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Reproductionresearch REPRODUCTIONRESEARCH Actions of anti-Mu¨llerian hormone on the ovarian transcriptome to inhibit primordial to primary follicle transition Eric Nilsson, Natalie Rogers and Michael K Skinner Center for Reproductive Biology, School of Molecular Biosciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4231, USA Correspondence should be addressed to M K Skinner; Email: [email protected] Abstract The oocytes found within the primordial follicles of mammalian ovaries remain quiescent for months to years until they receive the appropriate signals to undergo the primordial to primary follicle transition and initiate folliculogenesis. The molecular mechanisms and extracellular signaling factors that regulate this process remain to be fully elucidated. The current study investigates the mechanisms utilized by anti-Mu¨llerian hormone (AMH; i.e. Mu¨llerian inhibitory substance) to inhibit the primordial to primary follicle transition. Ovaries from 4-day-old rats were placed into organ culture and incubated in the absence or presence of AMH, either alone or in combination with known stimulators of follicle transition, including basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), kit ligand (KITL), or keratinocyte growth factor (KGF). Following 10 days of culture, the ovaries were sectioned, stained, and morphologically evaluated to determine the percentage of primordial versus developing follicles. As previously demonstrated, AMH treatment decreased primordial to primary follicle transition. Interestingly, AMH inhibited the stimulatory actions of KITL, bFGF, and KGF. Therefore, AMH can inhibit the basal and stimulated development of primordial follicles. To investigate the mechanism of AMH actions, the influence AMH has on the ovarian transcriptome was analyzed. AMH treatment when compared with controls was found to alter the expression of 707 genes. The overall effect of AMH exposure is to decrease the expression of stimulatory factors, increase the expression of inhibitory factors, and regulate cellular pathways (e.g. transforming growth factor b signaling pathway) that result in the inhibition of primordial follicle development. Analysis of the regulatory factors and cellular pathways altered by AMH provides a better understanding of the molecular control of primordial follicle development. Reproduction (2007) 134 209–221 Introduction of granulosa cells, a theca cell layer, and eventually a fluid-filled antrum. Once the primordial to primary follicle Primordial follicles in mammalian ovaries are composed transition is complete, the follicle will either continue to of an oocyte surrounded by squamous (i.e. flattened) pre- develop until the oocyte is ovulated or undergo atresia and granulosa cells. The oocytes in primordial follicles are regress (Peters et al. 1975, Cran & Moor 1980, Hirshfield arrested in the diplotene stage of prophase I of meiosis. 1991, Rajah et al. 1992). Primordial follicles gradually These arrested follicles remain quiescent for months or develop and leave the arrested pool over the course of a years until they receive the necessary signals to grow and female’s reproductive lifespan. Once the follicle pool is develop. The initiation of primordial follicle development depleted, reproduction ceases and women enter meno- is termed primordial to primary follicle transition. pause (Gosden et al. 1983, Richardson et al. 1987, Faddy Although recent studies have identified several factors et al. 1992, Faddy & Gosden 1996, Faddy 2000). The size of that regulate primordial to primary follicle transition the primordial follicle pool is fixed early in life (Hirshfield (Nilsson & Skinner 2001, Fortune 2003, Skinner 2005, 1991). Although recent studies speculate that new oocytes Visser & Themmen 2005), this vital process for mamma- might be formed in adulthood (Johnson et al. 2004, 2005), lian reproduction remains to be fully elucidated. the initial size of the primordial follicle pool is a major Primordial to primary follicle transition involves pre- determinant of reproductive lifespan (Hirshfield 1994). granulosa cells around the oocyte becoming cuboidal Primordial to primary follicle transition is regulated epithelial granulosa while the oocyte increases in by both inhibitory and stimulatory growth factors diameter. As the follicle grows, it gains successive layers acting locally in a paracrine and/or autocrine manner. q 2007 Society for Reproduction and Fertility DOI: 10.1530/REP-07-0119 ISSN 1470–1626 (paper) 1741–7899 (online) Online version via www.reproduction-online.org 210 E Nilsson and others The only two extracellular signaling molecules that have KITL acts to recruit thecal cells from surrounding ovarian been identified as inhibiting follicle transition are stroma during the primordial to primary follicle tran- anti-Mu¨llerian hormone (AMH; Durlinger et al. 1999, sition (Parrott & Skinner 2000). How KITL interacts with 2002b) and stromal-derived factor 1 (SDF1 or CXCl12; AMH to regulate primordial to primary follicle transition Holt et al. 2006). SDF1 is a member of the large family of is also examined in the current study. chemokine molecules and binds to the G-protein- Growth factors produced by the theca/interstitial cells coupled receptor CXCR4 (Feng et al. 1996). A recent that surround follicles and promote the primordial to study revealed that SDF1 is expressed in the oocytes of primary follicle transition include bone morphogenic primordial and primary follicles. Mouse ovaries cultured protein 4 (BMP4), BMP7 (Shimasaki et al. 1999, Lee et al. in the presence of SDF1 showed an increase in follicle 2001, Nilsson & Skinner 2003), and keratinocyte growth density and a decrease in follicle diameter compared factor (KGF or FGF7; Kezele et al. 2005a). KGF is with controls, suggesting an inhibition of primordial to produced by isolated precursor theca cells surrounding primary follicle transition (Holt et al. 2006). primordial and early stage developing follicles (Kezele AMH, also known as Mu¨llerian inhibitory substance, et al. 2005a). Ovaries in culture treated with KGF have is a member of the transforming growth factor b family of an increased expression of KITL mRNA. Conversely, growth factors and binds to AMH receptor 2 (AMHR2). cultured ovaries treated with KITL have increased KGF AMH was first known for its role in causing regression of expression, suggesting a positive feedback loop between the Mu¨llerian ducts during fetal development in the male these two growth factors to promote the primordial to (Lee & Donahoe 1993, Mishina et al. 1999). In females, primary follicle transition (Kezele et al. 2005a). The AMH is expressed postnatally by the granulosa cells of interaction of KGF with AMH to regulate primordial to developing follicles from the secondary stage to the early primary follicle transition is also examined in the current antral stage (Durlinger et al. 2002a, 2002b). It is thought study. that the AMH produced by these early stage developing The objective of the current study is to investigate the follicles acts locally on primordial follicles to inhibit mechanisms of AMH action to inhibit primordial to the primordial to primary follicle transition (Visser & primary follicle transition. The interactions between Themmen 2005). How AMH acts to inhibit primordial AMH and an oocyte-derived growth factor (bFGF), a follicle transition is unknown, and is the focus of the granulosa-derived growth factor (KITL), and a precursor current study. theca-derived growth factor (KGF) are examined in vitro. Several growth factors have been found to be In addition, the pattern of gene expression (i.e. produced by the different cell types of the developing transcriptome) in AMH-treated ovaries is examined primordial follicle that can stimulate the primordial to using a microarray analysis to gain insight into what primary follicle transition. Those stimulatory factors that signaling pathways might be involved in AMH regulation are expressed in the oocytes of developing early stage of primordial to primary follicle transition. Elucidation of follicles include platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF; the regulatory mechanisms involved in primordial Dube et al. 1998, Laitinen et al. 1998, Nilsson et al. follicle development will provide potential therapeutic 2006), and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF/FGF2; targets to manipulate the primordial follicle pool and van Wezel et al. 1995, Yamamoto et al. 1997, Nilsson treat disease states such as premature ovarian failure. et al. 2001a). PDGF appears to act on the adjacent granulosa and theca cells (Nilsson et al. 2006). Receptors for bFGF have been found on granulosa cells Materials and Methods and oocytes (Shikone et al. 1992, Wandji et al. 1992, Ben-Haroush et al. 2005). Basic FGF has been shown to Organ culture and treatments stimulate proliferation of granulosa and ovarian stromal Postnatal 4-day-old rat ovaries were dissected from cells, and increase the mRNA expression of another freshly euthanized Sprague–Dawley rat pups. All animal stimulatory growth factor kit ligand (KITL; Lavranos et al. protocols were approved by the Washington State 1994, Roberts & Ellis 1999, Nilsson et al. 2001a, Nilsson University Animal Care and Use Committee. Whole & Skinner 2004). How bFGF interacts with AMH to ovaries were cultured as previously described (Nilsson regulate primordial to primary follicle transition is et al. 2001a) on floating filters (0.4 mm Millicell-CM, investigated in the current study. Millipore, Bedford, MD, USA) in 0.5 ml Dulbecco’s Growth factors that are expressed by granulosa
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