed and undeveloped springs outside of the park will help assure long-term, high quality water resources for populations in the vicinity of those springs. As these water resources become diminished in either quantity or quality, populations near protected areas will rely more heavily on water resources within protected areas, and the potential for collateral natural resource damage will continue.

Surface Water Features

In Uganda, the National Environment (Wetlands, Riverbanks, and Lake Shores Management) Regulations of 2000 include the establishment of riparian buffers for the protection of surface water resources (Byamukama 2008). These include a 100 meter buffer for major rivers, 30 meters for other streams and rivers, 200 meters for major lakes and 100 meters for all other lakes. Riparian buffer areas are widely recognized for their importance in protecting water quality, sustaining aquatic ecosystems and protecting downstream resources and beneficial uses of water (Belt et al. 1992; Reid et al. 1998; others). If there is any debate in this matter, it is regarding recommended widths for providing adequate protection of riparian and aquatic resources.

During our field observations of areas outside of protected areas, we found that riparian buffers were very rarely established, or insufficient, subjecting these water resources to accelerated degradation. Streams and rivers were commonly turbid. Many of the lakes and wetlands were being inundated with sediment from surface runoff. Large wetland complexes were channelized and converted to agropastoral land-cover types, diminishing their ability to filter pollutants, improve water quality and provide habitat to a range of organisms.

In a water quality study of various rivers in the BINP region, Aventino Kasangaki et al. (2006) demonstrated the link between the composition diversity of macroinvertebrate communities and water quality. In this study they showed that the Ishasha River, which drains a watershed of mixed land-use patterns, including heavy active agricultural use, had the poorest water quality parameters including the lowest levels of transparency, the highest levels of conductivity, and the highest temperatures of all streams sampled in the region. The Ishasha also showed the lowest levels of taxa richness in macroinvertebrates (Kasangaki et al. 2006).

Along the Ishasha River upstream from BINP, no riparian trees were recorded in the highly disturbed agricultural area. The vegetation cover that did exist was characteristic of a bush fallow (Kasangaki et al. 2006). The water quality monitoring site at the park boundary showed the poorest water quality parameters of any of the 12 sites sampled. Although the river

continued through approximately 15 km of relatively less disturbed forested areas of the park, water quality parameters and aquatic biodiversity did not appreciably improve (Kasangaki et al. 2006). Beyond the final monitoring site, the Ishasha flows out of the park through a similar agricultural landscape before flowing into Queen Elizabeth National Park, and eventually Lake Edward. Although there are no know water quality monitoring sites in this lower portion of the watershed, water was still visibly very turbid and is assumed to have relatively low taxa richness for macroinvertebrates.

The full effects that water quality has had on other aquatic species in the region are somewhat speculative. In a paper by Carl Ferraris (1996), there is a description of four species of fish that were collected from BINP, one of which (Amphilus sp.) was new to science. In a paper by Kasangaki (in prep) another endemic fish, Varicorhinus ruwenzori, has been recorded almost exclusively in aquatic habitat within forested sites of BINP. None of these species, even the more common, were recorded to be found in the Ishasha River. In Lake Victoria, the effects of similar land-use patterns (and invasive species) have been attributed to the decline of what was once considered one of the most biodiverse freshwater ecosystems in the world (Mbaria, 2006). The Albertine Rift and BINP host a tremendous number of endemic and endangered species. What habitat the Ishasha River may have provided for some of these aquatic species is unknown.

The specific effects of diminished water quality on riparian and other terrestrial ecosystems in protected areas along the Ishasha River are unknown. There is the potential that terrestrial and avian species that rely directly or indirectly upon this water resource for their sustenance may be negatively affected by petrochemical and bacterial pollutants that flow into the park(s) from degraded agropastoral land upstream.

The infrastructure of environmental policy is already in place to provide protection to the various aquatic resources across the landscape. To see that conservation of these areas becomes a reality, the strengthening of political will and the mobilization of key institutions involved in conservation and environmental governance to enforcement environmental law will be required. Providing the people that live on this landscape a socially and economically viable alternative to the livelihood strategies currently in place along with conserving the area’s fundamental resources will make the effort successful

HYDROLOGY OF THE REGION

Climate

Water resources are inextricably linked with climate, so the prospect of global climate change has serious implications for water resources and regional development in Uganda. Efforts to provide adequate water resources for the region will confront several challenges; including population pressure, problems associated with land use such as erosion/siltation and sanitation, and possible ecological consequences of local temperature and rainfall changes. A recent analysis of climate data shows a sustained warming particularly over southern parts of Uganda. The fastest warming regions are in the southwest of the country where the rate is of the order of 0.3 degrees C per decade (Enabling Uganda Project 2002).

Much of southwest Uganda has been deforested and those forests that are left are small and fragmented. Nevertheless these forested areas function to provide a steady supply of surface and groundwater to surrounding areas. Although the consequences of deforestation on rainfall are contentious and difficult to assess in quantitative terms at present, there appears to be a consensus of opinion on two adverse effects of forest clearance, namely a decrease in the number of rainfall events and an increase in storm intensity with associated soil erosion (Reynolds and Thompson 1988). While the total annual rainfall appears to remain relatively unaffected, deforestation may decrease the amount of water that infiltrates to recharge aquifers and maintain spring flows. The remaining forests in the region are critical to providing a slow, steady release of water to streams and springs and maintaining a perennial flow.

Geology

The geology of Southwest Uganda is dominated by ancient (Precambrian) crystalline rocks of the Karagwe-Ankolean system and Pleistocene to Recent volcanic rocks (Fig. 4). BINP is part of the Kigezi Highlands that were formed through up-warping of the Western Rift Valley. Precambrian argillites and arenites underlie the area (British Geological Survey 2001). The crystalline rocks are generally covered by regolith, a layer of weathered material varying from rock fragments near the interface with the bedrock, to well-weathered soil and hard laterite at the ground surface. The regolith layer varies in thickness but is typically of the order of 30 m

Figure 4. A simplified hydrogeological map of Sub-Saharan Africa. The insert shows the number of rural people living on each of the hydrogeological environments. Uganda is dominated by basement rock aquifers. (MacDonald et al 2005)

(Taylor and Howard, 1994). The volcanic rocks (lava flows and pyroclastic deposits) of MGNP are associated with the major East African Rift Valley which extends along the western border of Uganda.

Groundwater Quality

The dominant groundwater quality problems in Uganda are related to poor sanitation (British Geological Survey 2001). The major quality problem for spring developments outside of protected areas is likely to be high nitrate levels and even bacterial infection from sewage effluent. The recharge paths through the fractured rocks mean that there is little protection against pollution from pit latrines (Clark 1985).

The main inorganic groundwater quality problems are fluoride (e.g. Cyuho water supply), iron and manganese. Groundwater with higher salinity have also been reported in some parts of the country (DWD, 1994), perhaps related to the occurrence of volcanic rocks. In addition, the concentrations of a number of other trace elements have been reported above World Health Organization (WHO) limits, but the scale of the exceedances is often small. Of the other trace elements considered by Taylor and Howard (1994) for groundwaters in Uganda, barium, nickel, lead, uranium, chromium and cadmium showed some exceedances above WHO health- based guideline values in some groundwater samples from basement rock aquifers (British Geological Survey 2001). Compared to fluoride, these are likely to be significantly less important. Despite these water-quality problems, groundwater remains the most important source of safe drinking water in rural Uganda.

Some of the high iron concentrations may be related to breakdown of the steel well casing in acidic conditions, but much of the iron and manganese is naturally occurring in the groundwater. The shallow clayey regolith restricts the degree of aeration of the underlying aquifers and some of the high iron and manganese occurrences may be related to the generation of anaerobic conditions.

Hydrology of Mgahinga Gorilla National Park

The hydrology of Mgahinga Gorilla National Park (MGNP) has been described in our 2005 report (USDA Forest Service 2005) and will only be summarized here. Certain geologic and hydrologic characteristics of the Virunga volcanoes area favor the occurrence and retention of freshwater in underground aquifers although the geologic and hydrologic characteristics of the aquifers vary widely. Surface water is sparse across the landscape due to the high permeability of the volcanic rocks. The principal sources of fresh groundwater are the large contact springs that discharge from the terminus of lava flows. Where the permeable lava flows containing ground water extend to the valley bottom and pinch out over low permeability Precambrian rocks, large volumes of water are forced to the surface. This type of ground water discharge is represented by and Cyuho and Nkanka springs in Uganda.

The low gradient of the ground surface in the saddles between the volcanoes of MGNP favor the accumulation of rainfall, surface flow, and groundwater seepage into swamps. Discharge from these swamps support ephemeral streams that flow to the lower slopes of the Park. The

degree of perennial flow in streams depends on the relative amount of groundwater discharge and the rock permeability along the stream channels.

Hydrology of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) is a major water catchment area and the source of many rivers that flow north, west and south. The major rivers include the Ivi, Munyaga, Ihihizo, Ishasha, and Ntengyere, which drain into Lake Edward and other rivers flow into Lake Mutanda. BINP is therefore critical to the hydrological balance of the region. Bwindi has a comparatively dense stream network with perennial streams present within and near the boundaries of the park. As such, intrusion into the park by people gathering water is much less of a problem than in MGNP in the Virunga Volcanoes region.

The area has experienced a long history of logging, encroachment for agriculture, mining, poaching, fishing and wild fires. Although fishing is banned in BINP rivers, illegal fishing still takes place and the fish fauna is only now being investigated. The highlands of southwestern Uganda have substantial peatlands including Mubwindi Swamp in BINP and Muchuya Swamp in Echuya Forest Reserve. These peatlands occur at the headwaters of major streams and regulate the flow of the streams. Groundwater is a large component of a peatland water budget and therefore, is important in providing a constant flow of water to rivers during drought periods. The Shongi River begins as outflow stream from Mubwindi Swamp and was flowing at 4.5 cubic feet/second during our visit to the swamp outlet on April 6, 2008. Ugandan peatlands also support a high degree of biodiversity. Cores have been drilled in Mubwindi Swamp that show a 40,000 year record of paleoclimatology and vegetation succession (Marchant et al. 1997).

BINP is underlain by weathered basement rocks (Fig 5). These rocks are generally of low permeability and as a consequence, infiltration is limited, aquifer storage is limited, and much of the rainfall runs off in streams. Although the aquifers have a regional occurrence, they respond variably to pumping, due either to discontinuities or barrier boundaries within the fracture system being tapped or to the constraints of the low-permeability regolith. These features are commonly reflected in a significant borehole failure rate and a wide range of yields, despite the apparent regional uniformity of the basic controls of climate, morphology and geology (Wright 1992).

Basement rock aquifers occur within the weathered residual overburden (the regolith) and the fractured bedrock. In the basal breccia, towards the base of the weathered zone and near the fresh rock interface, the proportion of clay significantly reduces (Fig. 6). This horizon, which consists of fractured rock, is often permeable, allowing water to move freely. Wells or boreholes that penetrate this horizon can usually provide sufficient water to sustain a handpump (MacDonald and Davies, 2000).

Figure 5. Geologic setting and ground water occurrence in weathered basement rocks of the BINP area. The weathered regolith zone is thinner on the ridges and thicker in the valleys. Reasonable quantities of water can be obtained from thick saprolite in valleys, the basal breccia, and from major fault and fracture zones in bedrock. (From: International Association of Hydrogeologists, Briefing Note, Groundwater and Rural Water Supply in Africa)

Figure 6. Schematic geologic profile in crystalline basement rocks. Regolith includes soil zone, stone line, and saprolite. Permeabilities vary with lithology. Saprolite is derived by in situ weathering of the bedrock and permeability commonly increases at lower levels due to a lesser development of secondary clay minerals. Permeability in basal breccia is generally increased as result of weathering (as compared with fresh bedrock) unless infilled by clay minerals. Permeability of fresh fractured bedrock is dependent on location and degree of fracturing. (After Wright and Burgess 1992, and Macdonald et al. 2005)

Wright (1992) lists a number of constraints to development of basement aquifers which include: (1) the frequent high failure rate of boreholes, commonly in the range 10-40%; (2) shallow groundwater and permeable fractures in the bedrock aquifer component which makes for susceptibility to surface pollutants; (3) the low storativity of basement aquifers which may cause wells to go dry during sustained drought periods; and (4) aquifer recharge is sensitive to certain land use changes.

WATER RESOURCES IN THE REGION

Groundwater is the most important source of potable water in Uganda, especially in the rural areas, and provides 80% or more of the water supply. Water is abstracted from both wells and springs. There are an estimated 200,000 protected and unprotected springs in Uganda which form an important resource, especially in the south-east and the mountainous areas (DWD 1994). In communities surrounding the parks, spring water supplies both developed and undeveloped are most common.

There is widespread consensus among the stakeholders from all three countries that access to water for local communities is a serious problem and needs to be addressed rapidly. While the temptation may be to solve the problem as soon as possible by whatever means available, we did hear a significant contingent express their desire to seek solutions that don’t negatively impact the parks. In those cases where adequate water cannot be supplied from sources outside of the parks, there is a desire by some to look to the parks for water supply development options. The following sections describe the various sources of water available in the region based on our field survey.

Mgahinga Gorilla National Park

Mgahinga Gorilla National Park (MGNP) and the Virunga volcanoes region, have plentiful water supplies. The montane forests in the protected areas facilitate the collection, infiltration, and storage of large amounts of water. The problem is in the spatial distribution of ground water discharge points relative to the population. The highly porous volcanic rocks of the area favor storage of this water in the subsurface rather than in streams. All of the developed and undeveloped water supply sources are located at ground water discharge points (i.e. springs and swamps).

Three options exist to transport water from the sources to populations in need: 1) gravity flow from a source to down gradient users, 2) pumped from a source to up gradient users, and 3) extracted from wells near the location where water is needed. The choice of a method or source of water depends on the resources available and community preferences. Each of these methods has advantages and disadvantages. In our 2005 report (USDA Forest Service 2005) a comparison chart was presented (Table 1) to aid in evaluating the available source water options.

Rugezi Swamp

Rugezi Swamp is located in the saddle between Mt. Gahinga and Mt. Sabinyo (Fig. 7). A visit was made to the swamp to assess the water supply potential for the local community. The swamp that we were shown is a wetland occupying a flat area located below the actual saddle. It contains a small open water area and the swamp as a whole has a rather nondescript outflow. Apparently the stream fed by this swamp dries up in the dry season indicating that the swamp is recharged primarily by rainfall. This swamp would not be a good candidate for development due to its seasonality and dependence on rainfall. We did not venture further into the saddle but, if serious about this water supply, this should be done to determine if springs exist that would be better candidates for water supply development. A water development in Rugezi Swamp would require a significant amount of disturbance to the ecosystem.

As we suggested in our 2005 report (USDA Forest Service 2005), pumping water up from the large springs in the lowlands might be a better long-term solution over gravity systems in the park and it appears water development in the area is moving in that direction. The Austrian Embassy has funded water supply projects including rural extensions in Kisoro District and is planning to evaluate the success of these efforts (Austrian Embassy). The evaluation will provide the Directorate of Water Development and the Austrian Development Cooperation with adequate information, as to the output and outcomes of the projects and provide lessons learned for future similar projects regarding i) approach, ii) technical design, iii) implementation and iv) management and sustainability of operation and maintenance of the provided infrastructure.

Figure 7. Rugezi Swamp looking toward the saddle.

Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Many small springs are found within and surrounding BINP. In fact, springs can be found in almost every ravine. In the upper catchment areas spring flows coalesce and form streams. The springs generally have low flow rates (less than 1 liter/second) and some are high in iron and/or manganese. Several springs, either under development or with the potential for development were visited by the team (Fig. 8).

Ndego Gravity Water Scheme

The Ndego gravity scheme was under construction during our inspection. IGCP wanted to know if the development of this water supply within BINP will have any detrimental impacts to the forest or the downstream river and wetland habitat. Our overall impression of the Ndego development was that the spring development will have little impact on the local aquatic or terrestrial systems because 1) it is close to the park boundary, and 2) there are many springs in the immediate area and the amount of water being abstracted constitutes a negligible percentage of the total catchment water budget. However, we do not know if any biologically important species are dependent on this water source.

Environmental flows should be determined for springs, streams and swamps that are proposed for development. Environmental flows are the amount of water an ecosystem requires to continue to function. For the Ndego gravity water scheme, 70% of the springflow was routed into the pipeline (Fig. 9) and 30% was left for the benefit of wildlife and vegetation (i.e. environmental flow). We were told that the 70%-30% split is a Ugandan Wildlife Authority (UWA) regulation, however the UWA officials that we queried about the regulation had no knowledge of it and we could not track down the rational for this allocation. There did not appear to be any ecological study to determine the amount of water needed by the ecosystem at Ndego and ITFC did not appear to have had much involvement in the process (this is an area where ITFC can be a leader).

While we did not see any water quality data for the Ndego spring, cobbles at the spring orifice were coated with a black precipitate (Fig. 10). X-ray fluorescence analysis of this coating showed that it is composed primarily of manganese (473,600 ppm), iron (29,700 ppm) and chromium (56,400 ppm) indicating that these dissolved metals are present in the spring water at some concentration and are precipitating out onto the cobbles. The water from this spring should be analyzed for chromium to determine if it exceeds the World Health Organization’s limit for drinking water of 50 µg/L of chromium(VI). The World Health Organization has also established a provisional guideline value for manganese of 0.5 mg/L. This guideline is provisional because there is some evidence of a potential health hazard, but available information on health effects is limited. Concentrations of this substance at or below the health-based guideline value may affect appearance, taste, or odor of water.

Figure 8. Map of Bwindi Impenetrable national Park showing sites visited by the USFS team in April 2008.

Figure 9. Partially constructed spring box for the Ndego gravity water scheme.

Figure 10. Spring orifice at Ndego gravity water scheme. Note black coating on rocks in lower half of photo.

Rweshaziro water scheme evaluation

At the request of the local community, water sources within and adjacent to BINP in the Rwizi area were investigated to assess the potential for developing a gravity water system. We visited two sources of water, unfortunately both were swamps with no discernable spring orifice that could be easily developed into a spring box/pipeline system. The swamp within the park (Fig. 11) is used heavily by forest elephants making the water that drains from the swamp undesireable for drinking due to turbidity and possible fecal colliform contamination. The swamp outside the park (Fig. 12) has a small upwelling of groundwater on one edge flowing at about 4 gallons/minute but may be a challenge to develop into a system that can supply enough water to the community to make the investment worthwhile.

Mburameizi Borehole

We visited Mburameizi village where a borehole had been installed (Fig. 13). The local villagers told us that the borehole has good water but that the pump mechanism broke about 10 years ago and it has never been fixed. The villagers went back to collecting water from a nearby spring. This is a classic example of the problems with developing water supplies for rural communities. Whether it is a borehole, rain harvesting system, or a gravity water scheme, socio-economic factors rather than technical factors frequently dictate if the scheme will be a success or not.

Figure 11. Swamp in BINP near Rwizi used by forest elephants.

Figure 12. Small upwelling of groundwater in swamp in Rwizi outside of BINP.

Figure 13. Borehole operated with a hand pump once supplied water to Mburameizi village near Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. The pump malfunctioned about 10 years ago.

Buhoma Gravity Water Scheme

The Buhoma gravity water system is a well engineered development that supplies water to the town of Buhoma and supports the local gorilla tracking tourist industry (Fig. 14). The spring box design effectively protects the source from contamination. It was also designed using the 70%/30% UWA regulation (i.e. at least 30% of water be left behind for the benefit of wildlife and vegetation). We suggest a site specific environmental flow analysis rather than an amount set by regulation.

Sanzare Spring

We were taken to one of three springs outside the boundary of BINP in Kanungu District that have good water quality, perennial flow and are good candidates for further development (Fig. 15). Though not planned, the banana plantation surrounding the spring and in the recharge area is a land use practice that may prevent contamination of the source and flow reduction from compaction/erosion of the soils. However, encroaching human settlement and the potential use of agrochemical products on coffee growing in the recharge area pose threats that can be avoided with careful land-use planning. The washing of clothes in the spring box should be discouraged as it contaminates water for downstream users. A potential mitigation measure for this would be the development of a nearby washing facility that treats gray-water drainage through diversion and/or infiltration before it is returned to the channel.

Figure 14. The Buhoma Gravity Water Scheme is a well designed system that effectively isolated spring water from contamination.

Figure 15. Sanzare developed spring. Banana plantation surrounding the spring provides protection form contamination and recharge reduction land uses. Note woman washing clothes in spring box.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND NEXT STEPS

In addition to the recommendations listed in USDA Forest Service (2005), the following seven recommendations are offered based on the team’s evaluation in southwestern Uganda in April 2008.

1. Potential for Groundwater Development Using Boreholes

Water supply from boreholes may be feasible for the communities surrounding the parks but groundwater development plans in Uganda at both the national and district levels have been made with little information on the hydrogeological conditions and groundwater potential of various areas (Tindimugaya 2004). This has not only resulted in unsuccessful developments but also in resources being spent on very expensive water supply technologies when cheaper and more sustainable ones are possible. Similarly, water developments have sometimes been constructed in areas with poor water quality leading to abandonment while others have been constructed too deep making them very expensive to construct.

Uganda has initiated a Groundwater Mapping Programme whose aim is to assess and map groundwater resources at the district, regional and national level in order to guide efficient and cost-effective water resources planning and development (Directorate of Water Development 2002). Recent funding contributions from the European Commission will help move the project forward. The maps prepared represent groundwater resources in terms of their quantity and quality and summarize this information spatially. As of 2004, groundwater maps have

been prepared for 10 districts out of 56 districts in the country. Six types of maps have been prepared namely:

• Water supply coverage maps • Hydrochemical characteristics maps • Water quality maps • Hydrogeological characteristics maps • Groundwater potential maps • Groundwater supply technology options maps

The groundwater supply technology options maps for example have been developed to assist water managers to decide which type of well is most appropriate for a given situation.

• If water occurs shallower than 15m below ground level in the regolith with a minimum yield of 0.5 m3/hr, such an area would be suitable for shallow dug wells. • If water occurs between 15 and 30m in the regolith with a minimum yield of 0.5 m3/hr then the area would be suitable for shallow drilled wells. • If water occurs deeper than 30m whether in the overburden or bedrock, then the area would be suitable for deep boreholes.

Groundwater maps can be used to guide district officials on the most feasible water supply technology options to consider in various areas and also provide them with indications of areas with low water supply coverage, which require more attention (Tindimugaya 2004). Some districts are now shifting toward constructing shallow wells in areas where they are feasible as opposed to the past practice of constructing deep boreholes. It is expected that with the availability of groundwater maps for the southwestern part of Uganda there will be a reduction in failure of wells and cost of water supply systems resulting in increase in water supply coverage.

There are a number of opportunities for sustainable groundwater management including a better legal and institutional framework, decentralization of implementation of water development activities to the district level, privatization of construction and service delivery leading to the growth of the private sector, and stakeholder involvement at all levels. The community’s role in protection of constructed water sources should be emphasized (e.g. prevention of construction of latrines close to water sources). It is also important to invest in scientific understanding of the resource.

Groundwater development in volcanic rocks

Drilling of boreholes on the flanks of the Virunga Volcanoes is problematic in that the major aquifers may be quite deep. The water chemistry of deeper volcanic aquifers is frequently poor with high concentrations of fluoride. A systematic program of exploratory drilling could locate shallower, smaller aquifers perched in between lava flows. These shallow aquifers may yield enough water for a small village but may be more susceptible to drought effects. (See USDA Forest Service (2005) for more information on water resources in the Virunga Volcanoes region)

Groundwater development in basement rocks

The baseflow of rivers coming off basement terrain is low because of the low bedrock storage, and in extended dry seasons river flows can become depleted and may dry up altogether. Groundwater, on the other hand, has a small but perennially reliable yield. The problems of groundwater management in districts underlain by basement rocks are related to the limited knowledge about storage and to the small yields expected from boreholes. A single borehole may be invaluable for supplying water to a small village, but in a large village with a high demand a multiple-source solution may be necessary. A multiple-source supply, however, does not increase the resource; it merely uses the existing resource more effectively by abstracting water from all possible sources over a wide area (Clark 1985). In many situations, particularly where demand is high, the reliable yield of a water system can be increased by the conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water. When used conjunctively, surface water can supply water for most of the year with groundwater pumping maintaining supply at the end of the dry season.

The failure of wells and boreholes during drought is a function of both increased demand on low yielding sources and reduced recharge to the aquifer. This may cause some sources to dry up altogether, and precipitate mechanical breakdown in others. Negligent land-use practices within the recharge area may precipitate or exacerbate this problem. Identifying hydrogeological zones that have low permeability, wells and boreholes that are low yielding, and areas of high population density with few alternative water sources, is therefore important in supporting a more proactive approach to groundwater management and drought preparedness (Calow et al 2002).

The success rate for boreholes in basement rock was tested in Rwanda where hydrogeological investigations were done to site boreholes in relation to geology and direction of the lineaments (Carl Bro International, 2001). Fifty seven borehole drilling attempts were made of which 35 had a yield > 0.7 m3/hr (successful) and 22 had yields < 0.7 m3/hr (low yielding or dry). This failure rate (39%), despite using hydrogeological siting techniques, illustrates the difficulty of finding useable water supplies in basement rocks. However, armed with the knowledge gained from the drilling project the success rate is expected to go up in the future because it was discovered that the geomorphologic setting of the borehole determined the success of the borehole (i.e. the successful boreholes were located at the last break in slope towards the valley bottom).

The structural control of groundwater in the basement rocks means that it is not amenable to normal groundwater investigation techniques. However, because it is structurally controlled, established techniques for the study of structural geology can be used, ranging from remote sensing to detailed field studies. All the techniques used are aimed at identifying zones of deep weathering or intense fracturing. Resistivity and ground conductivity geophysical surveys have been demonstrated to increase the success to identify areas of thicker weathering in the basement rocks (Clark 1985). Resistivity is a well established geophysical technique which gives a depth profile of the electrical resistivity of the rocks by passing electrical currents through the ground at various electrode spacings. Ground conductivity is a simple geophysical

technique which measures the bulk electrical conductivity of the ground by inducing and measuring electrical currents in the ground with two coils. Equipment such as EM34 and EM31 are often used (MacDonald and Davies 2000).

Local government officials and planners can assist in a scheme by controlling demand. Once demand has reached the limit of a water resource, then further demand cannot be met without transfer from outside. It is most important, therefore, that designers of new water systems realize that a water supply from basement rocks will be small and by no means certain.

2. Expand Inventory and Data Analysis Efforts

The type and quality of data on water resources will depend on many factors, including the water-related agencies in the area, previous studies, and the level of public attention that has been devoted to water (Bleier 2004). For comprehensive planning purposes, the following data and analysis should be part of the general plan: • Inventory of existing natural water-related features, such as wetlands, streams, lakes, reservoirs, and springs. • Delineation of the boundaries of watersheds, aquifer recharge areas, floodplains, and various parameters about groundwater basins (water levels, storage volume, safe or operational yield, etc.). • Analysis of existing water sources, treatment and distribution systems, service district boundaries, wastewater treatment and distribution systems, stormwater and drainage facilities, and flood management facilities. • Capacity of existing and planned water and wastewater infrastructure to accommodate new growth and support expansion and improvement. • Reliable water supply and projected demand balance in wet, normal, dry, and multiple dry years; analysis of new sources; drought contingency planning; opportunities for conservation, reuse, basin transfers, etc. • Analysis of generalized water quality in various geologic settings, and available data on water pollution sources. • Identification of NGO’s, programs, and studies in progress and environmental enhancement programs and projects that are water-related. • Identification of water conservation programs that are, or will be, implemented by the water supplier or other entity supplying water. • Identification of priority water bodies and watersheds that must be protected or rehabilitated to promote continued viability of unique, valuable, or endangered species or ecosystems.

3. Water Supply Development and Environmental Flow Requirements

Development of spring water supplies within the multiple use areas of BINP is a reasonable option for surrounding communities. There are many springs in the park and many are located

near the edge of the park eliminating the necessity to create pipeline and development disturbances deep within the forest. The steady supply of water provided by forested watersheds and the water quality protection provided by the protected watersheds create a clean, sustainable supply that communities can depend on for the long-term. Spring developments in or near the park indirectly protect wildlife, people can no longer use the excuse of collecting water when the real reason they are in the forest is to set snares.

Development of Rugezi swamp in MGNP, on the other hand, is not in our opinion a viable water supply development scheme mainly due to water quality and flow variability concerns, and the impacts to wildlife from intrusion of the pipeline corridor and associated developments deep into the center of the park.

Environmental flows should be determined for springs, streams and swamps that are proposed for development within the parks. This is an area where the Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC) can be a leader. An environmental flow is the water regime provided within a river wetland or spring to maintain ecosystem function (Dyson 2003). There is no simple figure that can be given for the environmental flow requirements such as the 70%/30% allocation used at the Buhoma and Ndego gravity water schemes. Much depends on stakeholders’ decisions about the future character and health status of these ecosystems. Scientists and experts can help inform such decisions by providing information and knowledge on how a river, wetland or spring ecosystem will evolve under various flow conditions. There are a number of existing methods for determining an environmental flow (Eamus et al. 2006; Dyson 2003). These assessment methodologies can contribute to setting management rules and monitoring their impact on aquatic ecosystem health.

The following four fundamental questions (Eamus et al. 2006) are central to the effective management of aquatic ecosystems: (1) which species or species assemblages or habitats are reliant on a supply of water for their persistence in the landscape; (2) what water regime is required to ensure the persistence of aquatic ecosystems; (3) how can managers of water and habitats, with limited time, money and other resources, successfully manage aquatic ecosystems and (4) what measures of ecosystem function can be monitored to ensure that management is effective? For example, during the development of the Kabiranyuma Swamp gravity water system, questions 1 and 4 were addressed, critical species were identified and a monitoring program was established. However question 2 was never answered. A properly designed monitoring program could help determine the water requirements of the swamp.

These fundamental questions should be addressed for each and every developed use of water, including the development of hydroelectic projects, such as the one proposed in Buhoma. This project being developed by GTZ would divert water from the Munyaga River for a distance of up to 2 kilometers (approximately 1 kilometer would be within BINP) and could affect aquatic species such as the newly discovered amphilus sp. that is only known to exist in the Munyaga River.

4. Conservation Efforts Surrounding the Parks

In order to conserve ecological resources within protected areas, natural resource conservation needs to be practiced at a landscape scale. As resources outside of the parks become depleted, pressure will continue to increase on parks to provide various resources, jeopardizing ecological integrity. Besides the recommendation made for broad scale conservation in USDA Forest Service (2005), two focus areas were identified in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park area:

1. Spring recharge areas:

i. Map out recharge area for springs paying attention to aspects of topography and geology that influence recharge.

ii. Implement a land-use plan that provides protection for the source area and conservation based land-use practices that may intensify away from the source area.

iii. Discourage or eliminate the use of agricultural chemicals within the recharge area.

iv. Discourage or eliminate human settlement within the recharge area.

v. Discourage, eliminate, and/or regulate grazing within the recharge area.

vi. Identify a governmental or non governmental entity to provide extension services in the use of agroforestry systems. vii. Identify and provide economically and culturally viable alternative land-use options for people affected by the regulation of activities within spring recharge areas.

2. Riparian areas of surface water features:

i. Implement a land-use plan that provides a buffer of permanent riparian vegetation adjacent to surface water features in accordance with national law.

ii. Discourage or eliminate the use of agricultural chemicals within the riparian area.

iii. Discourage or eliminate human settlement within the riparian area.

iv. Discourage, eliminate, and/or regulate grazing within the riparian area.

v. Encourage the use of native species for bank stabilization.

vi. Identify a governmental or non governmental entity to provide extension services in the use of agroforestry systems to populations that use riparian areas.

vii. Identify and provide economically and culturally viable alternative land-use options for people affected by the regulation of activities within riparian areas.

5. Charter a Regional Water Forum

During the workshop held in Kanungu, James Byamukama of IGCP presented a proposal to convene a “Water Forum” consisting of water resource and land management professionals from government agencies and NGO’s. The function of this group would be to work as an integrated team to formulate and implement initiatives and projects that can improve the water supply situation surrounding the parks. We think this is an excellent proposal because individually, agencies and NGO’s are limited in funding and expertise, but as a group may be able to make significant accomplishments. A good place for this group to start would be to digest this report as well as USDA Forest Service (2005) and begin to work on some of the recommendations.

6. A Larger Role for Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation

In order to fulfill its role in the conservation of Albertine Rift forests and biodiversity, ITFC develops and implements a range of research and monitoring programs aimed at addressing the major threats and challenges for these forests. ITFC works closely with the Uganda Wildlife Authority, the National Forest Authority, IGCP and other conservation partners working in the region to help translate scientific and monitoring results into management decisions and actions. ITFC also fulfils an important training role in providing research opportunities, as well as field support and supervision, to Ugandan students and researchers.

Our overall impression of ITFC and its relationship to Ugandan agencies and NGO’s was of an organization with great potential that is being under utilized. For example, it was our impression that ITFC has not been consulted or seriously engaged in evaluating the impacts to local ecology at gravity spring developments within BINP that are either under construction or proposed.

ITFC is the only organization we came across in the region with the capacity to undertake the basic applied research, inventory and monitoring of water resources and water dependent ecosystems, determine environmental flow requirements, as well as evaluate and monitor the ecological impacts of water supply developments or other resource utilization.

ITFC is tasked with monitoring the effects of developing Kabiranyuma Swamp for a water supply. ITFC has been monitoring changes in vegetation communities and animal species since the mid 1990’s. The vegetation monitoring data indicates an encroachment of dryland species into the swamp (ITFC 2001) suggesting a general drying of some parts of the wetland. Beginning in 1997, CARE DTC has been responsible for the hydrologic monitoring network in

the swamp. A data analysis report was issued in 1998 (Mulders 1998) that analyzed the 1997- 1998 data. Hydrologic data collected after 1998 has apparently been lost. Hydrologic monitoring of piezometers, rain gages, and weirs should be reinitiated. Perhaps ITFC or another willing party could take over the hydrologic monitoring. For groundwater fed wetland systems, water level and hydrologic regime change are the critical indicators that determine whether the system is being dewatered to the detriment of local endemic biota.

7. Potential Future Role for USFS

USFS technical experts can help address critical resource issues and concerns. Some of the aspects of this assessment that USFS would be qualified to address are:

1. Training of interested NGOs, park personnel and local government personnel in aquatic ecosystem monitoring and inventory techniques, stream channel stability and riparian zone assessments.

2. Conduct a preliminary water resources assessment survey in DRC if/when the security situation improves.

3. Assist ITFC in analyzing the hydrologic effects of developing Kabiranyuma swamp for water supply. Specifically, help ITFC analyze the available data and suggest improvements to the hydrologic monitoring network.

4. Assist government agencies, NGO, or ITFC in conducting hydrogeologic mapping of BINP and MGNP.

REFERENCES

Acworth, R. I., 1987, The development of crystalline basement aquifers in a tropical environment. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology; 20, 265- 272.

Austrian Embassy, Terms of Reference: Evaluation of water supply & sanitation projects Kisoro Town, Kisoro Rural and Kitgum Town.

Belt, G.H., J. O’Laughlin, T. Merrill, 1992, Design of forest riparian buffer strips for the protection of water quality: analysis of scientific literature. Idaho Forest, Wildlife and Range Policy Analysis Group, Report No. 8.

Bleier, C., 2004, Principles for Integrated Planning in Watersheds. California Resources Agency.

British Geological Survey, 2001, Groundwater Quality: Uganda. NERC.

Byamukama, James. 2008. Personal communication.

Calow, R., Macdonald, A., Nicol, A., Robins, N., Kebede, S., 2002, The struggle for water, drought, water security and rural livelihoods. British Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/02/226N, 74pp.

Carl Bro International a/s, 2001, Siting of 35 boreholes in Umutara Province (Bugaragara, Rukara and Gabiro Districts). Final Report, Volume I and II.

Chilton, P. J., and Foster, S. S. D., 1995, Hydrogeological characterisation and water- supplypotential of basement aquifers in tropical Africa. Hydrogeology Journal 3 (1), 36-49.

Clark, L., 1985, Groundwater abstraction from basement complex areas of Africa. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 18, 25-34.

Directorate of Water Development, 2002, Proposal for mapping of groundwater resources.

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Eamus, D., Froend, R., Loomes, R., Hose, G., and Murray, B., 2006, A functional methodology for determining the groundwater regime needed to maintain the health of groundwater-dependent vegetation. Australian Journal of Botany, 54, 97–114. Enabling Uganda Project, 2002, First national communication for Uganda under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. PDF: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/uganc1.pdf Ferraris, C., 1996, Title and publication unknown. California Academy of Sciences.

Foster, S., Tuinhof, A., and Garduño, H., 2006, Sustainable groundwater management: lessons from practice, groundwater development in Sub-Saharan Africa, A strategic overview of key issues and major needs, Case profile collection No. 15, World Bank.

Haruna, Rukia, F. Ejobe, E. K. Kabagambe, 2005, The quality of water from protected springs in katwe and kisenyi parishes, Kampala City, Uganda. African Health Sciences, Vol. 5, No. 1.

International Association of Hydrogeologists, Briefing Note, Groundwater and Rural Water Supply in Africa.

ITFC, 2001. The impact of water harvesting in Kabiranyuma Swamp, Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, southwest Uganda, August 2001.

Kasangaki, Aventino, D. Babaasa, J. Efitre, A. McNeilage, R. Bitariho, 2006, Links between anthropogenic perterbations and benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages in afromontane forest streams in Uganda. Hydrobiologia.

MacDonald, A. M. and Davies, J., 2000, A brief review of groundwater for rural water supply in sub-Saharan Africa. Technical Report WC/00/33, Overseas Geology Series.

MacDonald, A., Davies, J., Calow, R., and Chilton, J., 2005, Developing Groundwater: A Guide for Rural Water Supply. ITDG Publishing.

Marchant, R., Taylor, D., and Hamilton, A., 1997, Late Pleistocene and Holocene History at Mubwindi Swamp, Southwest Uganda. Quaternary Research, 47, 316–328.

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Report of the workshop for groundwater professionals in Uganda, Held on 25th August 2006, Kireka Sports View Hotel. Reynolds, E.R.C., and Thompson, F.B., (eds.) 1988, Forests, Climate, and Hydrology, Regional Impacts. The United Nations University. Taylor, R., and Howard, K., 2000, A tectono-geomorphic model of the hydrogeology of deeply weathered crystalline rock: Evidence from Uganda. Hydrogeology Journal, 8 (3) 279- 294.

Tindimugaya, C. 2004, People-centered approaches to water and environmental sanitation, groundwater mapping and its implications for rural water supply coverage in Uganda. 30th WEDC International Conference, Vientiane, Lao PDR.

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USDA Forest Service, 2005, USDA Forest Service Technical Assistance Trip, Virunga – Bwindi Region: Republic of Rwanda, Republic of Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, In Support to the International Gorilla Conservation Programme in Analyzing the Region’s Watersheds for Water Supplies to Local Communities, Mission Dates: March 4 - 21, 2005, USDA Forest Service, International Programs, Washington D.C.

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APPENDIX 1: MISSION SUMMARY AND ITINERARY OVERVIEW

3/30: Team arrives in Kampala late in the evening. 3/31: Initial meeting in the morning with the International Gorilla Conservation Program (IGCP) to go over scope of work and itinerary for the trip. • Arthur Mugisha (IGCP Director, Uganda) • James Byamukama (IGCP Field Coordinator, and primary host for the Forest Service team) Courtesy visit to the National Forest Authority (NFA) to meet with the executive director and stop by the GIS/mapping lab to order hydrogeologic maps of Bwindi. • Damian Batureine Akankwasa (Director NFA)

4/1: Travel to Kisoro, with a stop in Kabale to visit the IGCP regional office.

4/2: Hike to Rugezi Swamp in Mgahinga NP to assess possibility of installing a gravity water scheme • Ponteus Ezuma (Mgahinga Senior Warden) • Benjamin (guide) Visit with the Kisoro Water Directorate • Krenma (Kisoro Water Directorate)

4/3: Travel to Kabale to meet with the Water Directorate • Bagamuhunda (Kabale Water Directorate) Stop at Echuya Swamp (a fen located inside of Echuya Forest Reserve and managed by NFA) Arrive in Ruhija at the Institute for Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC), located on the edge of Bwindi Impenetrable Forest • Alastair McNeilage – outgoing director of ITFC, to become the director of the WCS-Uganda program based in Kampala • Miriam van Heist – incoming co-director of ITFC • Doug Sheil – incoming co-director of ITFC • Robert Bitariho – senior field officer at ITFC, performing monitoring and research on the Kabranumba swamp and weather stations, among others.

4/4: Visit to Ndego watershed to assess the gravity waster scheme currently under construction • Edwin Kagoda (Bwindi Monitoring and Research Warden – UWA, and host for the next 3 days) • Victor (Community Conservation Coordinator – UWA) Afternoon at the ITFC library looking for water/aquatic biota research conducted in Bwindi Dinner with ITFC employees, discussion of how the Forest Service could compliment ITFC (suggestion of an aquatic monitoring workshop)

4/5: Visit to Rweshaziro water scheme (2 source points – one in the park, one outside) where the local village has proposed tapping for drinking water. • Edwin Kagoda

• Benon Twehigre (guide - UWA) Visit to borehole at Muburamezi village – water is still available, but pump has been defunct for over 10 years. Discussions with ITFC senior field officers regarding aquatic research and monitoring being performed in the Bwindi area: • Robert Bitariho • Aventino Kasangaki

4/6: Visit to Mubwindi Swamp • Edwin Kagoda Visit to Ruhija tourist campground pumping scheme

4/7: Travel to Kanungu to meet with Water Directorate • Dennis Mwebaze (Kanungu Water Directorate) Visit to Ngoto swamp Visits to Manyaga and Ihihizo rivers Travel to Buhoma

4/8: Meet with Bwindi Chief Warden • Kule Asa Musinguzi (Conservation Manager, Bwindi Mgahinga Area) Hike to Munyaga waterfall, where a hydrology project has been proposed by GTZ Visit to the Buhoma gravity water scheme (4 years old and still well functioning)

4/9: Visit to Sanzare water gravity scheme (near Buhoma) • Jack Sabiiti – Scheme attendant (Kanungu Water Directorate) Visit to the Ishasha River, the largest river in the area which begins in Bwindi, flows out into cultivated land, then back into Bwindi and finally into Lake Albert near Queen Elizabeth National Park.

4/10: Travel to Kanungu, prepare for the presentation on Friday.

4/11: Presentation of findings, issues, and recommendations to relevant stakeholders in the Bwindi area (Kanungu). A list of attendees can be found in Appendix 2.

4/12: Travel to Kampala

4/13: Prepare for Monday’s debrief presentations

4/14: Meetings to present findings, issues and recommendations: • USAID – Jody Stallings (Natural Resources Management Advisor) • Department of Water & Environment • Wildlife Conservation Society o Alastair McNeilage – Incoming Program Director o Ellen Bean - Director, Wildlife, Landscapes and Development for Conservation in northern Uganda o Andrew Plumptre – Director, Albertine Rift Program

• Uganda Wildlife Authority o Moses Mapesa – Executive Director

APPENDIX 2: ATTENDEES AT KANUNGU WORKSHOP

Name Position/Title Location Minebaze Denis Dept of Water Kanungu

Bagamuhurida Turinawe Dept of Water Kabale

Kasangaki Benard ACAO Water Kabale

Nzeibwe Frank ADWO Sanitation Kabale Nkeia Alfred Mobilizer Kablae Muhima John District Water Personal Kanungu Agaba George District Environment Officer Kanungu Rwamunahe Charles IRDP Dioc. Kinkizi Kanungu

Keye M. Atuhaire Innocent District Planner Kanungu

Kagoda Edwin Monitoring & Research Bwindi Ruhija Turyamneeba Siemen ODO Kanungu

Mahcumba Robert Driver Kabale

Damba Suliman Driver Buhoma Muearvra Madva Driver Kanungu

Byamukama James IGCP Field Coordinator Kabale

APPENDIX 3: CONTACTS MADE

IGCP Dr. Arthur Mugisha IGCP Program Director, Kampala James Byamukama Field Officer, Kabale Doreen Wandera Project Manager - PRIME West

USAID Jody Stallings Natural Resources Management Advisor

Ugandan Government Damian Batureine Akankwasa Execuitive Director, National Forestry Authority Kule Asa Musinguzi Conservation Area Manager, Bwindi Mgahinga Moses Mapesa Executive Director, Uganda Wildlife Authority Edwin Kagoda Monitoring and Research Warden – Bwindi NP Krenma Water Directorate for Kisoro district Bagamuhunda Water Directorate for Kabale district Dennis Mwebaze Water Directorate for Kanungu district

Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation Alastair McNeilage Out-going director Miriam van Heist Incoming co-director Doug Sheil Incoming co-director Robert Bitariho Senior field officer Aventino Kasangaki Senior field officer

NGOs Alastair McNeilage Country director, WCS/Uganda Ellen Bean Director, Wildlife, Landscapes and Development for Conservation in northern Uganda - WCS Andrew Plumptre Director, Albertine Rift Program - WCS