70

Defenders of the besieged fortress Notes on the historical legitimisation of Russia’s special services

Jolanta Darczewska 70 NUMBER 70 WARSAW JULY 2018

Defenders of the besieged fortress Notes on the historical legitimisation of Russia’s special services

Jolanta Darczewska © Copyright by Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich im. Marka Karpia / Centre for Eastern Studies

Content editor Adam Eberhardt

Editor Anna Łabuszewska

Co-operation Małgorzata Zarębska, Katarzyna Kazimierska

Translation Jim Todd

Graphic design PARA-BUCH

DTP GroupMedia

Photograph on cover Peyker/Shutterstock.com

Publisher Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich im. Marka Karpia Centre for Eastern Studies ul. Koszykowa 6a, Warsaw, Poland Phone: + 48 /22/ 525 80 00 Fax: + 48 /22/ 525 80 40 osw.waw.pl

ISBN 978-83-65827-25-8 Contents

Introduction /5

Theses /7

I. ‘A new type of Chekist’: patriots and defenders of the homeland /10

1. Continuity and modification /13

II. the imperial tradition: a dictatorship of the heart, or a dictatorship of fear? /19

1. The ‘Zubatovshchina’: a significant redefinition /23 2. Innovations in espionage activities /27

III. A contemporary sketch: the special services as a ‘community of victory’ /34

Summary /40 lisational context, however, permits a depiction of the historical historical the of depiction a however,permits context, lisational civi The services. security Tsarist the of legacy the and tradition Chekist the both cover reinterpretations superficial and versial contro Its framework. historical-civilisational new a into forced is services a cial continuation of Soviet historiography, artificially spe the of historiography Russian contemporary the necessity, Out of state. of the traditions pre-Bolshevik the broke with which CheKa and the its successors were of to subordinated the logic of the revolution,structures and activities The CheKa). – ЧК to ated Саботажем и Контрреволюцией с Борьбе по ( Sabotage and Revolution for Counter- Commission All-Russian the service: security Soviet first the in origin their locates services special the oftoriography authors of textbooks. history The paradoxthethathis is Russian the for compulsory is which history Russian of version nonical’ ‘ca the establishing standard historical-cultural the of basis the atlay also which state, Russian the above,ofnuity, from imposed isand a derivativetheconti traditions logic ofthe of linking This capitalism. on state of based of governance tions anew system condi the under operates which KGB,and the in lie largely roots whose elite, ruling current the to validity legal gives that factor cause thebe historicalis legitimisationThis of situations. the services contemporary is an important and historical the between parallels of creation the on all above but – totalitarian the and rist identities two, contradictory of in many respects Russia – Tsathe these combining on only not focuses historiographers Russian of work the more context, this and In systems. apparatus, state’spolitical the broadly, state of the of history the of part is services special ofthe history the that assumption the from proceed will I services. Soviet the of those with services Tsarist-era the of tions tradi the reconcile to attempts the demonstrate which services, rative memory ofof Federation’sRussian the historical the special In text, of this examinethe I trains main will thought in the nar Introduct ion Всероссийская Чрезвычайная Комиссия Комиссия Чрезвычайная Всероссийская , commonly abbrevi commonly , ------

5 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 6 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 cial services’ past as a victorious battle against their opponents. their against battle avictorious as past services’ cial imagespe the of specific the of summary critical a is third The es. servic special Russian the of memory historical the of continuity being used today ofservices to the Tsarist demonstrate the history the services, ideology of ‘Chekism’. special Theelementsthe from second describes part Russian the of memory institutional the of foundation the outlines first The parts. three of consists text This et al. culture, strategic lice state, po the ofgovernment, system authoritarian the authorities, ised central methodology: systemic in used categories of use the by described appropriately more be to fact in seem services Russian the viewpoint, this From West. and East between confrontation civilisational perennial the and civilisation Russian of tiveness distinc the emphasise to used technologies manipulative the of element essential not an if important, weapon) become an cal has histori so-called the as described is this warfare, information of theoreticians the of works the (in way ideologised an in treated memory Historical others. law,and of dictatorship the state, the to service of spirit the wartime, of experiences the experiences, society,ofmulti-confessional and community the a multinational uniting of mission the values, conservative community, thodox Or Russian the spirit, Russian the as: such categories upon draws context historical-cultural the in embedded services special sian The interpretationand reinterpretation ofthe history ofthe Rus haverepelled. effectively services special the which threats, external and challenges internal against struggle state’s Russian the in phase a being as processes political-social ------3. 2. 1. T heses sis about the continuity of the Russian state, as well as the the as well as state, the Russian the aforementioned of continuity the the about against sis extent some to Running their in spheres, organisational and mental the (in services special sian Rus the of distinctness the of mark main the is This sciousness. con historical of spaces physical the even and informa spiritual, tional, legal, administrative, social, economic, political, the spaces’: ‘uniform its controlled also but state, the of interests the power, state defended of not only pillar a as turn, in These, vices. ser special the authorities from have support to seek always had the least, at reason Forthis state. the against crime a considered are still and were politics independent conduct or government the change to attempts any and history, Russian in institutions democratic of tradition no the is There obliterating state. police at the aimed of memory are services special Soviet and Rus sian the of history the of reinterpretations contemporary The services’. ‘a special have must Russia strong strong mid-1990s, the that since disseminated axiom, the by marked been has return Its manipulation. social of instrument tried well- a is importance and role unique services’ the on phasis em of kind This emphasised. country’swere power the of ing build and modernisation the to contributions and successes their and awareness, public of out washed was repression)of machine powerful negative(asimagea way, services’ the this in security: state of cult the in raised were citizens and jects sub their of generations Many empires. Soviet and Russian the up made that nations the and people the of fate the enced influ and situation, domestic the shaped world, outside the with relations Russia’s defined services secret the centuries, the Over position. and role contemporary their on reflection the of part or important an which are sphere ideas symbolic the the in it ganise and services special the of history The ou operandi modus fo ter oneprs n h West. the in counterparts their from ) ------

7 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 8 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 5. 4. viet viet heritage – the ofrehabilitation the past, which emphasises So and imperial the of linking The regime. the of legitimising function the performs also thus services special the of raphy historiog contemporary the structures); power so-called the by power of seizure the as described mistakenly sometimes of power a the is, that ‘Chekistocracy’, as characterised been has power exercising of manner Putin’s Vladimir President socialisation. and didactics identity, integration, providing functions: following the fulfils thus image This bonds. intergenerational building nel, the creating desired capabilities, and attitudes values, and person service Russian of uniqueness the of sense a shaping purposes: additional serves also – themselves of image bolic sym their group, professional their to attributed attributes of set the is, that – self- therein disseminated The is authorities. which stereotype the of expectations the with line in them is of created image positive The services. contemporary venient platform forcon of legitimisation PR the and the historical a as history treats scholars, of group numerous fairly a by represented historiography,as departmental services’ The term (2012-2018). third his of end the towards fatherland’ the of fenders ‘de as image an of favour in (2000) term first Putin’s Vladimir of beginning the at created ‘new(thenobility’) society of elite the as services the of image the from departure the was this of manifestation significant One authorities. the of needs the on depending – appear ones new and removed, are some fied, modi are elements individual supervised: carefully is society in ideology.perception Their Chekist of reinterpretations otic cha usually radical, imposes this space, symbolic the In Ka. theChe institution, Soviet security first from the origin their derive today of services special Russian the services, Soviet and Tsarist the of experiences and methods the of continuity nomenklatura whose roots lie in the former KGB (which is is (which KGB former the in lie roots whose ------and still is to maintain its role its asuperpower. as maintain to is still and was objective dominant the which among policy, its of goals strategic the to subordinated models, ideological and political Russian of heritage ‘new’ a building of process long-term er, wid a of part is – Federation Russian the of society multi-faith and the multi-ethnic of differences cultural and historical the bridges and stability, structures’ power the of imperative the -

9 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 10 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 cal development Russia”.cal in successes of our national services at thethe variousfavoured always stages “has ofwrites, hehistori principles”, as these serving “Ob attitude. patriotic a with identified and services, special the of history and ethos the in honour)embedded were and heroism, dedication, bravery, (courage, postulated features The training). psychological and specialist timely excellent, and siveeducation, comprehen a humanity, legalism, state, profession the his to with loyalty group, al solidarity ethics, professional (high officer an values desired of contemporary,a the suite somehow universal ing values’ ing the against for – and “FSB of magazine issues anniversary the in particularly manifested is This system. security Russian the of tradition centuries-long the ing demonstrat by met is self-assessment their of level the raise need to the time, same the At group. professional a as of themselves image evaluated emotionally and positively simplified, a is – construct ideological any like – which self-stereotype, Chekists’ the perpetuate thus They Dzerzhinsky. histories Feliks of own times their the since had have which SVR, and FSB the by sised empha is particularly continuity institutional This Programmes. Special President’s the for Board Main the and Service, Security Security Federal (SVR), the Federal Service Intelligence (FSB),Foreign the Service the CheKa: the of descendants contemporary Day.the Chekist’s celebratedby Itis as known commonly organs, employees security the the a of holiday commemorating officially is 1917) December (20 creation CheKa’s the of day The Chekism. of essence new the display to opportunity convenient a become has Sabotage Counter-Revolutionsand for Committee Special sia All-Rus the of founding the of centenary the of celebration The I. 1

М. Буренков, Буренков, М. osfsb.ru/materialy/k-100-letiyu-organov.../neizmennye-tsennosti/ defenders of homel the ‘A of C type new 1 , Mikhail Burienkov, a Ph.D. in psychology,presented in Ph.D. a Burienkov, Mikhail , Неизменные ценности Неизменные hek ” . In an article entitled ‘Unchang entitled article an . In i st’: p , “ФСБ: за и против и за “ФСБ: , a a nd tr i ots a ots ” № 1 (47), 2017: nd nd ​​of ------6 5 4 3 2 lo Tur Stanislav counterintelligence”: and practitioners intelligence and Russian of theoreticians outstanding “the of names recalls the article this of author the thesis, this confirm to order In y lkad Bortnikov Aleksandr by December last given interviews the including publications, sary anniver Rus the the of message main of the also were services, special officers sian the of motivations and profiles the personality of features distinguishing main two the as homeland, the of defence and dedication) and (sacrifice patriotism of qualities The celebration professional a separate army.of as the on 23 February celebrated is Day Fatherland the of Defender Federation. Russian Forcesthe of Armed forthe reserved been mainly had previously which fatherland, the of defenders of security title honourable the the organs of officers the granted has author the country: the of defence with identified is state the to service Here, state. to the service tradition: this of pillar another highlights author the of 1917, period the revolutionary beyond reaches which officers Russian of attitudes patriotic the of tradition the of perspective a vice (FSB) and Sergei Naryshkin Sergei and (FSB) vice ligence Service. The latter placed particular emphasis on the high high the on emphasis particular placed latter The Service. ligence

2 , Nikolai Batyushin Nikolai , A long-time head of the intelligence division in the Warsaw Military District, District, Military below.– see Warsaw the in intelligence division military of Russian co-founders one of be to the considered and intelligence the of head long-time A atnik-dzerzhinskomu.html Дзержинскому tics/2017/12/19/glava-svr-sergey-naryshkin-mne-vsegda-nravilsya-pamy памятник http://www.mk.ru/poli 2017: нравился December 19 комсомолец”, всегда Мне „Московский Нарышкин: Сергей СВР Глава go-vliianiia.html rg.ru/2017/12/19/aleksandr-bortnikov-fsb-rossii-svobodna-ot-politichesko ФСБ расставляет акценты charges of counter-revolutionary activity; died in an NKVD labour camp. labour NKVD an in died activity; of counter-revolutionary charges in 1938Arrested on in republished. published and 1924,first laterrepeatedly An officer of the CheKa and OGPU from 1918-1924, author of the books the of author from 1918-1924, OGPU Шпионаж and CheKa the of officer An Zubatov, below. see of school espionage; for of more Russian on creator the as the here Presented [Spying] and and [Spying] 3 Красная контрразведка Красная and Sergey Zubatov Sergey and 5 te ed f h Fdrl euiy Ser Security Federal the of head the , , „Российская газета”, 19 2017,, December „Российская https:// 6 , the head of the Foreign Intel Foreign the of head the , [Red counterintelligence], counterintelligence], [Red 4 . By thus expanding expanding thus By . ------, 11 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 12 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 the the secret employ.services One could say: in today’s and militarised tradi Chekist society’ssian for respect consentwhich and methods to specific the the nurtures also which also intricatelyserves tions. to This woven build upstereotype and Rus KGB, the in roots its with elite, ruling the including them, behind wholestands ofRussia the that aware services the make to is idea The sa aura. ideological special, cral, a with them surrounding the also is with but services tools, necessary special its equipping only not is the state that Russian suggest Day Chekist’s accompanying rituals annual The life”. political and social our in foreign interference against security of barrier permanent a raising homeland, the of defenders and patriots real the are “Chekists that stated he tions, celebra anniversary the during matter”; holy a as state the of vice ser the “treat who people as them characterised previously had He officers. his to message his modified also has Putin President work”. ministry’s process our of of improving the continuity be onpassed to a new the generation of secure will officers, which will It innovations. introduces and it develops work, operational their in predecessors their by accumulated experience the uses intelligently officers of generation current “The personnel: rity secu the of as ranks creativity,the among bond of intergenerational the as importance well the stressed also Bortnikov trust. social and society with bond special a legalism, professionalism, FSB’s to According the his head, today’s by distinguished officer is Reds”. into Whites and divided be never again will society hope the “Russian expressed that war, civil and Naryshkin and economic of projects”.trauma violence the historical Recalling social many of author the also was He service. intelligence native a youngtion of republic.Soviet He the played a huge role creating in stage the construc first of the in activist leading “the was Dzer zhinsky opinion, his In situations”. stressful in work to ability the healthy,a dedication, and soldierly discipline”, “decency as well as level of intellectual Russia’s intelligence “combinedpersonnel with ------7 motivations material with but ideological not with much so associated is organs security work the which in in opinion, popular Russian in experiences these of image the of of point be on witnessed can basis), a view oflegalism and daily the ethics and from doubtful are which actions their of examples (many experiences own their of both independent are presented values and features the that obvious is It 1. regime. Putin’s of authoritarian legitimising egy strat mobilisation current the role in their 3) and emphasising tin, Pu by created management state of system the ofelement key a as services special the of anappreciation 2) ranks, officers’ the within closeness cohesionand building for mechanism a as 1)ways: three in interpreted be should attitude This traditions. centuries-old by sanctified methods using manner, competent a in so do but duty, patriotic of out only not it defend Chekists the of heirs the Russia; is that fortress besieged the defending is everyone Russia, mobilised today.also awas ethos The Chekist product theofagainst struggle until up decades for repeated been has it but absurd, was thesis purely This ideological decessors Western and their counterparts. organ”,security theirfrom which pre both was to radically differ to be a “new of claimed a and coldtype hot mind”:Chekists hearts the hands, “pure of myth the only not perpetuated propaganda Soviet revolution. the of cult the of bearers all, above also, were people his Dzerzhinsky; of lifestyle ascetic the leading from far is class officer current The Chekism. contemporary of elements new and old the of nature exclusive mutually the upon reflection deeper any there is Nor life. everyday in difficulties resolving of possibility the and impunity, with violence use to right the tus,

Continuity and modification and Continuity scription ‘100 years of the CheKa’ on a crocodile leather case. See https:// See lenta.ru/news/2017/12/18/phone/ case. leather crocodile a on CheKa’ the of in years ‘100 the scription and Dzerzhinsky, of portrait a with smartphone X iPhone golden a produced Caviar company Russian 2017,the in occasion this ForDay. ist's Chek for prepared items novelty of set a by demonstrated indirectly is This 7 : exceptional social sta social exceptional : of Russian officers as officers Russian ​​of ------13 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 14 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 over by the Bolshevik security apparatus, the CheKa. From the the From CheKa. the apparatus, security Bolshevik taken the were by over state police the of methods stigmatised the 1917, In the imperial idea. From the middle of the 19 the of middle the From idea. imperial the 8 up in the Department of the Okhrana” of the Department up the in end will meetings legal at started which discussions the result, a the ‘purely persecute workersagainst spirit’. Russian speaking As to – other the onproletariat), and the ir (autocracy and reconcilable is what reconcile to try – hand one the on – will batov’s men Zu which during organised, be will workers of meetings ‘legal’ Moscow, in before as Petersburg, (...)St. here. In agentsuseful more Zubatov’s are Mr. peace’. ‘social of branch olive the bearing quarters workers’ the to sent be to figure a discredited and nistic among the working masses mood –current the Orthodoxthe of view in priest– however,that isbelieve, tooI anachrospirit. ant peas police the and Orthodoxy police autocracy, police ements: el three combines PoliceDepartment, the by issued is patent the ‘purelyspirit’, “It the long Russian that has been forknown which Ochranka”: the to related closely newspaper nationalistic a “ultra-reactionary as unmasked spirit,” Russian for 1882“a appealing solution purely workers’a in the question to example, Leon Trotsky, in a St. Petersburg newspaper from article target of in ideological their attacks war with the state. Tsarist For rolewhich a was constant of Okhrana, the stood instrumental the under they as just opponents, its by understood well was West, values of tem sys a emphasising state, Tsarist the of project ideological an was spirituality) model of Russian (the soul’ the ‘Russian that fact The West. the from rateness of Russia sepa the i.e. soul’, ‘Russian the of separateness the emphasised it and spirit; peasant the and Orthodoxy autocracy,of triad a on

http://www.magister.msk.ru/library/trotsky/trotl996.htm Л. Троцкий, Л. Троцкий, Зубатовщина в Петербурге and development model that was separate from the the from separate was developmentthat model ​​and , „Искра”, nr 30, 15 1902, December 8 . th century, it was based ------of the 20 the of catastrophes geopolitical greatest two the as Putin by described been already have state, the of disintegration the to led having as and Theof 1991, revolutions 1917 level. official the at all at flection ed of the with centenary the revolution, which did not anyfind re modest celebrations of of centenary these coincid the CheKa: the rather the explains This West. the by Russia on imposed evil the and ‘colourdestabilisation, the tive,revolutions’chaos, represent narra long ago. official the deconstructed In was Russia Soviet in prevalent was revolution the which of power.myth The wielding of idea the reject strongly however, heirs, contemporary Chekists’ The spirit’. ‘purely Russian the with internationalism’ letarian in the world. Nevertheless, they contrasted still twen the ‘spirit the of pro in which nation’ revolution Communism to export was establish and century tieth Russian the of mission historical ‘the of propagating the slogans messianism, Russian appeal to an eternal to began WorldBolsheviks Second War, the the and war civil the during especially time, Over Bolsheviks. the of rule force-based proletar the unlimited, a form of ofthe was iat’ protection concealing ideological ‘dictatorship the of slogan The power. state of gans or all on binding became leaders political the of decisions man one- the and decrees, by governed was Russia Soviet beginning, sian aristocracy) and cultural (breaking with the Church as the the as Church the with (breaking Rus cultural and the aristocracy) gentry, sian (the social constraints, all abolished Revolutionary Chekism capitalism. state building in Russia engaged today’s while actually enemy, is class its as capitalism fought relics’ and ‘capitalist liquidated it state, Communist the served it as drawbacks: other many has construct ideological an as Chekism West.the world’, which something is apparently more the worldjust than of day have also restored the ‘Russian spirit’ by the building ‘Russian to of Chekists revolution.The Georgian the and Ukraine in tions revolu Dignity and Orange the as ideologically,revolutionssuch a revolution that could threaten the KGB elite currently currently elite KGB the threaten could that revolution ​​a th century. Moreover, the Kremlin fights other people’s other fights Kremlin the Moreover, century. ------15 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 16 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 their attachment to the Orthodox Church and the titles of the the of titles the nobility and Church Orthodox the to attachment emphasise their Chekists contemporary whereas tradition), of basis 10 9 partmental statistics partmental de on based victims their of number the underestimating sion, repres the relativised Bortnikov Aleksandr FSB the of head the year same that of December in while Wall’), Wailing ‘Russian the called been has (which Repression of Victims the to Monument situations: in October 2017, President unveiled Putin ambiguous the imposing to leads This vigorous. remains still which pression, litical police, as well as its boss in the Kremlin. Sometimes, as in in as Sometimes, Kremlin. the in boss its as well as police, litical po the legitimising iconography, own rituals its separate own its saints, of pantheon own its had has cult toriography.Chekist The pop culture, through media and art, to literature and official his their it:from as sustain to haveused been Various means myth. founding CheKa the upon drawn have services secret Soviet the All FSB. of the emblem the on appears of power) which sword and ‘KGB shield generation’: the elite, (thesymbolic emblem their itis myth ‘foundational’ a as should be memory to myth linked of the institutional ruling the current Chekist the of persistence The

Murov, and the former head of the FSB Sergei Stepashin. See http://www.saintanna.ru/?lang=rus&id=60 See Stepashin. Sergei FSB the of head former the and Murov, titles such Anna, Saint the former head of Lebedev, of Aleksandr the SVR the head of the FSO Evgeny Order the Naryshkin, Sergei SVR with ofthe head the to others, among granted, Together been have family. Romanov the imperial of heiress the Maria, Princess by recognised been have titles noble The ist’s Day 2017on 19 ( December Chek on interview his in repression Alek the of head relativisation FSB Bortnikov’s the sandr against writers, and journalists by as of well Academy as Russian Sciences, the of professors by protest the by evidenced is This интервью Бортникова интервью e.g. see subject, this on svoy_protest_iz_za_vyskazyvaniy_bortnikova_o_repressiyah https://www.znak.com/2017-12-25/literatory_i_zhurnalisty_vyskazali_ из-за протест свой Бортникова слов о репрессиях высказали журналисты и Литераторы погибших. бесчисленных памятью над надругательством является подходТакой domosti.ru/politics/news/2017/12/22/746278-rossiiskie-uchenie-napisali; 9 Aohr motn sotoig s h mmr o re of memory the is shortcoming important Another . 10 . , „Ведомости”, Российские ученые написали письмо с критикой с письмо написали ученые Российские ФСБ расставляет акценты , „Интернет газета Знак” газета „Интернет , , 22December 2017, https://www.ve 25 December 2017, December , 25 , op cit op .). For more more .). For ------from the point of view of the authorities’ current needs are se are lected; inconvenient events garbage”needs rejected are as “ideological current authorities’ the of view of point the from desirable those ofpast, renewed:the experiences from among the 12 11 public general the among cult rity Chekists’ the secu consolidationofled roleof to national the a unique has kind on emphasis The announced. were competitions by softer forms. ‘Miss KGB’ contestsfilm & wereand literary held, replaced was propaganda aggressive the avoided were and action the years offinal the KGB’sthe of existence, methods more radical bodyguard, the newthe nobility,bodyguard, revolution’sthe sword of retribution the praetorian, of the that system: a key role waysthe assigned in al were services the because is This experience. of transmission Russian intergenerational the the of element of important an traditions also are sense) services literal the (in legendary The modified. be to is ability its security i.e. ability, of adaptive its cult of the derivative a for basis the as durability version Its mythologised history. of a exploits ideology, every like Chekism, from comes power God). all that claims which (and together society Russian binds – emphasised is it as – which ethics, Orthodox on terror’ a to was reaction ‘White terror’), ‘Red of that today is supposedly based which to (according ethic proletarian the was time Dzerzhinsky’s of Chekism the of measure the If easily. meaning their change also symbols Russian grace. to restored been have Zubatov Sergei and Beria Lavrenty Yevgenypolicy,Primakov; al Russia’s with identified neo-imperi figure bya replaced been has being replaced: ‘greatconstantly the are Yuri reformer’ Andropov services Russian the of pantheon the in appear which icons The

authors of the concept of the new historical standard. See http://expert. See ru/2014/01/17/iz-uchebnika-istorii-vyibrosyat-ideologicheskij-musor/standard. historical new the the of with 2014concept the January of in authors meeting a during Putin by used expression An bezopasnosti/ readli.net/traditsii-chekistov-ot-lenina-do-putina-kult-gosudarstvennoy- безопасности Культгосударственной Путина. Федор, Дж. see topic, this on more For 11 . This cult is constantly being being constantly is cult This . Традиции чекистов от Ленина до до Ленина от чекистов Традиции , Петербург 2012, http:// 2012, Петербург , 12 - - - - . 17 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 18 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 conservative values” conservative to develop based on a country combination rational of and traditional, liberal the for need the understand they impossible, is past the to return a that perfectly understand They contradic threats. and tions ripening the of events, political domestic and tional interna of development the of logic the understand who educatedpeople, thinking, nobility; new modern the service, of people are (...). state Chekists the to service of spirit of a bodylaunch to Russia, administrative the into blood fresh let to essential was It life. of necessity the by dictated (...) was regions the in and lin “The theappearancein theOldChekists of Square justified Patrushev, followingwords: the keyrole with Nikolai their FSB, the of head then the 2000; in Day Chekist’s of celebration the recall to enough is It system. the legitimise to strategies the in element predominant the is, that – 14 13 is being dictated by a return to the experience of Stalin’s times times of development. variant Stalin’s mobilising his and of experience the to return a by dictated being is Putin’s forpower legitimising strategy its successors.current The and CheKa the of period the of same traditions the the re-evaluating time at while values, conservative imperial proclaim they identities; anti-liberal and anti-Western display services special the and Kremlin the Today system. authoritarian the to obstacle an as i.e. Putinism, to opposition internal intransigent so-called the and ideology Western of element an being as space public the in discredited been have values liberal term, last Putin’s During

Н. Патрушев, Н. Патрушев, Старая Площадь, Staraya Square the seat of the Russian government. Russian of the seat the Square Staraya Площадь, Старая День чекиста 14 . , „Комсомольская правда”, 20 December 2000. December 20 правда”, „Комсомольская , 13 , Krem in the - - - entered the history of the Russian special services not only as as only not services a of forerunner policethe Russian state, but as special also an ‘engineer of Russian the of history the entered Estonia, from German a Benckendorff, long-timeAlexander head others). and and founder Its troops Cossack the services, security palace forcesCorps, the (the Gendarmes’ tion security ofstate the coordina the for Su centre a the as serve to intended called Police,was preme also Department, Third the power: of tralisation cen the by accompanied was police political the of creation The sent. were be to Warof Ministry the gendarmes the and police the by obtained authorities Tsarist the ondata against to service which crimes all information and as the andinvestigativematters, in political operational first service the sentence. without a Today,court as ile suspects it is characterised ex and arrest could and powers, judicial own its had Department Third the judiciary, the to them transferring and investigations out carrying involved police European the of tasks the while er, Howev era. Napoleonic the during Europe in appeared had that as treats a modern service, modelled on the Western counterparts services Russian ofthe historiography modern the cellery,which Chan Imperial the of Department Third the of appearance the in (1825) resulted Decembrists the of rise the example, For creased. in Tsardom to challenges and threats new as increased which of size the services, police Tsarist the including apparatus, state ing expand gradually a of help the with out carried were lamations) proc and (decrees decisions his law,and the of fount the was he state, the in instance highest the was He monarch. the the of in hands rested power all Empire, Russian the of constitution ical political-ideolog authoritarian the to According itself. heritage the within manipulation similar of examples many find we More: historiographers. by cited as services special Tsarist of the legacy historical of manipulation the memory and the of content of fixed stereotypes whichdraw examples uponthe further are There II. of the he of the T he i he mper a ia rt, or ad l tr l a di t i ct on: a ion: a torsh dict i a p of fe torsh a i r? p p ------19 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 20 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 “In by Burienkov: unequivocally interpreted was fact historical alleged poses”.This pur my served have will you faithfully more the handkerchief, more “The of people’s my said: Tsar this wipe youwith awaytears This legendchief”. wasquoted by Burienkov,in whose versionthe handker this with peoplemy of tears the awayorder.Wipe my only is “Here words: the with Police Supreme of newly-formed head the the to it presented supposedly He hand. his in kerchief hand a held Majesty Imperial his instructions, for I Nicholas to turned Benckendorff General when that says historians, Tsarist affairs’ (associal he Thehimself). described legend, as recorded by 16 15 moral authority of their superior will inspire them.” inspire will superior of their authority moral The respect. and fear arouse will they time same atthe and pline, disci strict to subject be will themselves they Empire, entire the “cover would who agents of network a by served Petersburg, St. in of the new service. In it he suggested the creation of an elite centre creation the a in note justifying by Benckendorff used was him to ofesty ‘first the thepersonstate’ in ontothe servicessubordinate ofkind involvingAnother manipulation the projection of the maj ist’s Day celebrations: “Your noble feelings and principles will will principles and Chek feelings year’s noble “Your last celebrations: Day during ist’s expressed also were that sentiments include Department Third the of employees the for instructions to manitarian tial weakening, which identity” of loss national the as people, well as

secure ad6530.pdf https://www.osfsb.ru/upload/iblock/668/6681728c6d648412be26601d23 Буренков, М. police of the Tsars], Warsaw 2001, Tsars], p. Warsaw 32. of the police Stepanov, S. Ruud, A. Ch. From this civil brings way war, the as purpose the about stability Уроки русских спецслужб attempts we first know, ruin person of of to and results political the seize [Fear. The secret secret The [Fear. carów policja Tajna Strach. enormous in functioning the the in , „ФСБ: за и против”, 3, 2016, p. 62: 62: 2016,p. 3, против”, и за „ФСБ: , investigations internal state country casualties underlined of conflicts, by state 15 . other 16 In turn, his his turn, In among in power. the Russia: states, poten the hu Its ------

18 17 state”the obviousto benefit bring and goals its achieve will trust, universal by supported vocation, your then and estates, the all of confidence the gain you help undoubtedly torship of the heart’ the of torship dicta ‘the called was office minister’s interior the in term ‘viceroy’,his and the as known was – (1881) Okhrana the of creation the including organs, security Tsarist the of reform thorough a of tor general who served in the Russian-Turkish (1877-8),war the initia to abilities deceive – similar reality. a Loris-Melikov Nikolai distinguished displayed have Department Third the of heirs direct The measures to combat them, as well as to limit their destructive destructive their limit to as well as them, combat to measures emergency needed and movements tumultuous terrorist the the of by development surprised been had government Tsarist the policing function). Thealsoreformshad a purelyaspect: pragmatic its to subordinated were they eventually 1917; in dissolutionna’s Okhra the until separated not were functions counterintelligence and intelligence the fact, (In today. known is it as headquarters, counterintelligence and intelligence Okhrana’s the Department, Special secret the to entrusted operational task a their activities, investigative and coordinating on as well as Affairs, Internal of Ministry the in Ministry) War(the structures Af Foreignmilitary and fairs) of Ministry (the civilian other and police darmerie, gen the from information intelligence all of concentration the based onwere They services. security state inefficient the to improve intended were and II, Alexander Tsar of assassination the ter af power absolute of crisis the to response a were reforms These Moscow. in did Lubianka later Okhrana) the as emotions same the the aroused then and Division, Third the of headquarters (the era. Benckendorff the However, Street teaches in us Fontanka St.that history Petersburg during used those than methods violent

After А. Калганов, Калганов, А. After Ruud, Stepanov, cit. op. Ruud, www.osfsb.ru/materialy/zhurnal-fsb-za-i-protiv В поисках истины В поисках 18 , which was allegedly characterised by less by characterised allegedly was which , , p. 75. , „ФСБ: за и против”, 3, 2016:3, https://против”, и „ФСБ:за , 17 . ------21 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 22 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 area to the competence of the military authorities. competence military the to of the area an such of inhabitants the subject to and institutions, and rights in security any increased ofpart the empire, ordinary suspending state of a declare to right the had Affairs Internal of Minister The abroad. from imported or Russia in published be could magazine or book no office, censor’s the of consent the Without society. of rest the from ‘wrong-thinking’ the isolated apparatus police cal politi the servitude, penal and Siberia to deportation veillance, sur as such repression, of instruments various to Thanks ated. oper they which in administrations civil the of jurisdiction the from excluded also were they authorities; judicial the by vision were Corps not to subject super Gendarmes’ the and Department Police The associations. public of statutes the approved and ties activi kinds allTheof cultural alsosupervised Police Department institutions. other or state public, employedin be or universities at study not could he things, other among limited; significantly be would life his which without citizen, the to ‘right-thinking’ of certificate a issue to refuse to right the obtained Department lice ofor activity. suspected political those Theparties Po guilty exile and question arrest, inspect, to right the given were which Corps, Gendarmes’ the and Department Police the to entrusted was ple princi this of enforcement The law. by punishable crime a was interference unauthorised any officers; senior its and state the of domain the as recognised was Politics state. police a of creation the to led departments) regional 8 and provincial 31 had 1907,it from data to (according centre one to subordinated departments district Okhrana’s the of network the of expansion gradual The impact. destructive equally forced an by revolutions had also West the in changes democratic The opinion. public on influence 19 porary This secret

R. Pipes, Rosja carów Pipes, R. briefly services historiographers. outlined enjoys [The Russia of the Tsars], Warsaw 2006, 2006, p. the 321. Tsars], of Warsaw [TheRussia period the Particular clear in the sympathy history attention of of their 19 is the paid contem Russian to the ------follows: victims compared to the Okhrana’s other officers. Okhrana’s other the to compared victims nipulation of them, as well as to his more humane treatment of his ma skilful his and weaknesses human recognising to successes i.e. Department, to in its St. headquarters Petersburg. He owed his Special the of head appointed next was merits outstanding his of recognition in who district, Moscow Okhrana’s the of head time ofexample a officer-reformercreative Sergei is Zubatov, the long- mission the were ated (official) historical message, as adapted to the needs of the of needs the to adapted as message, historical (official) ated cre the that means which encyclopedias, of publishers the and textbooks history in also but literature, specialist in only not ed Theredefinition of the ‘Zubatovshchina’problem has beenreflect revolution saved and Russia. the have whostopped could man the was he websites thodox that Or on read also We abdication. II’s Nicholas Tsar of news the at suicide committed whostate/monarchy, the and Tsar the to alty loy absolute displayed who state-runner a all profes above a and sional, of reputation the with entrepreneurial, active, skills, Rus the of creator organisational of outstanding ofespionage,official school an sian the Okhrana, the of reformer outstanding an as presented is he hues: many acquired has imageZubatov’s however, websites, historical contemporary On against revolution. struggle the the in engaged was who socialism’ ‘police a of creator the revolution’, i.e. the of ‘gravedigger the as presented was Zubatov Sergei ‘Zubatovshchina’. the as Russian in known service, secret the Zubatovran Sergei when period the of graphy historio Soviet in picture schematic and one-sided a was There 1. ried Gendarmes’ The ‘Zubatovshchina’:redefinition asignificant Russian out imbued to on the defend them precursors Corps idea, not in only the which and recent highest the with of from the times. Okhrana; a interests contemporary reforming the The rule much common of of spirit, the Nicholas work Russian state’. conclusion but has The model model The I also been was services with is car ‘the as ------­ 23 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 24 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 o qetoe i te ie o te Okhrana the of times the in questioned not was it as just questioned, not is itself concept the although day, to publicised well anti-socialist particularly not etc.),is counter-propaganda, and anti-SR demonstrations, patriotic organised Workers’ Party, Independent Jewish the as such foundedparties, political also he agents; Okhrana of direction the under unions trade their and organisations workers’ mon legalised the (Zubatov of archy interests the defending of slogan the under system cal politi oppositionthe into ofthe inclusion involving the periment ex political a implementedThe the Okhrana, ‘policeby socialism’ getting the confidence of the workers. The revolutionaries were were revolutionaries The workers. the of confidence the getting about all was “It explained, he As socialism. fighting be to posed itall, Zubatov did supnotmuch was sense: after construct, make The demands. economic of mainstream the into movement workers’ the autocracy, with directing and struggle political their from ers work distracting at aimed supervision, police secret under ing operat organisations workers’ legal of creation the in consisted (1902-3). Police of Department the Section 1896)Special the It and Zubatov, the head of the Moscow Department of the (fromOkhrana as described “the policy of implementedpolicewas socialism by Sergei ‘Zubatovshchina’ the dictionary, historical latest the In lic. pub broader the to addressed being policy, is current authorities’ 21 20 tional enculturation their as well as

darma.html). жандарма Записки of sense any nor it, in interest any nor sue, - is workers' the of understanding any display not did government (...),the leader was not movement, a found labour atnational sional the right moment For - profes it the implemented went of competence ministry. beyond the the new,and was right, nothing but police the way in his cottage-industry which idea “Zubatov's way: following the in up him summed Zubatov of student A А. А. Орлов, Н. И. Георгиева, Георгиев, va-2011.html vochnik-orlov-as-georgieva-ng-georgiev-va-2011.htmlorgieva-ng-georgiev- 2011, http://nashol.com/2016061589685/istoriya-rossii-slovar-spra Москва legal and workers’ cultural , https://royallib.com/book/i_spiridovich /zapiski_gan , https://royallib.com/book/i_spiridovich organisations activities among ” 20 История История России: словарь-справочник . carried the raison d’état raison marginalised out 21 . As an ideological ideological an As . extensive ” (A. Спиридович, Спиридович, (A. ” layers, educa ------,

the tsar was born” was tsar the is how the idea of idea the how is independently, act to he began out of control. entrepreneurs, This Petersburg St. the with confrontation the in support of Deprived laurels. ontheir rested Gapon,they workers’ to issue over the ing hand “After incompetently. agents their running Affairs, of Home it of accusing Ministry the of leadership the as well as pon, Ga Father agent, his on revolution this blamed himself Zubatov 1905. of revolution the to led that Sunday’ ‘bloody the for then and He veillance. the became scapegoat for the wave ofin 1904,strikes sur under provinces the to him sent and strikes, inciting of him accused superiors immediate His duties. his from removed was he reason the Zubatov’s became notedthat be It must experiment intelligent religious forsia support”.the ask but do to left nothing was there tions, organisa workers’ the preserve to order (...).In teachers the off scared they the workers, monopolyon influence of their losingof fear of out alarm, the raised revolutionaries the “When workers. to use primarily the ofservices the intelligentsia and the educated 23 22 it take costs” to all at essential them from was it and trustworthiness, their in strong which was considered to be the model. Zubatov was the initiator initiator the was Zubatov model. the be to considered was which were sent gendarmes for to Zubatov’s internships Moscow school, conductedtivity by opponents of the monarchy. The mosttalented ac subversive the ‘kramola’, the fighting for techniques as well as conspiracy, of principles the and skills police basic taught were agents and policemen Okhrana’s the which during months, 6 to 3 from lasting courses as defined were ‘schools’ These today. licity Zubatov’smentioned, pub As wider espionageof school deserves

libris/lib_z/zubatov_vestnik.php Европы Вестник Былое 4, 1917, 4, http://www.hrono.info/libris/lib_z/zubatovschina.php , том II, March 1906, pp. 432-436, http://www.hrono.ru/ 432-436, pp. 1906, March II, том , 23 handing over the workers’ petition directly to to directly petition workers’ the over ​​handing . 22 . Zubatov believed that it was necessary necessary was it that believed Zubatov . ------25 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 26 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 into agents of the external service (the so-called so-called (the service external the of agents divided into he which agents, of system a all above and houses, safe of system a introduced He aliases. and codenames nicknames, of lists measurements, anthropological data, fingerprint tographs, pho including suspects, on data containing files organised and techniques, surveillance novelimplemented heforces, police ern of West example the Following experts. employedscientific also and gendarmerie, the train to Universities Petersburg Saint and Moscowfrom professors hired He etc. movement,leaflets, labour the of theoreticians the by work literature, campaign books, den forbidas well kept, as was literature specialist which in libraries founded he Petersburg, St. in then and Moscow, In movements. opposition the of history the and literature revolutionary edgeof knowl a have to required were interns his training: in-depth of from from so-called (the service internal the of agents and vation) the so-called flyingthe ofbranch so-called the ings ending with the conviction of the suspect), but the number number the but suspect), the of conviction the with ending ings (proceed ‘liquidations’ of the number not was ofeffectiveness its measure 1907,the from circular Ministry Interior an to cording ac bureaucratisation: organisation’s the to led suspects register cation which had been broughtto Theto requirements perfection. of provo of methods use the and informers, of paid use extensive its agents, secret its were features distinguishing Okhrana’s The Siberia. in exile years’ five to sentenced was Azef, Yevnoagent double famous the ex pose to journalists helped time that at who Lopuchin, Aleksandr Department, Police the of head the manner: demonstrative a in punished were them about leaking of guilty Those agents.of tion drivers. Zubatov is the principle credited with ofprotec the strict horse-riders and to set upfor posts trians Hestations. railway used a combination of by observations pedes were costs depositederating forin, example, depositsafe boxes in op cover other and tickets purchase to end, ofmoney necessary sums this To abroad. necessary if and Russia, of corner every in sekretniye sotrudniki , secret , collaborators).secret organised He also filery , who were ready to operate filery workingcoach- as filery – obser seksoty – ------25 24 Zdanovich Aleksandr Gen. writes historically”, happened what 1905, heintelligence officeheaded inthe military Warsaw. “This is after which hewas sent in to the District 1901. Military WarsawIn Academy,Staff NikolayevGeneral the delegated to officer, was he distinguished a As Russia’s service. Tsarist of intelligence emplar ex the as Batyushin Nikolai General portray services secret the of historians Contemporary espionage. foreign Russia’s of ment developrapid the to led Okhrana the by developed methods The 2. were used” protectorators’ ‘the or boys’ department’s ‘the terms temptuous con the group, this describe To staff. the to subordination their from departed gendarmes the of Some reform. this in police the of influence growing the saw staff the all, Above bodies. pointed newlyap the to agency’spassed forthe expenses allocated funds the because diminished, was police the and administration local the of eyes the considered had in position Their offended. who were gods, themselves departments, of heads The satisfied. were work interesting to access given been had who youth the “Only writes Spiridovich: staff, its and some Corps with in the Gendarmes’ ambivalence, outright and with hostility adopted was creation its to led that reform very The methods. its radicalise and funds its increase Okhrana, the expand to need the justified turn, in regime, the of enemies of number growing The cruited. re were agents which in way the and prevention, of treated method a as also were which initiated, proceedings investigative of a former FSB a spokesman and currently leading representative of

Innovations in espionage activities espionage in Innovations Записки жандарма Записки Спиридович, A. See the foreword to Н. Батюшин, Батюшин, Н. to foreword the See Moscow 2002, militera.lib.ru/science/batushin_ns/index.html 2002, Moscow 24 . Тайная военная разведка и борьба с ней с борьба и разведка военная Тайная op. cit. , op. 25 - - - - - , , 27 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 28 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 с ней с book whose theoretician, and practitioner outstanding an as regarded also is Batyushin General Staff. Austro-Hungarian the from documents other many as well as war eventof the in plan operational an with Russians the providedwho Redl, agentAlfred his was Batyushin of praise this for reason decisions”.particular unconventional One take to him he tional had thinking; broad knowledge,specialist which allowed opera systematic initiative, diligence, his by distinguished was “He Batyushin: to characteristics excellent attributes Zdanovich services”. special the “from generals Russian first the also were Batyushin and Monkevich findings, Zdanovich’s to According Monkevich. Nikolai predecessor his by founded were Warsaw from led operations counterintelligence and telligence in military the of foundations The raised”. were counterintelli gence]services and intelligence [military the of specialists first the Austria-Hungary, and Germany states, neighbouring two of territories the into thrust wedge a like located, was District saw War the territory whoseon Poland, of Kingdom the in Russia, of frontiers western the “onhistoriography, secret-service Russian legal acts related to them, has along tradition. has them, to related acts legal which services, Russian is based among onothers the announcing the of legalism notorious the that noted be should it context, this only was accepted in 1912. byguidance and under his Duma the In initiative his at espionage basis on prepared act the poor, and very legal was the expert: military and prosecutor a as acted ushin notes Baty only that 17 trials the cases were to At court. taken all spies”. he However, foreign fifty and hundred a “over in 1900-10of counter detection the by testified Batyushin’s were which successes, intelligence emphasises Zdanovich Understandably, century. the twentieth of beginning the after developed was which terintelligence coun and intelligence of theory ‘global’ the to contribution sian [Secret military intelligence and how to combat it] is a Rus a it]combat is to how and intelligence military [Secret Тайная военная разведка и борьба борьба и разведка военная Тайная ------26 Staff General Austro-Hungarian the of intelligence of head Ronge, bycollected Max the Warstatistics by the is demonstrated WorldFirst the espionagebefore Russian of expansion active The agitators had support from the Russophile whoRusyns, “saw their pan-Slavist the conditions: adapted Galicia, to in local was tration Russia’s pene intelligence Galicia. in pionageparticularly spread Es services. Russian the of speciality a was propaganda and tion agita of methods of use extensive their that robes’.noted Moreover,he priests’ in ‘spies of use the was Ronge for discovery One helpers”. other and housekeepers modation, accom offering people confidants, of army whole a maintained bers were alwaysnum “As of greatquality: importancenot quantity, toon the Russians, focused The was Batyushinwork them. espionage unmasked which camera, Expo pocket American an example, For given was fortifications reconnoitre standardised. to was task too whose everyone was used they equipment the Ronge’sworked flawlessly,In spies Batyushin’s although opinion, offices”. entire ran sometimes intermediaries and ers recruit Batyushin’s talents. special possessed politics, domestic their in prevailing relations the of result a as perhaps Russians, (...). recruiters The and intermediaries as used readily most were latter women.The and agents, inspectors recruit mentmanagers, employingdepart enterprise, directors, entire many the “housed Square also Saski on house were Batyushin’s Warsaw,Col. In Germany coordinated. against activities intelligence where from from telligence two study centres, directed was Kiev and Warsaw, in Austro-Hungarian The system. intelligence Russian the into glimpse a us allow trials espionage The conviction. a received ed made (compared to 32 in 1905); nearly one-seventh of those arrest vestigation (in 1905was just 500), figure the andwere in 560arrests requiring cases 6000 about selected Office Records the 1913,

service], Warsaw 1992, pp. 46-49. 1992, Warsaw service], Ronge, M. [Twelve years of intelligence intelligence of years [Twelve wywiadowczej służby lat Dwanaście 26 . In In . ------29 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 30 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 y h pritn slne f usas iiay intelligence” military Russia’s of silence persistent the by caused RongeColonel from grumbling the was to response it modest “a preface, the in writes Batyushin As 1938). (Sofia exile in book his in Batyushin General by confirmed are Ronge’s observations Okhrana. of the Department Special to the were subordinate and activity only events weapon – political propaganda”.weapon –political secret its and intelligence of place the show “towar”, during and of importance the the secret “immense both services to in peacetime attention draw to wished Batyushin II, War World of eve the At empire. Austro-Hungarian the from of Galicia separation the aboutbrought 1914 they in that: only not chy. And monar Austro-Hungarian the for problems cause to or ganisations pacifist and anarchist getting involved also services Tsarist anti-war Thedemonstrations. methods of provocationused the by organised they where country, home their to back sent then and Russia in trained agentswere Czech movements. anti-war of tors propaga and advocates of support the on themselves based they Moravia and money”;Bohemia in Russian with built churches in him for praying Tsar, the in ruler their and Russia, in homeland 27

войны глазами асов шпионажа асов глазами войны he his died where in 1947. Moscow, to [See О. taken Хлобустов, and Russian NKVD of the by abducted was Nicolai findings Gen. 1945 the in to According in Ronge 1926 By and Nicolai met in toriographers, Vienna. the way: Batyushin republished. repeatedly and Russian into translated books Both were Staff. of General intelligence of German the Machte intelligence, of role the on book A espionage]. industrial and [War entitled book a published Ronge Max 1930, In that civil based ert iiay nelgne n hw o obt it combat to how and intelligence military Secret which [Secret forces], was also published in 1923 by Walter Nicolai, the head head the Nicolai, Walter by 1923 in published also was forces], [Secret time, already intelligence on acquiring were Russia’s involved desired were foreign information: : http://www.chekist.ru/article/4885] creating involved by Разведка Разведка и Первой контрразведка мировой St. intelligence Petersburg. political in a Kriegs- und IndustriespionageKriegs-und significant such activity movements activities; Both published , part military was Geheime Geheime 27 of both . On On . and not its - - - -

28 account” into chology psy its taking without nation a of foundations moral the molish de “onecannot easy,because not is objects propaganda of choice oragencya actions, the countries”.ofresult via ofdirect third The as spirit fighting opponent’s the “lowering as well successes”,as one’s own trumpeting ofone’sby its forexample population, own spir the “raising as understood broadly are propaganda of goals The attention. special devotesWar,World First the from riences of intelligence instruments) that range Batyushin, diverse describinga as his expe(understood propaganda to is it Interestingly, from Walter Nicolai, the head of section III-b (intelligence) of the (intelligence)the ofIII-b section part of head the Nicolai, Walter in from and agent), internal agent, (external Okhrana the from part in borrowed uses, he terminology the by evidenced is This times. his of theoreticians the of experiences the and periences of ex own of his a kind synthesis performed Batyushin speaking, Generally police. political the of out organically arose somehow conclumilitary) and (civil counterintelligence and the intelligence sionthat to leads which services”, the to assistance valuable which of people, circle a large brought represents up spirit, a patriotic in in activity “espionage of importance the underlines eral In onreflections his intelligenceand the counterintelligence, gen firearms”. as word powerful atool –is as the weapon– psychological “the conclusionthat the to Batyushin achieved is leads This propagandists.” of This army entire an workof the propaganda. through of importance great have Goebbels, the noticed minister propaganda their of direction the der un nation their re-educated systematically have who Germans, the and dark, the on in masses skimp Russian the not keep to do order in who money Bolsheviks, “the that warns general The partitions. of the at time Poland atrected the di was which Association, Charity Slavic the through conducted propaganda, Slavophile long-term the mentions he propaganda,

Тайная военная разведка… военная Тайная Батюшин, Н. 28 . As examples of well-organised Russian Russian well-organised of examples As . , p. 39. ------31 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 32 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 fact: the assumptions and assumptions the fact: essential an ignored he tradition, upon drawing while However oie eatet o ii te nlec o te srs favourite. Tsar’s the of influence the limit to the by Department plot Policea as seen was this and Rasputin, Grigory to led many Ger with sugar in the trade speculative level: and highest scandal spy a of the threads at betrayal detected supervised he which commission anti-espionage extraordinary The Tsarism. of enemy political a as 1917of revolutions the both during arrest under was He Batyushin. to disaster brought Russia Tsarist of years last The unprecedented on scale. an methods plied these policy,ap foreign of element key a as intelligence treated which state, Soviet The KGB). MB, NKVD, OGPU, GPU, (the successors its and CheKa the officers of the to well-known already were vice tion, propaganda, sabotage, subversion propaganda, terror” tion, and disinforma of methods by including intentions, and nent’s plans oppo the influence to attempts intelli was which of active essence the gence, used involved countries the I War World during resources, and intentions collect his one’sopponent, to about is information task whose intelligence, traditional to addition “In the ‘activeterm measures’: with intelligence’ ‘active term the identified Academy, FSB the at lecturer a Khlobustov, Oleg language, contemporary into theories historical these translating in feature: characteristic A field intelligence”.of the in importance he stated, “Gen. Ronge and Colonel Nicolai offigures historical are as time: that at corps intelligence Europe’s repre military of sentatives the with solidarity his showed Batyushin conclusion, In i.e.passiveintelligence, counterintelligence. and tiveintelligence ac between distinguishes he Nicolai, Like Staff. General German 29

асов шпионажа асов Хлобустов, О. Разведка и контрразведка Первой мировой войны глазами глазами войны мировой Первой контрразведка и Разведка op. cit. , op. of the Tsarist secret ser secret Tsarist the of operandi modus 29 . ------30 too” exile in apatriot “awere repeated: remains patriot Zdanovich wordsthe ject ofAleksander of General Gen. Batyushin, sub the on reports media later as well as event, this companying ac reporting the Veterans.In Service ofSpecial Association the by supported Services, Special Russian of History the of Study forthe Society the by Moscow to brought were ashes his 2004 1957. In in people’sold an home in died he Netherlands; the to went he II War World During book. aforementioned his was which of fruit the es, War; he lived cours in where Belgrade, he gave in military lectures Civil the in participate not did He cell. a shared Antonovich-Ovseyenko, had whomhe with Vladimir Bolshevik the by assisted was 1917of end the at custody from escape today,Batyushin’s phasised em is As dissolved. had himself heway, the by which, – secret services Tsarist the and Government Provisional SR’s the between struggle the of part was This corruption. of accused and credited dis was commission Batyushin’s campaign, information fierce a In

ru/article/1984 http://chekist. 2008, January 18 фронт, Невидимый передачи Сценарий 30 . - - - - - 33 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 34 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 the government” the of members on attacks preventing than Okhranka the in portant tions in the SRs’ terrorist organisations was considered more im posi undercover strong of maintenance the For example, family. lives of andstate officials high-ranking members of the monarch’s themselves, the ofeven and activities careers, own their of detriment own the to sometimes their of priorities the set and ence, independ political their demonstrate to forced were services rity secu internal the time, that At them. implementing of ways the or goals political own their specify to unable often were fluence in for fighting circles ruling the and tsar the crisis, of times “In Services the as well as services’, special held in 1994 ‘Aistries slogan the under needs Russia strong strong min security the from representatives of conference a was signs the first 1990s: one in of its begun already had today. process This unfinished still is which one process, long a be to out turned acy leg Soviet the with legacy.this Reconciling imperial the towards turned they services), special the of role the emphasising to cive condunot was climate political (the myth founding comfortable un their blur to order KGB).the In of dissolution the after ation’ ‘humili (their impotence ideological their from emerged quickly services special country.The the of state forthe responsible were the break-upafter ety theofthe as USSR, people sought those who the authorities’ crisis of legitimacy and the radicalisation of soci to related removed Dzer was was space. from its This symbolic zhinsky Feliks Chekist’ ‘first the of statue the 1991, August in tion demonstra a during tarnished: severely was security of cult the KGB, the and Union Soviet the of existence the of end the Towards III. 31

Белая книга российских спецслужб российских книга Белая

serv A contempor printed after the conference. In its introduction, we read: we introduction, In its conference. the after printed i ces a ces 31 . s a‘commun a ry spec the sketch: , Moscow 1995, p., Moscow 12. White Book of the Russian Special Special Russian the of Book White i ty of v ty i ctory’ ia l ------of chaos dichotomy the on based were campaigns pro-Putin the beginning the from that therefore, surprising, not It is times. seven leaders its he changed times, three Lubianka he reformed the them, criticised often he services: special the among dency,enjoyauthority not did presi his of beginning the at especially Yeltsin, force’. of Boris tries minis one the to ‘listen to Russia: in ability his was power of strengths Putin’s President summit of the at change a of sign a also was but revitalised, be to was role political services’ special the that ration of sense a to appeals often not for only fate a was decla of the Russia, responsibility historical increasingly which pressure, of kind This vices was also meant to restore public trust in them. At that time the the time that entitled cations At them. in trust public Foreign a Intelligence initiated monumental Service series of publi restore to meant also was vices the uniform and of victory. The list of books they have prepared prepared have they books of list The victory. of and uniform the of cult the security, of cult the society within sustains which tics, didac ideological and political of kind a also is which services, the of legitimisation historical the for foundations the laid group This as well as media. others), on social available widely being and hrono.ru lubyanka.org, (chekist.ru, websites on specialist disseminated and Services’ Special of Russian History the of Study the for Society the of ‘Works multi-volumeseries the in published regularly are articles their and others), and Izmozik Plekh Vladlen Mozokhin, Oleg Ovchenko, Yuri Aleksandr Plekhanov, Andrei anov, Khlobustov, (Oleg universities at departmental lecturers are Association the of members active The Sciences. Military of Academy the of member a and University Pedagogical Moscow the at history professorof a now and public, the with tion communica for department FSB’s the of head and spokesperson press former the Zdanovich, Aleksander by lead still is today even which Services, Special Russian of History the of Study the for ety name ‘Historical Lectures on the Lubianka’, organised by the Soci the under conference annual an 2014-17), in organised FSB the and resumed 2006;was publication in volume6 1996,and in published was intelligence, pre-Bolshevik of history the discussing 1, (volume versus stabilisation. The historical legitimisation of the ser the of legitimisation historical The stabilisation. Sketches on the History of Russian ForeignIntelligence Russian of History the on Sketches ------

35 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 36 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 as the confrontational course of course Russia’s confrontational the foreignas policy. this is the confrontational vision of international relations, of result One as Russia’s well history. in shocks catastrophic causing forces external of intrigues the other, the on and society, of an archisation the and/or power of weakness the hand, one the on such are, any of causes failures eternal the that demonstrate invariably services the of historiographers The extent. great any to failures own its ing discuss of habit the in not is culture Russian success’:of sources ble of patterns public behaviour. hasThis resulted in ato return ‘the of creation desira the serves primarily heroes, selected events and selected of prism the through seen Russia’sof services, history the viet period viet So the concern them of majority vast the although impressive, is 34 33 32 order in the Russian Federation.” Russian the in order legal the and power state of strengthening the are work his of ria crite main “the that hide not did he achievements, Association’s strategy the of presentation legitimisation Zdanovich’s During authorities. wider Russian the of the in included been has services special the of legitimisation historical the of project The manner. pragmatic a in used be can which Empire Russian the of past the from events and facts figures, selected of glorification the through tradition Tsarist the with reconciled is tradition This services. the

republished book О.republished Хлобустов, repeatedly his from others, among learn, Academy FSB the of students that Out it of may interest, hrono.ru/avtory/hronos/hlobustov.php. be mentioned For see of example, the bibliography works http://www. by Oleg Khlobustov: power, and in the development of the Russian State and society in various various historical in society periods”:and State Russian http://www.a-lubyanka.ru/page/article/100the of development the in and of power, mechanism the in role their of officers by understanding proper “the on depends services Russian the of спецслужб future the that website its on stresses turn, отечественных in истории Veterans, Service of Special Association 2001. The 17 December Новости, изучения Общества презентация example for see this, on more For kremlins-anti point-view/2017-11-06/conflict-dependent-russia-domestic-determinants- https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/ 2017: November 6 67, policy nr View”, anti-western Kremlin’s the of determinants domestic Domańska, M. see subject, this on more For [State security from Alexander I to Putin], Moscow 2005. Moscow Putin], Ito Alexander from [State security 32 , being a continuation of the Soviet historiography of historiography Soviet the of continuation a being , Госбезопасность от Александра I до Путина до I Александра от Госбезопасность В культурном центре ФСБ состоялась состоялась ФСБ центре культурном В 33 The instrumental treatment of Conflict-dependentThe Russia. “S Pit of Point “OSW , 34 , РИА РИА , - - - - -

35 Russian, (in history to approach empha is (civilisational) cultural imposed services an by sised Russian the of uniqueness and significance The of representatives. its most patriotic’ most educated the and the best, ‘the were they society; of elite the from recruited were officers the traditions, authorities.both in And the and strengthening protecting today: do they as task same the had institutions security the all traditions, both In state. the of security the was safeguard ideological authorities’ the traditions, both In reality). economic social, political, creating as (such services Western of competences role and beyond the functions ofpower, performing instrument dominant the constituted services secret the ditions, tra both in emphasised; was leadership (autocratic)one-man of principle the revolution, Bolshevik the of result a as interrupted was Soviet) and (imperial traditions both in memory stitutional in the Even though state. Soviet ofthe those and services Tsarist the between experiences common for search the on based is and regime, the of needs current it the to incoherent; adapted being and continually is eclectic Russian the is of with equipped being officers are the services which identity historical new The organs”. security state its remains and was Russia, against democratic war contemporary in as well as information Russia, Soviet and Tsarist the of targets main the of One arena. international the on and country the within both the state of Russian authority the at historical striking of way manipulated a as have this treating events, homeland our to inimical forces overt and “covert above, cited letter ministerial FSB the in read we centuries”, the “Throughout confrontation. this of centre the at services special the places memory institutional of project The to the West, the higher role of the state, and in effect its security security its effect in and state, the of role higher the West, the to comparison in is, civilisation Russian of trait “onetive, historical

В поисках истины, op. cit. op. истины, Впоисках Калганов, А. историко-культурный стандард историко-культурный ). In this perspec this In ). 35 - - - - 37 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 38 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 organs”, as for example writes A. Sushko, a historian from Omsk from historian a Sushko, A. writes example for as organs”, 36 of the heart’, ‘police socialism’, the ‘revolutionary rule of law’,of ‘revolutionaryrule the ‘policeheart’, socialism’, the the of ‘dictatorship the as such (expressions ‘mutant’ phraseological of reality. One of manifestation was, this is, and still the use of a and kind visionary the between tensions caused always has Ideology state. Russian values: family, patriotism, and sovereignty and ofthe security the common and experiences, (war) historical common community, Orthodox the language, Russian the be to are civilisation Russian never have authorities Russian clearly features of cut off.themselves (unifying) fundamental The new the heritage whose from Communism, of fall the after left emptiness ideological the attempt fill to another yet is it however, practice, In society. of Russian majority the in consciousness historical of foundation new a construct to is, that cultures, and nations Federation’sdifferent tural standard is intended to serve thehistorical-cul unification the interpretation, official of the the Russianwith accordance In civilisation”. Orthodox [posed] Russian to threats and challenges the to response “a state-organised as appears lin),this cites of (during Terrible, Ivan rules the the Peter Joseph I and Sta author this which society Russian of modernisation the of cases the problems”. In internal difficult resolve and challenges ternal ex to adequately respond to civilisation Russian enabling isation, outmodern necessary in carrying services ofspecial Russian the role the “explains further, read we approach”, civilisational “The

phrase ‘the Soviet way to modernisation’. to way Soviet ‘the phrase euphemistic the with described was Stalinism Revolution’,while Russian the of head current the in the the ofrevolutions both 1917 Incidentally, standard, in were proposed united a ‘Great single Naryshkin, [https://historyrussia.org]. Service Sergei by Intelligence Foreign headed is which Society, torical - His Russian the by 2012 in revived project a in continued development Its Russia. in of history teaching for the standard cultural and historical of the foundation the at lies approach this that noting worth is It info/node/5804. спецслужб отечественных истории изучения Сушко, А. К вопросу об использовании цивилизационного подхода для для подхода цивилизационного использовании об вопросу К , http://www.rummuseum., 36 - - - - . statehood of Russia. statehood tus quo the protect to measures and forms fornew need a ablycreate team’sto ruling the continue interestsprob will will to rise. This threat of sense the because endangered, not is position This ism. authoritarian Russian by their determined primarily that is position conclusion high the Hence space. public the in place take must which society of education patriotic the for resources most the has sense symbolic the in which Defence, of Ministry the by offorce, led ministries the implementedall by being It is ofideas. sphere educational informational, cultural, vast a absorbed also in model mobilising the of been state, has inscribed the which has Today,itsociety. and economy security, its Russia, of rule gency emer crisis-period, forthe mechanisms the strengthening of ter mat a was it always, as fact, In it. within prevailing cult victory the of beneficiaries the becoming thus homeland, the of fenders de as space symbolic the in presented were and system, defence the in included were services special the of officers The state. the of organisation military the and society of militarisation the on based emerged strategy (2012-2018), mobilisation president a as term previous Putin’s During modernisation’. ‘liberal on dency, presi Medvedev’s Dmitri of period initial the during 2008, in and nobility’,‘new the and law’ the of ‘dictatorship the on based was the authorities’ new strategy. legitimisation In 2000, strategy this characterise that thesuccessive to all reversals of first ideological testify notions unstable transitory, These struggle. ideological the in by pathos, emotional used are they as arguments characterised pear and like ephemera, disappear but they have a value: practical ap they incoherent; illogical, are expressions others).These and law’ the of ‘dictatorship the Chekism’, ‘Orthodox nobility’, ‘new , which will , be which will presented as the defence of the neo-imperial sta ------39 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 40 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 intelligence (for example, on the occasion of the 95 the of occasion the on (for example, intelligence Russian of achievements exceptional and openness the with ers view of millions amazing Yasenevo, in of headquarters SVR’s corridors the mysterious the and office his showing reports, TV several of protagonist the been has he interviews; several given already 2016, of has end the at Service Intelligence Foreign the of head appointed Naryshkin, Sergei openness. their with opinion public ‘communityofa successes’, astonish as they them sent and pre heads services’ The Russia. in place taking processes social and economic political, the in force instrumental their emphasise ism, etc., etc. Public opinion, historiography and analyses sectoral extrem political combating regime, the of enemies by committed crimes corruption, of cases more detecting attacks, terrorist ing thwart espionage, reporting of cases exclusivelysuccessive detecting successes: almost their services, the about reports daily with here practically provides dealing media The paradox. are informational we certain time, a same the At West. the in than broader is definitely ofstate the secrets strict mation as protected of infor scope the which in system, hermetic a is this culture, gal le Russian with accordance In task. easy an not is function vices ser secret Russia’s modern which by mechanisms the Exploring S of ‘state secrets’ has expanded to include political and business business and political include to expanded has secrets’ ‘state of conceptMoreover, the entrepreneurship. their forcover a as and actions influence(exerting extra-statutory on economicpolitical, andphenomena), social their also but goals, statutory services’ the only not serves secrets state of sphere broad the result, a as overused: is services the about information conceal to right The ‘grey’ a does real, is exist. portrayed, reality normative reality the how of Regardless legalism. Russian of façade the of example the in evident particularly is This reality. true the with odds at is ity real declared the because dissonance, cognitive causes space lic This kind of presence forthe Russian special services inthe pub celebrated 2017). in was which ‘illegals’, S, the of Department umma ry th anniversary ------be characterised as the culture of extraordinary situations and and situations extraordinary of culture the as characterised be can Generally, Federation,this sian orculture. its rather strategic portant for the culture ofspecific understanding thesecurity Rus The context the of services’ Russian historical alsoim memory is freedoms. and of rights civic powers, to them allow those that including in interfere the sphere Army). At the same time, without heinhibitions, them new grants Federal the Guard of as National the Service Federal or Controlthe Drug Service (such them dissolves and appoints services, the reforms he needs, regime’s current the on depending differently: any services the nottreat does power. Putin President of their lar for who the rulers needed the support ofinstrument a coercive as a apparatus key pil a were they centuries for time, same the At mission. strategic their of deprived ‘degraded’, helpless,felt they decision-maker,a ofdeprived service: the within crises in sulted re 1991) and 1917 (in government the of delegitimisation the to led which crises The state. the in authority supreme the on pended de always positionhas their that us teaches services Russian the of history the Meanwhile, methodology. adopted generally with accordance in interpreted as facts historical real the from nology torical propaganda as a key element of Russian manipulation tech his of separation the requires mechanisms these Understanding attitudes. idea, about but shapingdesired rather particular a for foundations the laying with concerned much so top- are not are they They Basically, nature. in image. imitative and public superficial of down, cultural questions and mainly also are historical standards identity, national memory, historical declared The apparatus. its and state the of image the would jeopardise scandals such for accounting consistently as up, hushed are conflicts these of majority the but nature, very its by conflict causes system Russian officer’. The enforcement ‘law of function the with the collides quo’ status the of result, a guardian As ‘political of function participate. circles for ruling fighting the those within and influence officers former which in arrangements ------41 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 42 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 ian police state. ian authoritar ofthe legacy the from derived be should services sian of Rus the culture traditionalist and pedigree context, the In this 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. followingelements: on the others, among based, is society, and Russian of consciousness the is deeply in This rooted subordination. of hierarchical culture the of the ‘incapacitation’ of society. ‘incapacitation’ of the result the is which engineering, social to time susceptibility same their the at and aggression; external repel to mobilise constantly authorities the whom citizens, the of passivity the siege the psychosis; maintain to serves which by enemies, surrounded itis other,that the on and forgreatness, destined is Russia hand, one the on that narratives propaganda fixed situations, norm; become the crisis in exacerbated are which measures, these whereupon measures, security extraordinary apply to ratus circum extraordinary right of coercivethe the appa with is connected – this stances in goals extraordinary in belief the army; the and services special the of mythologisation the of source the is which perpower, su a be to is state the of value overriding the that axiom the of power; system of the stability the order with constitutional the of stability the and country’, the in ‘order with equated is hand’ strong a of ‘rule the goals: political rior supe of name the in violence of use the to consent society’s subjects; of ‘guardian’ his the is state’ the in person ‘first the or Tsar the mentality: social and order social of principle main the as autocracy of tradition deep the ------– – – (3) the technical sphere ( sphere (3) technical the and sphere (2) organisational the (1) sphere, mental the in itself manifests This (1) sphere: mental the in are: this of manifestations timeless The regime. by the desired behaviours phenomena and the creating ‘moderation’, in of consists function which resulting the they also fulfil the function of legitimising the system,preventivefunctions), and control law, as informational, the of wellians as(guard services the of functions universal typical the to dition ad In regime. police authoritarian the of derivative a is services, special Russian the of activity the in Traditionalism, goals. social state’s the economic toolforce basic and for political, the achieving was of use the violence: state of apparatus the and authorities the between dependence mutual the of centuries from results It – – – today embody the intransigent opposition); intransigent the today embody who liberals, the and reactionaries, fascists, Whites, (the ers los the of persecution symbolic and physical the enemy, the of image the of use continuous indoctrination: so through ciety consolidate continually to essential is it that conviction the sector; security of the servility visible the etc.); warfare, psychological foreign interventions, columns, vironment, as well as the characteristic en mythologya hostile of plots, of fifth vision the justifies this (ideologically influences external from society isolate/protect to is sector security the task of primary the result, a as collapse; economic state’s the ple, the radicalisation of society are more dangerous than, for exam ofthetheof power and spectre delegitimisation threats: defining modus operandi modus ). ------43 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 44 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018 – – – – – – – – sphere: (2) organisational the in – – – – – – – – (hence the overriding role of the FSB as ‘first among equals’); ‘first as role FSB of the overriding (hence the home/abroad and relations government/communityrelations in authorities the supporting of function the and function policing counterintelligence and intelligence tasks are secondary to their activities; their to allocated resources financial or the absence of services of publicthe the control activities over the self-government; of local power executive and organs local and central other power,to superior executive of man agedorgans autonomously as rank institutional high services’ the adapt to new to tasks; potential the building leadership; state implethe of needs for political changing the instrument menting an as activity, extra-statutory their also but sphere, statutory the in independence only not bling ena structure, services’the jurisdictional and organisational them; and on directing and services, dissolving appointing on monopoly constitutional President’s the control; structural committees) enables neighbourhood and district regional, apparatus, central (the structure territorial hierarchical The relations. top-down services’ onbased vertical government central the to subordination strict centralisation: West. the against warfare information Russia’s in example for projects, state menting imple in participation their state; the of sovereignty and ity stabil the maintaining role in on their emphasis services’ the regime’s of fear revolt; tarian authori the from mainly results which coercion, of paratus ap the towards respect and of fear citizens’ the maintaining ------– – – – – – – – – (3) operandi of sphere modus the in – – – – – – – – – a vast area of extra-statutory activities that go beyond the the beyond go that services; competences secret of the activities extra-statutory of area vast a (FSB). service security civilian main of the within structures the counterintelligence military of location the as such sion, supervi mutual services’ the solutions enabling organisational reporting; internal bureaucratic and excesses cratic bureau to leading quality, than rather quantity on focusing working under a foreign flag, through intermediaries. through aforeign flag, working under foreign agents); (bo terrorists, rebels, yars, regime the of opponents liquidating of tradition long a of private entities; those as well as resources own services’ state/private the so-called enabling the use partnership, of the information); reporting ence and obedi both of enforcing symbol a as knout’ the and (‘thestick the repressive of and non-statutory nature statutory activities espionage, methods; provocation, terrorist sabotage and of methods operations), (disinformation warfare chological psy and informational using of tradition long the West; the and Russia between confrontation the in instruments varied up etc.; denunciations, stimulating and ofnetworks informers building interviews), warning for citizens (summoning supervision arrests, throughinfiltration), (preventive command-and-administrative measures mood: methods public the extraordinary to according methods different of use the DARCZEWSKA JOLANTA - - - - - 45 POINT OF VIEW 07/2018