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HOW DOES INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS INFLUENCE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE?
John Ahoada ONITA
Institution, Avdelning Department, Division Datum Insitutionen för tema Miljövetenskap Date: 2006/10/13 The Tema Institute Environmental Science
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Titel
Title: How does industrial symbiosis influence environmental performance?
Författare Author: John Ahoada ONITA
Sammanfattning
Abstract.
A collaborative approach to industry-environment issues is acknowledged as a key aspect of sustainable development. Sincerely, resource sharing among firms offers the potential to increase stability of operations, especially in supply-constrained areas, by ensuring that access to important inputs such as water, energy and raw materials are guaranteed. Industrial Symbiosis (IS), a sub- field of Industrial Ecology, is primarily concerned with the cyclical flow of resources through networks of industrial units as a means of cooperatively approaching environmentally sustainable industrial activity. In line with this principle, a critical assessment of the change in environmental performance brought about by industrial symbiosis (IS) was conducted in nineteen selected eco-industrial park case studies identified in all regions of the world with the exception of the African continent. Case study selection criteria were based on models of eco-industrial parks proposed by Chertow (2000). A description of the type of material exchanges that go on in each case study was carried out which revealed evidence of implemented synergies in respective case studies. A comparative assessment of cross-case patterns which is a semi-quantitative matrix used to quantify the degree of environmental performance showed that there was a clear evidence of improved environmental performance among respective case studies investigated where water, energy and material flows served as indicators. Results obtained from the study showed a common pattern of industrial presence in respective case studies reflecting the occurrence of heavy process industries such as oil refineries, cement industries, petrochemical industries, and steel industries. The principle of “anchor tenant” proposed by some experts in the field of industrial ecology was strongly supported by the obtained results. Symbiotic cooperation among participating firms in respective case studies were mainly on areas like cogeneration, re-use of materials, recycling and wastewater treatment and re-use.
Nyckelord
Keywords : Industrial Ecology, Industrial Symbiosis, Environmental performance, Anchor tenant ABSTRACT
A collaborative approach to industry-environment issues is acknowledged as a key aspect of sustainable development. Sincerely, resource sharing among firms offers the potential to increase stability of operations, especially in supply-constrained areas, by ensuring that access to important inputs such as water, energy and raw materials are guaranteed. Industrial Symbiosis (IS), a sub-field of Industrial Ecology, is primarily concerned with the cyclical flow of resources through networks of industrial units as a means of cooperatively approaching environmentally sustainable industrial activity. In line with this principle, a critical assessment of the change in environmental performance brought about by industrial symbiosis (IS) was conducted in nineteen selected eco-industrial park case studies identified in all regions of the world with the exception of the African continent. Case study selection criteria were based on models of eco-industrial parks proposed by Chertow (2000). A description of the type of material exchanges that go on in each case study was carried out which revealed evidence of implemented synergies in respective case studies. A comparative assessment of cross-case patterns which is a semi- quantitative matrix used to quantify the degree of environmental performance showed that there was a clear evidence of improved environmental performance among respective case studies investigated where water, energy and material flows served as indicators. Results obtained from the study showed a common pattern of industrial presence in respective case studies reflecting the occurrence of heavy process industries such as oil refineries, cement industries, petrochemical industries, and steel industries. The principle of “anchor tenant” proposed by some experts in the field of industrial ecology was strongly supported by the obtained results. Symbiotic cooperation among participating firms in respective case studies were mainly on areas like cogeneration, re- use of materials, recycling and wastewater treatment and re-use.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.
Many thanks to Mats Eklund (my supervisor) for his time and commitment in providing the intellectual advice required to execute this study.
Special thanks to Per Sanden (the M.Sc programme co-ordinator) for his scholarly inputs in ensuring that research knowledge and applications are well understood by students as demonstrated in the basic knowledge of philosophies of science and research designs from which much of my confidence in research began the process of maturity.
I appreciate mostly, the unflinching supports of my beloved parents, Mr. and Mrs. Moses and Sabinna Onita for encouraging my desire for sound knowledge. My friend, Dr. Chizoba Anachebe for her moral supports and prayers.
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LIST OF CONTENTS.
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………...... 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………3 LIST OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………..4 LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………5 LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………..5
1.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………….6 1.1 Aim and Objectives………………………………………………………….8
2.0 Theoretical Background………………………………………….. ………...9 2.1 Anchor Tenant………………………………………………………… 12
3.0. Methodology………………………………………………………………13 3.1 Type of Study……………………………………………………………... 13 3.2 Environmental Performance………………………………………….. 13 3.3. Criteria for selection of eco-industrial parks………………………………14 3.4. Data Collection……………………………………………………………15
3.4. Procedures to Analyze data……………………………………………….16 3.4.1. Analysis within Cases……………………………………………….16 3.4.2. Analysis across Cases……………………………………….. 16 3.6. Case Study Selection………………………………………………………17
4.0. Results…………………………………………………………………18 4.1. Case Study Description………………………………………………….18 4.1.1. Alberta, Canada…………………………………………………..18 4.1.2. Brownsville / Matamoros Eco-Industrial Parks, Texas, U.S.A……..19 4.1.3. Burnside Eco-industrial Park, Canada……………………………19 4.1.4 Gladstone industrial Area Network (GAIN), Australia…………….19 4.1.5. Golden Horseshoe, Canada…………………………………………20 4.1.6. Guayama, Puerto Rico……………………………………………20 4.1.7. Kalundborg, Denmark……………………………………………..20 4.1.8. Kawasaki Zero Emission Industrial Park, Japan……………….21 4.1.9. Kwinana Industrial Area (KIA), Australia………………………….21 4.1.10. Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate, Thailand…………………………22 4.1.11. Montreal, Canada………………………………………………….22 4.1.12. National Industrial Symbiosis Programme (NISP), U.K…………..22 4.1.13. North Texas, U.S.A………………………………………………23 4.1.14. Ora Eco-Park, Norway………………………………………….23 4.1.15. Rotterdam, The Netherlands………………………………………23 4.1.16. Sarnia-Lambton, Canada………………………………………..23
3 4.1.17. Styria, Austria……………………………………………………..24 4.1.18. Tampico, Mexico………………………………………………….24 4.1.19. Tilbury Eco-Industrial Park, Canada………………………………24
5.0 Discussion………………………………………………………………..37 5.1. Case Study selection criteria influence on obtained results……………..37 5.2. Energy Savings…………………………………………………………..40 5.3. Water Savings……………………………………………………………40 5.4. Materials Savings……………………………………………………..42 5.5. Areas of Cooperation / Material Exchanges……………………………..43 5.6. Pattern of Organization…………………………………………………44 5.7. Reference Cases Versus Anchor Tenant Principle……………………. 44
6.0. Conclusion……………………………………………………………47 References…………………………………………………………… Appendix A………………………………………………………………. Appendix B…………………………………………………………………
LIST OF TABLES 2.1 Concepts and definitions in Industrial Symbiosis ……………………………………………..10 2.2 Ecosystem principles applied to natural and industrial ecosystems……………………………11 4.1. Sectors represented in Burnside Industrial Park…………………………………66 4.2. Annual environmental benefits of successful synergies in respective case studies...25
LIST OF FIGURES.
Figure 1. Potential Material and energy flows in a cement plant-centric I.E system…35
4 1.0 INTRODUCTION.
The continuous increase in human populations around the world and the rapid economic growth resulting from globalization, no doubt have greatly impacted on the earth’s systems and natural resources (McNeill et al., 2005). These un-avoidable pressures on the earth’s systems have been described by my Dieu (2003) as most challenging given their diverse nature of occurrence like water and air pollution, degradation of land resources, soil erosion, over-exploitation of natural resources and severe threats to ecosystems. Environmental pollution for example, was explained by Hung (1997) as increasing because of the limited level of technology implemented during industrial production processes as well as waste treatment procedures.
It is important to understand the cyclical nature of the diverse impacts that industrial production activities pose on the natural environment by investigating the industrial systems. In this regard, my Dieu (2003) clearly stated that industrial production activities begins its impact on the environment from raw material exploration and extraction, transformation into products, and use and disposal of products by the final consumers. The author added that at each level of these activities, wastes are generated which end up leaving the natural environment as the recipient of these wastes.
Viewing the present industrial activities as unsustainable, McNeill et al., (2005) gave the following remark “what can be said with some certainty is that the present industrial path is not sustainable and that the natural resource inputs into the system will become increasingly scarce, and disposal of wastes more costly and potentially environmentally risky”.
Because sustainable development is considered a possible solution to this industrial menace on the natural environment, it has attracted great attention in the past couple of years. Mouzakitis et al., (2003) confirmed that the Johannesburg World Summit is indicative of this idea where awareness was initiated on the relationship between sustainable and non-sustainable world giving a close attention to the Industry- Environment Interactions with regards to checking industrial activities that would pose severe threats to the natural environment.
Nevertheless, Industrial Ecology came up as a combination of academic and business idea to occupy a central position in designing a model for environmental management that embraces the transformation of the industrial system, taking into account the possibility of maintaining a balance between industrial inputs and outputs in relation to the carrying capacity of the planet earth as well as the immediate local environment hosting a particular industry (Lowe and Evans, 1995). With this task bestowed on Industrial Ecology, one of its principal concepts is the idea of imitating the natural cycles as defined in the concept of natural ecosystems functioning and structure, and seeks ways of replicating this mechanism into the industrial systems. To this end, Tibbs (1992) confirmed that Industrial Ecology suggests the design of industrial structures and infrastructures in a manner that it would represent a series of linked man-made ecosystems that mediates with the natural global ecosystem.
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Therefore, Erkman (1997) summarized the inputs of Industrial Ecology in ensuring a possible transformation of the industrial systems that would enhance sustainable development while maintaining the integrity of the environment by reviewing 150 books, papers and reports with a conclusion that Industrial Ecology evolves in two main directions:
- the first is the field of eco-industrial parks (EIPs) and islands of sustainability, - the second is the dematerialization, decarbonization and service economy.
Considering views expressed by Garner and Keoleian (1995) that environmental problems from industrial processes are systemic and would need a system approach in proffering solutions to them which would involve connections linking industrial practices to human activities in addition to maintaining environmental or ecological integrity, the authors concluded that Industrial ecology’s concept goes beyond the linear nature of the present industrial practices where raw materials are used in production processes and products, by-products as well as wastes are produced, to a cyclical system where wastes are re-used as energy or raw materials for another product or process. Thus they believed that a systems approach also provides a holistic view of environmental problems thereby making it possible to see and solve these problems that would in turn create advantages towards achieving sustainable industrial systems.
With the advent of the systems approach concept and its potentiality in creating a sustainable industrial system being widely accepted in the industrial sector, examples of attempts to create highly integrated industrial systems that optimizes the use of by- products and minimizes the waste that leaves the system are seen in operation in eco- industrial park (EIP) development projects, thus it is believed that a well planned, functioning EIP has the potential to both benefit the economy and substantially relieve environmental pressure in and near the location of its development as stressed by Frosch (1995).
More so, the central goal of the Industrial Ecology concept is the reasoning that industrial units can exchange materials or energy to mutual advantage. This concept is called Industrial Symbiosis. Nevertheless, it is important to know that the most common element for determining what makes up an eco-industrial park relies upon, on the co- location of industrial facilities that can exchange materials or energy to mutual advantage according to Vigon (2002). These mutual relationships that exist between participating firms in eco-industrial parks explain in true terms the expression- Industrial Symbiosis.
All over the world, examples of industrial areas have been cited that possesses some qualities supporting the eco-industrial park concept even as Lowe (1997) writes; the concept of Eco-industrial Park is “….. a community of manufacturing and service firms located together in a common property. Member businesses seek enhanced environmental, economic and social performance through collaboration in managing
6 environmental and resource issues. By working together, the community of businesses seeks a collective benefit that is greater then the sum of individual benefits each company would realize by only optimizing its individual performance”. In these lines of thought, several initiatives of eco-industrial park development have been undertaken in Europe, North and South America, Asia and Australia.
1.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVES.
The core aim of this study is to analyze and assess the change in environmental performance brought about by Industrial Symbiosis (IS).
More specifically, this study seeks to make a comparative attempt at assessing a number of Industrial Symbiosis cases identified in all regions of the world, with great emphasis on Eco-Industrial Parks (EIPs) in order to fulfill the following objectives:
• To identify the types of material exchanges that go on in the EIPs and types of benefits that Industrial Symbiosis would bring in qualitative and semi-quantitative terms. • To identify if there are possible common patterns on which the principle of material exchange in the respective EIPs are based. • To determine if successful symbiotic relationships in EIPs are propelled by special brands of industries that could further prove the relevance of the concept of “anchor tenant” earlier proposed by some experts in the field of Industrial Ecology. • To identify the area(s) that the companies base their co-operation (e.g. waste management).
7 2.0 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Garner and Keoleian (1995) re-evaluated the development of industrial ecology and concluded that it provides a new framework for understanding the range of impacts that industrial systems would have on the environment. The authors further explained that the new framework help to see and possibly, put into practice the measures to minimize the environmental impacts of products and processes linked to industrial systems, given the overall aim of achieving a sustainable development. Graedel and Allenby (2003) mentioned that Industrial Ecology (IE) has as its primary concern, the restoration and achievement of a unique balance and symbiosis between industrial production and consumption and the natural ecosystems on which life on planet earth entirely depends. Wherefore, Chertow (2000) added that one good thing about the principle of Industrial Ecology is that it gives an attention to the flow of materials and energy via local, regional and global economies.
However, of a striking interest in the development of Industrial Ecology (IE) is the fact that Industrial Symbiosis (IS) is perceived by many as pursuing IE’s objectives in a confined geographical entity. For example, Chertow (2000) gave the following definition:
Industrial Symbiosis engages traditionally separate industries in a collective approach to competitive advantage involving physical exchange of materials, energy, water, and/or byproducts. The keys to Industrial Symbiosis are collaboration and the synergistic possibilities offered by geographic proximity.
Industrial Symbiosis was viewed as the best-known application of Industrial Ecology principles by Bossilkov et al., (2005). The authors further explained that because of the many links among the firms, an industrial area is transformed into an “industrial ecosystem” or “Industrial Symbiosis”.
Another hypothetical definition of Industrial Symbiosis was provided by the North West Chemical Initiative (NWCI) (2004) as:
“Involving the creation of linkages between companies to raise the efficiency of use of materials, energy and other resources in ways which would not be possible if they acted in isolation. In some cases, these linkages might arise in the course of normal business activity, although these will mainly be confined to situations where companies have existing supply chain relationships and even then may not emerge particularly quickly. Industrial Symbiosis applies a project approach to a group of companies, irrespective of whether they have any commercial dealings with each other, and looks proactively for opportunities for collaborative activity such as recycle of material from one to another, combined waste recovery and treatment, sharing of infrastructure and service facilities and provision of services to each other”.
8 Table 2.1 Concepts and definitions in Industrial Symbiosis (Adapted from: Bossilkov et al., 2005).
The part of Industrial Ecology, which engages traditionally separate Industrial Symbiosis entities in a collective approach to competitive advantage involving exchanges of materials, energy, water and byproducts. The keys to Industrial Symbiosis are collaboration and synergistic possibilities offered by geographic proximity (Chertow, 2000).
The synergy among diverse industries, agriculture, and communities By-product Synergy resulting in profitable conversion of by-products and waste to resources promoting sustainability (BCSD-GM, 1997). By-product exchange ….a set of companies seeking to utilize each other’s by-products (energy, water, and materials) rather than disposing of them as waste (Lowe, 2001). Eco-Industrial Park ….an industrial park developed and managed as a real estate or Estate. development enterprise and seeking high environmental, economic, and social benefits as well as business excellence (Lowe, 2001). Eco-Industrial …a set of companies collaborating to improve their environmental, network social, and economic performance in a region (Lowe, 2001).
Industrial Ecosystem In an Industrial Ecosystem, the traditional model of industrial activity is transformed into a more integrated system, in which the consumption of energy and materials is optimized and the effluents of one process serve as the raw material for another process (Frosh and Gallopoulos, 1989).
Industrial Symbiosis was viewed by Korhonen (2001) as imitating the natural ecosystem concept, which has as its driving forces four (4) respective principles:
1. Round put: Described by the author “as energy recycling through cascading in food chains with the solar energy as the driver”.
2. Diversity: Described by the author as “diversity in species, organisms, interdependency and cooperation enhanced ecosystem survival”.
3. Locality: Described by the author as “actors in the ecosystem adapting to environmental conditions and cooperating with their surroundings in diverse interdependent relationships”.
4. Gradual Change: Described by the author as “information transfer and change occurring through reproduction, which is seen as a slow process”.
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Thus, Table 2.2 illustrates how these ecosystem principles can be applied to local as well as regional eco-industrial systems.
Table 2.2 Ecosystem principles applied to natural and industrial ecosystems (Adapted from: Korhonen, 2001)
ECOSYSTEM PRINCIPLES IN NATURAL ECOSYSTEM IN INDUSTRIAL ECOSYSTEM • Recycling of matter • Recycling of matter 1. Round put • Cascading of energy • Cascading of energy • Biodiversity • Diversity in actors, in 2. Diversity • Diversity in species, organisms interdependency, and in co-operation • Diversity in interdependency and co- • Diversity in industrial input and operation output. • Diversity in information • Utilizing local resources • Utilizing local resources, wastes 3. Locality • Respecting the local natural limiting • Respecting the local natural limiting factors factors • Local interdependency and co- • Co-operation between local actors operation 4. Gradual • Evolution using solar energy • Using waste material and energy and change • Evolution through reproduction renewable resources • Cyclical time, seasons time • Gradual development of the system • Slow time rates in development of diversity system diversity
To-date, the standard example for a successful Industrial symbiosis project in practice points to the Kalundborg experience. With this example serving as a source of inspiration to the Industrial Symbiosis concept, Ehrenfeld and Gertler (1997) reported that Industrial Symbiosis could generate both economic and environmental benefits.
In this regard, Bossilkov et al., (2005) have maintained that in the development of a successful industrial ecosystem with the aim of achieving significant Industrial Symbiosis, it is important to ensure the co-location of two or preferably even more major process industries. Reason for this follows an explanation by the authors that manufacturing industries are the largest segment at any industrial estate and that they always produce comparatively small volumes of mono-material waste streams (arising as cut-off’s from input materials) and a mixed waste stream comprising of production rejects, packaging and other production waste. These wastes materials was viewed by the authors as being only available in smaller quantities and sometimes with large fluctuations in volume over time and is generally only valuable to industries in the same sector. Therefore, they concluded that these factors make it difficult to achieve positive economies for symbiosis on mono-material streams within any given industrial estate, because the mixed wastes stream from manufacturing industries is not different from the general municipal waste stream and could have limited potential and economic value for direct reuse by industries.
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The current Industrial Symbiosis perfect example as witnessed in Kalundborg evolved naturally or developed spontaneously without proper planning. But many experts have argued this scenario as a possibility that can be reproduced by a careful planning process for instance, Lowe (2001), while some also think it could be by engineering design, for instance, Hawken et al., (1999). These perceptions were not stated without criticisms, for example Desrochers (2004) warns against such views for planned Industrial Symbiosis, bearing in mind the poor track record and weak economic powers of some planning authorities.
2.1. ANCHOR TENANT.
Schlarb (2001) had pointed out that the concept of “anchor tenants” in eco-industrial park development was based on the idea of using one particular company (in this case, the anchor company) to draw other companies to an industrial park or area. The author’s view was supported by similar positions held by experts in the field of Industrial ecology. For example, Ayres (1995) and Chertow (1998) had maintained that an eco-industrial park designed around one or more major “anchor” tenants would create a diverse set of feasible inter-connections.
Therefore, putting the anchor tenant concept into a perspective in the context of eco- industrial park development, Schlarb (2001) further explained that the anchor tenant tactics views how an anchor industry can make available sufficient amount of waste to other companies that can make use of the wastes as raw material in their production processes. The author concluded that the type of anchor tenant and the type of wastes it can boast of providing, is seen as a major factor in attracting other industries to it and hence, the subsequent opportunity of using it as an anchor to developing an eco-industrial park in a given area.
11 3.0 METHODOLOGY
This chapter explains the methodology utilized in the study. For example, the use of indicators to assess environmental performance was justified. In this line of thought, it has been stressed that the selection of indicators to a greater length often proffers answers to environmental performance questions (Svensson et al., 2006).
3. 1. Type of Study.
A Meta study was conducted where Eco-Industrial parks were used as reference cases to critically assess the environmental performance of industries involved in various symbiotic associations. Thus, Lowe (1997) gave a classical definition of Eco-Industrial Parks as:
“a community of manufacturing and service businesses seeking enhanced environmental and economic performance through collaboration in managing environmental and resources issues including energy, water and materials. By working together, the community of businesses seeks a collective benefit that is greater than the sum of the individual benefits each company would realize if it optimized its performance only”
3.2 Environmental Performance
In this study, the degree of success itself in terms of environmental performance expected from Industrial Symbiosis was measured indirectly. For example, assessing environmental performance by using information gathered from a wide range of literature search across the disciplines was sufficient to answer the key questions earlier stipulated in the aim and objectives section of chapter one. However, indicators used to assess environmental performance originated from the definition of an eco-industrial park given by Lowe (1997). These indicators are:
- Water - Energy - Material flows.
3.3 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF ECO-INDUSTRIAL PARKS.
Three principal criteria formed the basis for selection of eco-industrial park reference cases for this study. These criterions were based on placing emphasis on the type of symbiotic associations that operates in the respective parks as described in consulted literature. Particularly, considerations on the different material exchange types in each case study were paramount.
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Because the emphasis was basically on the different material-exchange types as selection criterion, models of eco-industrial parks proposed by Chertow (2000) was adopted from which three out of the originally proposed taxonomy of five by Chertow were considered necessary for this study. These are presented here as Types 3-5, listed below:
• Type 3: This refers to firms that are found in a well-designed eco-industrial park. • Type 4: This refers to firms that are not found in an eco-industrial park. • Type 5: This refers to firms that arrange their symbiotic associations to cover a wider range of geographical region.
Firms that are found in a well-designed eco-industrial park: Type 3
Chertow (2000) described this pattern as a scenario where companies that can be found situated in an industrial area with a unique feature of a well-designed industrial park, engage themselves in the exchange of energy, water, and materials and at the same time sharing information and services like permitting, transportation, and marketing. Chertow concluded that Type 3 exchanges do occur within a well-defined area like in the case of an industrial park, stating also that it is not unusual to include other companies “over the fence”.
Firms that are not found in an eco-industrial park: Type 4
Chertow (2000) described this scenario as a situation where the exchanges of symbiotic components are initiated by already in-placed facilities within a given area. It then forms the basis for the beginning of connecting existing businesses into a network where materials are exchanged for a common good of each another. Chertow cited an example of this type of symbiotic association to exist at Kalundborg, Denmark, and further stressed that the participating firms are not closely located to each other, instead they occur within a distance of about three kilometers from each other.
Firms that arrange their symbiotic associations to cover a wider range of geographical region: Type 5
Chertow (2000) described this scenario as a form of symbiotic association among firms that creates room for expansion in a way that an entire regional economic community for example, could be classified as engaging in industrial symbiosis given the ability to possess possible by-product exchanges identifiable by the number of firms the region can engage.
13 3.4 DATA COLLECTION
The data (input) needed to produce the descriptions of cases came from an extensive literature search which was conducted to identify and select relevant reference cases for this study from scientific journals, magazines, conference proceedings, publicly available consultancy reports, local, state and federal government reports, as well as web-based case studies. The specific databases used during literature search were the Linköping University Library Database and Google search engine. Typical search terms used include among others, the following:
For Google database search:
“Industrial symbiosis input and output database” “Input data on industrial symbiosis” “Styria eco-industrial Park” “Environmental systems analysis and industrial ecology” “Environmental performance indicators” “Industrial Symbiosis in practice” “Detailed benefits of Industrial Symbiosis” “Data collection on Industrial Symbiosis” “Annual environmental reports of companies in each case study (e.g. annual environmental reports of companies in Alberta by-product synergy project)”
For the Linköping University Library Database search:
Environmental engineering database was used.
Information contained in the majority of the consulted literature includes basically qualitative and to some extent, quantitative data of the selected reference cases. Attempts were made to generate data for each reference case, but for the constraints of corporate confidentiality regarding release of data, the process was stalled.
3.5 PROCEDURES TO ANALYZE DATA.
The various methods employed in analyzing the data obtained from a diverse literature search are explained here. Because I did not generate these data on my own via any experimental / field observation, I do not also have any form of control over these data. Therefore, the only option to show that this study was actually carried out in a scientifically rigorous manner that generates reliable and valid data, treats the data fairly, produces logical analytic conclusion, and rules out bias interpretations, the procedures stated below were carefully considered and adopted.
14 3.5.1 Analysis within Reference Cases.
This involves a form of “in-case analysis” which describes each reference case. As Eisenhardt (1989) stated that this kind of process is vital to the generation of insight but that there is no standard format for doing so. Hence, the author suggests that:
“The overall idea is to become intimately familiar with each case as a stand-alone entity. This process allows the unique patterns of each case to emerge before investigators push to generalize patterns across case”.
In this instance, each reference case (EIP) was described in brief and the respective criteria that qualified each case study for selection in this study, clearly identified. Of particular interest was the role of the Cement Industry in EIP development. Data from the cement industry was used as a control parameter to further test the principle of “anchor tenants” in EIP development with reference to enhancing environmental performance while achieving sustainable development at the same time.
3.5.2 Analysis Across cases.
The across-case pattern is a semi-quantitative matrix used to search for patterns in the reference cases. In this study, I relied solely on tables that summarized and tabulate evidence underlying the constructs. This follows approaches of Miles (1979).
As Miles (1979) notes:
“One of the major reasons for doing a multi-site study is that idiosyncratic aspects of the sites can be seen in perspective, and self-delusion about conclusions is less likely”.
The main tactic applied in this research is to select indicators of symbiotic relevance (e.g. material exchanges) driving the reference cases (in this case, the EIPs) and then look for similarities coupled with inter-EIP differences. In order to effectively determine environmental performance of EIPs, comparison was further extended between selected references cases that had empirical data quantifying their symbiotic operations.
3.6 REFERENCE CASE SELECTION.
Industrial areas that met one or more of the criteria specified in section 3.3 as the basis for selection of reference cases were selected across the world.
Following this, 19 reference cases were selected. 1 exceptional case was selected from the cement industry basically to provide data required to investigate the issue previously mentioned in section 3.5.1. The list below provides an alphabetical arrangement of the selected cases with respective references:
15 • Alberta, Canada, (McCann and Associates, 1999). • Brownsville Eco-Industrial Park, Texas, USA (Martin et al., 1996) • Burnside Industrial park, Nova Scotia, Canada (Cote, 2001) • Gladstone Industrial Area Network (GAIN), Australia (Bossilkov et al., 2005) • Golden Horseshoe, Canada (Hatch, 2001, www.cein.ca ). • Guayama, Puerto Rico (Chertow and Lombardi, 2004) • Kalundborg, Denmark (Grann, 1994) • Kawasaki Zero Emission Industrial Park, Japan (ICETT, 1998). • Kwinana Industrial Area (KIA), Australia (Bossilkov et al., 2005) • Map Ta Phut, Thailand (van Berkel, 2006). • Montreal, Canada (Hatch, 2001). • National Industrial Symbiosis Programme (NISP), UK (Mirata, 2004), (NWCI, 2004). • North Texas, USA (NJCAT, 2001), (www.elements.bnim.com). • Ora Ecopark, Norway (Thoresen, 2000), (Mark Jeffery Consultants, 2002). • Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Regional Council of Elelä-Savo, 2006) • Sarnia-Lambton, Canada (Venta and Nisbet, 1997) • Styria, Austria (Schwarz et al., 1997) • Tampico, Mexico (Young, 1999) • Tilbury Industrial Park, Canada (Mark Jeffrey Consultants, 2002).
***The exceptional case study: • Alsen Cement and Salzgitter Steel Works Case Study, Germany (Vigon, 2002).
It is important to mention that the selection of the 19 reference cases as stipulated above, was targeted at fulfilling the aim and objectives of this study and does not necessarily mean that these cases represents the best and final references regarding the existing Industrial Symbiotic examples that is operating in various regions of the world today. These 19 cases are sufficient enough to answer the research questions for this study.
16 4.0 RESULTS
This chapter presents a brief description of each reference case to include an introduction, organizational structure / actors and the material and energy exchanges peculiar to the respective reference case. A comparison of all cases showing the annual environmental benefits of successful synergies in reference cases is presented in a tabular format. But for the convenience of clearer readability and understanding of the text, a decision to transfer the “Introduction” as well as “Organizational structure / actors” of each reference case to Appendix “A” was seen as necessary. Please refer to appendix “A” for details of this important aspect of the study. More so, the potential material and energy flows in a Cement Plant-Centric Industrial Ecology System that illustrates how the cement plant is capable of playing an “anchor tenant” role in industrial ecosystems is presented.
4.1 REFERENCE CASES DESCRIPTION
4.1.1 Alberta, Canada.
Material and Energy Exchanges
The nature of material / or energy exchanges occurring in this region include documented evidence of both existing and potential synergies. The existing synergies are one that:
+ Involves the petrochemical companies. For example, ethylene plants which processes ethane, a product of natural gas to ethylene oxide/ethylene glycol, polyethylene, and ethylene dichloride/vinyl chloride/polyvinyl chloride.
Whereas details of potential synergies are summarized below as: + Production of energy from biomass, cogeneration and co-firing. + Utilization of sulphur and high sulphur coke. + Utilization e.g. ash, fly ash, wood ash for agricultural enhancement.
4.1.2 Brownsville / Matamoros Eco-Industrial Parks, Texas (U.S.A).
Material and Energy Exchanges
The description of the nature of symbiotic relationships that exist between the companies in the Brownsville / Matamoros region was based on the operations of these companies in the system. The following exchanges were described:
17 + The refinery sales its residual oil to the asphalt company. + The company sells limestone to the asphalt company. + The discrete parts manufacturer sells scrap plastic to the recycler. Purchases plastic pellets from the plastic recycler. + The textile company sales plastic to the plastic recycler. + The auto parts manufacturer begins selling scrap plastic to local recycler. + The ballast manufacturer sells scrap asphalt to the asphalt company for mixing with its virgin materials.
4.1.3 BURNSIDE ECO-INDUSTRIAL PARK, CANADA.
Material and Energy Exchanges.
The following material exchanges occur in the Burnside Eco-Industrial Park:
+ Substitution of used crumpled, compacted recycled paper for foam packaging. + Implementation of a solvent management program with VOC reduction targets. + Reuse of excess brown paper packaging. + Use of recycled / refurbished material and equipment in projects. + Reuse of plastic barrels and waste pallets in-house.
4.1.4 GLADSTONE INDUSTRIAL AREA NETWORK (GAIN).
Material and Energy exchanges
In the Gladstone Industrial Area Network (GAIN), the existence of the network contributed to the realization of some waste exchanges and resource synergies, including for instance:
+ Bauxite residue used for treatment of acid sulphate soils. + Fly ash used for cement production. + Use of waste acid from Ticor to neutralize bauxite residue dam.
4.1.5 GOLDEN HORSESHOE, CANADA.
Material and Energy Exchanges
Existing synergies in the Golden Horseshoe Industrial Symbiosis project include the following:
+ Use of carbon black as EAF additive. + Use of oxide sludge as raw material in cement manufacture. + PVC residue used in shoe sole manufacture.
18 + Alternative fuel from the use of butadiene. + Use of CO2 in the medical and beverage industries. + Liquid nitrogen used to rehabilitate polymers. + Manufacture of cargo pallets from polyethylene/polypropylene by-products. + Use of polymer residuals in roof coatings. + Use of spent caustic in pulp and paper manufacture. + Use of fly ash in cement manufacture. + Use of cellophane scrap in oil well operations. + Cogeneration of steam and power from use of wood chips. + Use of hydrogen gas as fuel in cogeneration plants.
4.1.6 GUAYAMA, PUERTO RICO.
Materials and Energy Exchanges.
Existing synergies in the Guayama Industrial Symbiosis project include among others the following:
+ Production of steam by power plant which is utilized by the refinery. + Re-use of water among the industrial sectors. + Use of special fly ash from coal in cement production.
4.1.7 KALUNDBORG, DENMARK
Material and Energy Exchanges.
The nature of material and energy exchanges existing in the Kalundborg system was described in accordance with the development process towards establishing symbiotic relationships among participating companies.
+ Formation of Asnaesvaerket in 1959 which marked the beginning of the symbiosis. + Commissioning of the first oil refinery in Denmark by Tidewater occurred in 1961. + A plaster board plant set up by Gyproc in 1972 and a gas pipeline constructed. + Expansion of Asnaes power plant in 1973. Receives water from Tisso pipeline and the refinery. + Delivery of biological sludge by Novo Nordisk in 1976 to farm communities. + Cement manufacturers started receiving fly ash from power plant in 1979. + Kalundborg municipality started receiving waste heat from power plant for district heating in 1981. + Steam supply pipeline construction from power plant finished by Novo Nordisk and Statiol in 1982. + Completion of cooling water effluent pipeline to power plant by Statiol refinery in 1987 + Use of waste heat in salt cooling water for fish production by power plant in 1989.
19 + Tisso water supply agreement between Novo Nordisk and a combine team of Kalundborg municipality, power plant and the refinery in 1989. + Sulphur sold for sulphuric acid manufacture through Statiol refinery sulphur recovery plant in 1990. + Use of refinery treated effluent water by power plant in fly ash stabilization. Water supplied by Statoil refinery in 1991. + Use of flare gas from Statoil as a supplementary fuel by power plant in 1992. + Power plant supplies Gyproc plaster board plant converted gypsum, a product of stack flue gas desulphurization, to replace natural gypsum in 1993. + Use of residual waste heat in green houses by refinery and power plant.
4.1.8 KAWASAKI ZERO EMISSION INDUSTRIAL PARK, JAPAN.
Materials and Energy Exchanges.
The existing synergies involving the exchange of materials among participating companies in the Kawasaki Zero Emission system are as follows: + Use of fly ash in cement manufacture. + Use of plastics as injection material in blast furnaces of iron works. + Recovery of home waste electronics appliances. + Use of incineration ash in the production of molten slag. + Conversion of gasification treated shredder dust to carbon dioxide and hydrogen which are generated to chemical plants for the manufacture of products such as ammonia, methane, and methanol.
4.1.9 KWINANA INDUSTRIAL AREA (KIA).
Material and Energy Exchanges
The synergies already in place in the Kwinana Industrial Area are quite diverse. These include the following:
+ Hydrochloric acid from pigment plant used in ammonium chloride production by chemical plant. + Carbon dioxide from chemical plant for utility gas providers. + Use of gypsum from chemical plant in alumina refinery. + Use of hydrogen from oil refinery in bus trial. + WWTP wastewater used by alumina refinery. + Cogeneration plant at oil refinery. + Cogeneration plant at titanium dioxide pigment plant. + Use of water from chemical plant by pigment plant.
20 4.1.10 MAP TA PHUT INDUSTRIAL ESTATE, THAILAND.
Materials and Energy Exchanges.
The existing symbiotic relationships among firms participating in the Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate project are as follows.
+ Petrochemical plant receiving electricity and steam from cogeneration plants. + Use of bottom and fly ash in production of cement and bricks. + Use of carbon dioxide in dry ice production. + Use of waste oil as alternative fuel in cement kiln and oil paint manufacture. + Use of off-grade, short chain polymers in candle and wax colour production. + Reuse of spent solvent in thinner production. + Use of ferrous chloride and hydrochloric acid in ferric chloride production. + Use of scale, dust and refractory materials in cement production.
4.1.11 MONTREAL, CANADA.
Material and Energy Exchanges.
The existing synergies in the Montreal Industrial Region include the following:
+ Use of Ferric and Ferrous Sulphate from steel industry for animal feed, fertilizers etc manufacture by Stablex. + Use of sodium sulphate in the pulp and paper industry. + Use of caustic soda from refinery in the pulp and paper and smelter industry. + Used oils from various industries as smelter for energy. + Used of biologic sludge from petroleum refinery and pulp and paper industry for soil beneficiation. + Sulphuric acid from sodium chlorate laboratory used in lead smeltering. + Use of calcium-based materials (e.g. steel slag) for neutralization.
4.1.12 National Industrial Symbiosis Programme (NISP), UK.
Material and Energy Exchanges
The nature of documented synergies in the Mersey Bank Industrial Symbiosis Programme is described as follows:
+ Use of potassium hydroxide in the neutralization of fluoride-containing stream to generate potassium fluoride effluent. + Use of off-spec protein production for biological waste treatment. + Re-use of fluorine-based wastes. + Recycling of sodium nitrate. + Use of fatty acid distillation residues in cement kilns manufacture.
21
4.1.13 NORTH TEXAS, USA.
Materials and Energy Exchanges.
The existing synergies in the North Texas Industrial Eco-System project according to NJCAT (2001) include the following:
+ 130,000 tons of steel slag used in place of lime (single plant operation) + 120,000 tons of Auto Shredder residues (ASR) mined for metal reclamation and ASR remaining after metal recovery used for power generation. + 37,500 pounds of sludge saved from landfills and municipal water systems.
4.1.14 ORA ECOPARK, NORWAY.
Material and Energy Exchanges.
In the Ora Eco-Park, Norway, examples of current symbiotic interactions among participating companies according to Thoresen (2001) involves: steam, condensate return, hot and cold water, waste sulphuric acid, iron sulphate waste, polyester waste, wood chips for energy production, filter waste, industrial waste, and sludge.
4.1.15 ROTTERDAM, THE NETHERLANDS.
Material and Energy Exchanges.
The nature of material flows in the Rotterdam industrial symbiosis project is predominantly Heat and water inclined according to the Regional Council of Etelä-Savo (2006).
4.1.16 SARNIA-LAMBTON, CANADA.
Material and Energy Exchanges.
The following describes the existing by-product synergies in the Sarnia-Lambton Industrial Ecosystem project:
+ Power / steam cogeneration project. + Use of desulphurized gypsum from power station in gypsum board plant. + Cascading of by-product steam.
22 4.1.17 STYRIA, AUSTRIA.
Material and Energy Exchanges.
The nature of existing synergies in the Styria by-product synergy project according to Schwartz et al., (1997) is described as follows:
+ Use of waste heat from power plant for district heating. + Use of power plant gypsum in cement manufacture. + Use of ash from paper production in mining operations. + Use of blast furnace sand in cement manufacture. + Use of petrol coke in cement manufacture. + Use of flax residues in the ceramic industry., + Use of wood residues in paper manufacture. + Use of textile waste in stone and ceramic industry. + Use of steel slag as construction material.
4.1.18 TAMPICO, MEXICO.
Material and Energy Exchanges.
Existing synergies in the Tampico industrial system include the following:
+ CO2 recovery. + Spent butadiene usage. + Hydrochloric acid recuperated. + Use of polymer resins for construction materials. + Cleaning and recycling of empty chemical drums and barrels. + Ferric chloride recuperated for external sales. + Process changed chemical stock usage. + Fabric glass usage. + Mine tails usage. + PVC residues used in shoe sole manufacture. + Waste-to-energy conversion.
4.1.19 TILBURY ECO-INDUSTRIAL PARK, CANADA.
Material and Energy Exchanges.
The nature of by-product synergy in the Tilbury Industrial park is described as follows:
+ Use of fly ash in cement manufacture. + Co-generation and recovery of thermal energy. + Use of biomass waste in agriculture. + Use of food related waste as inputs for living machine system. + Recovery of zinc ash and metal pails from Argo Protective Coatings.
23
) Literature Source. NJCAT (2001). and McCann Associates (1999 Jeffery Mark Consultants (2002).
Gaseous Gaseous Residue Reduction. Destruction of Spent Caustic Sulfurous the Odours in recovery mill boiler. in Reduction 40.000,000 tons year per of Carbon Dioxide emissions used in food and beverage industry etc. Reduced VOC emissions. Liquid Residue Residue Liquid Reduction Reduced Chloride morecontent by than 200% in of 2000 tons per Salt Cake year. in Reduction per 30,000 tons year Ammonia in used industrial / municipal wastewater treatment. in Reduction and solvent paint usage. Solid Residue Solid Residue Reduction. of 438 tons Spent Caustic well not deep injected. of Recycling per 200 tons year Empty drums. paper Reduced consumption by 24,000 sheets per month. Energy Savings. Energy Savings. energy cycle Life from 438 saved virgin tons of not Caustic manufactured. Energy savings through 951,720 of tons year per Wood wastes (bark, sawdust, trim shavings, in used blocks etc) industry, pulp building etc. paperboards Energy savings through of gasification of tons 2,000,000 Pet. Coke. Saved 30-35% Energy. lighting Water Savings Unknown. Reduced water consumption or by 85% about 10,800 m³/year. Ecological / Biological. Landfill biota not destroyed (not quantifiable, is but Caustic toxic). Stopped landfill tons disposal of of foam packing.
Annual Environmental Benefits of Successful Synergies Caserespective in Studies. Ltd. packaging Faenell Imagerite Ltd Table 4.2. 4.2. Table CaseImplemented Study / Synergy / Company. ALBERTA, CANADA. Spent Caustic 438 tons Spent Caustic in place in place Caustic Spent 438 tons potential for material; of virgin of virgin that times three material. BURNSIDE, CANADA. Wartsila, Canada.
24 et al., al., et Literature Source. and Mark Jeffery Consultants (2002). Martin (1996). Gaseous Gaseous Residue Reduction. Reduced VOC emissions. Unknown. oil. Liquid Residue Residue Liquid Reduction in Reduction oil annual consumption by 70% (from in 110,000 L 000 1998 to 35, 1999). L in glue Eliminated wasteand water sludge from stream effluent (from 22,964 L L to 0 in 1998 in 2000). in Reduction bbls 273, 750 per of year Residual Solid Residue Solid Residue Reduction. 9,900 Recycled of paper. Lb /y 300-600 Reuses barrels plastic and 300-600 waste wood pallets in-house. in Reduction 121,545 tons per of year Gypsum. Energy Savings. Energy Savings. Used less energy. Saved / Btus 262,000,000 from hour in Cogeneration Refining operations. Water Savings Reduced water consumption m³/y. by 650 Saved 15, 768,000 per gallons year of water. Ecological / Biological. Diverted 16 metric tons of from materials (22% landfill reduction from 1999 to 2000). Reduction (lbs) sent in material fill. to land per 730,831 Lbs year Asphalt. per 131,227 Lbs year Plastic.
…….. …….. ontinuation C Swedwood, Canada. Case Study / Implemented CaseImplemented Study / Synergy / Company. continues… Burnside services. printing Metrographic Table 4.2 4.2 Table Agro Agro protective coatings inc. BROWNSVILLE, TEXAS. are relationships *All symbiotic on assumptions. simulated based
25 et et (2005). Literature Source. Bossilkov al., COMALCO (2003) www.cein.ca Gaseous Gaseous Residue Reduction. of Reduction particulate emissions 1,080 from tonnes in 2002 to 1,042 tonnes in 2003. Reduced benzene by emissions 10%. Reduced polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) by emissions 25% from 2001. Liquid Residue Residue Liquid Reduction Reduced Fluoride from emissions in 507 tonnes 2002 to 436 2003. tonnes in Reduced of pollution Hamilton 99% harbour by through Closed Loop recycling of system wastewater. Solid Residue Solid Residue Reduction. about Recycled 85% of metal gloves etc (i.e. per 30,000 tons year) waste. Recycled 765,000 tonnes of blast furnace 2002. in slag Sold 643,000 tonnes of Slag in for use cement manufacture. Energy Savings. Energy Savings. Unknown Specific Reduced Energy Consumption (SEC) from 18.8 / gigajoules to 17.2 ton of Steel in 2002. Water Savings Raw water from usage Awoonga Dam reduced by per 6.5 ML day. of Reduction water consumption (i.e. by 25% 678 million per litres year). Saving 288 million litres per year. Unknown Ecological / Biological. Diverted land of waste filling materials. Reduced total wastelandfill to BSL to from 8,000 tonnes per year. 10,000 tonnes of per year waste material diverted from landfills.
ontinuation ontinuation
C Smelters. Boyne at facility transfer Waste Table 4.2. 4.2. Table Queen’s Alumina. Land Queensland Alumina. GOLDEN HORSESHOE, CANADA. Dofasco Inc. Case Study / Implemented CaseImplemented Study / Synergy / Company. GLADSTONE INDUSTRIAL AREA NETWORK(GAIN). at re-use effluent Secondary
26 Literature Source. and Chertow Lombardi (2004). Garner and Keoleian (1995). Gaseous Gaseous Residue Reduction. SO2 Reduced by emissions per 99.5 tons year. NOx by emission per 84.4 tons year. Particulate matter by emissions per 95.3 tons year. CO2 Reduced by emissions 130,000 tons per year. SO2 Reduced by emissions 25,000 tons per year. Liquid Residue Residue Liquid Reduction Unknown. Unknown. Solid Residue Solid Residue Reduction. 24.4 Reuses tonnes of Fly ash per year. of Fly Reuse ash by 135,000 tonnes Per/y, Sulphur by 2,800 tonnes per/y, by Gypsum 80,000 tons, Phosphorus biosludge from by 400 tons, Nitrogen from biosludge by 800 tons. Energy Savings. Energy Savings. Unknown. Coal Reduced by consumption per tones 30,000 year. Oil Reduced by consumption per tones 19,000 year. Water Savings Performed secondary wastewater treatment of approximatel y 5 million per gallons day. AES saves 92.4 million per gallons year. saves Wyeth 7.7 million per gallons month. Reduced water consumption by 1,200,000 per year. m³ Ecological / Biological. tonnes Diverted of waste from materials being land- filled. ontinuation ontinuation C
KALUNDBORG, DENMARK Table 4.2. 4.2. Table exchange; PRASA WWTP, AES Guayama. Case Study / Implemented CaseImplemented Study / Synergy / Company. GUAYAMA, PUERTO RICO. Resource drivenwater
27 et et et et (2005). (2005). Literature Source. of City Kawasaki (1998). ICETT (2002). FDK Corporation (2005). Bossilkov al., Kurup al., ear. ear. Gaseous Gaseous Residue Reduction. 21,070 tons per year reduction in CO2 in emissions 2004. 377,000 tons CO2 emissions avoided annually. 40% reduction of NOx per emissions year. 90% reduction of Sox per emissions y
Liquid Residue Residue Liquid Reduction Avoided 4 GL wastewater discharge annually. Reduction in 30,000 tons per year of of per year 30,000 tons in Reduction and recycling by wastes Plastic wastes plastic industrial injecting coke- as furnace into blast material. substituted units 400,000-500,000 in Reduction electronic home per of waste year recycling. through appliances of per day tons 360 in Reduction municipal and solid discharges chemical to produce wastes synthesisas intermediary for production. ammonia of 10,000 Reuse Gypsum tons of per year. Solid Residue Solid Residue Reduction. residues. solid are here data All Energy Savings. Energy Savings. Unknown. energy GWh 72 annually. saved 10 (Equivalent to plant). MW Cogeneration resulting in virgin material being to due saved reduction in tons 170,000 dioxide Carbon emissions per year. Water Savings Unknown 6 GL/ year of water (2-3% saved. of scheme water). Ecological / Biological. 1,816 Diverted of year tons per industrial wastes from being land filled. Avoided of 260,000 tons from materials being landfilled annually.
ontinuation ontinuation C
KWINANA INDUSTRIAL AUSTRALIA. (KIA), AREA & CO Mitsui NKK, Sanyo, Table 4.2. 4.2. Table FDK Sanyo. Group via Showa Denko K.K Case Study / Implemented CaseImplemented Study / Synergy / Company. KAWASAKI ZERO EMISSIONS, JAPAN. NKK
28 Literature Source. van Berkel (2006). Hatch (2001). www.nisp.or g.uk Gaseous Gaseous Residue Reduction. Reduced industrial gas of production Hydrogen & Nitrogen by per 80 tonnes year. Unknown. in Reduction plus 100,00 0 tonnes CO2 per emissions year. Liquid Residue Residue Liquid Reduction 165 Reduced of tons year per Sludge Oil and catalysts Oily due to incineration. in Reduction of 1,702 tons liquid Lime materials per in year used wastewater treatment. in Reduction hazardous waste / pollution. Solid Residue Solid Residue Reduction. Reduced 4,200 tons /y Fe, Cu, Al by recovery. Reduced 20,000 tons /y Scale, dust & refractory raw as material material for cement production. of Reduction / year 620 tons of Sodium sulphate use through its in paper mills. in Reduction per 22,300 tons year of Ash in residues used treatment of instead cement. Energy Savings. Energy Savings. by Energy savings use of alternative 6,300 & 5,500 tons per year waste Oil as fuel for Cement and manufacture for material raw as Paints. Oil Use of waste heat or houses in green farms. aquaculture in Reduction use. energy Water Savings Unknown. Unknown in Reduction water use. Ecological / Biological. tons of Diverted waste materials land from being filled. Diverted approximately 650,000 tonnes per of EAF dust being year from landfilled. 100.000 tonnes of material diverted from per landfill year. (I.e.M 1.5 tonnes compound savings). ontinuation ontinuation C Table 4.2. 4.2. Table Case Study / Implemented CaseImplemented Study / Synergy / Company. MAP TA PHUT, THAILAND. MONTREAL, CANADA. NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL PROGRAMMESYMBIOSIS (NISP), UNITED KINGDOM.
29 et et (2005). Literature Source. Kurup al., NJCAT (2001). Gaseous Gaseous Residue Reduction. 65,000 tons of CO2; 800 33 tons NOx; total tons of hydrocarbons reduced. SO2 emissions from reduced substitution of ASR for 66,000 tons of Coal. Liquid Residue Residue Liquid Reduction 45,000 tonnes waste Oil reused. Solid Residue Solid Residue Reduction. of 1,000 tonnes and Ash reused diverted. of 3,000 tonnes Concrete reused and diverted. 12,000 tonnes of plastics recycled. of 130,000 tons Slag used Steel at feedstock as Cement plant. of 18,000 tons not metal mined. not 98,000 tons if land filled ASR usedas fuel substitute Midlothian from shredder alone. Energy Savings. Energy Savings. tonnes 20,000 waste-to-energy and reused diverted, replaces virgin fuel sources. of tons 11,800 Coal displaced energy Cycle Life coal for savings shipped and mined to NorthTexas. of tons 18,000 metals recovered andfrom not ASR (Al, Cu, mined Tin). and Mg, coal of tons 66,000 displaced at plant Midlothian Life cycle alone; energy savings for and coal mined shippedNorth to Texas. Water Savings 50,000 waste tonnes water treatment capacity. Unknown Ecological / Biological. 151,550 tonnes of materials diverted from land fill. Avoided 183,000 tonnes of land fill materials. Biological from benefits SO2 reduced from rain) (acid burning Coal. Biological from benefits CO2 reduced from rain) (acid burning coal.
ontinuation ontinuation C
NORTH TEXAS, U.S.A. CemStar Humber-NISP 120,000 tons of Auto Shredder Auto Shredder of 120,000 tons metal mined for (ASR) Residue fuel. possible and reclamation ASR as separated ASR of 98,000 tons fuel. potential high-energy (14,000 btu). Table 4.2. 4.2. Table Case Study / Implemented CaseImplemented Study / Synergy / Company. NISP Continues… NISP-West Midlands 130,000 tons of Steel slag used slag used Steel of 130,000 tons plant (single Lime of in place operation). ASR
30 et al., Literature Source. NJCAT (2001). Thoresen (2001). Jeffrey Mark Consultants (2002). Heeres (2004). Gaseous Gaseous Residue Reduction. 52,800 tons per CO2 year reduction. CO2 Reduced of emissions 4.150 tons per year. 152.2 M Nm³ /year gas reduced. 272.5 Ktons CO2 reduced. 225.7 tons reduced. NOx Liquid Residue Residue Liquid Reduction 412,500 gallons and of graphite copper laden waste water. 210,000 tons per year of recycling diluted, contaminated Sulphuric acid. Unknown. Solid Residue Solid Residue Reduction. lbs. 37, 500 and Graphite Copper Sludge not land filled. per 32,000 tons year Iron Sulphate recycling. Unknown. Energy Savings. Energy Savings. energy Cycle Life from 18,750 saved lbs. Copper not Savings mined. land from avoided trips). fill / year tons 16,500 Oil reduction. Fuel per tons 199,800 Steam year Transfer. Energy efficiency improvement. energy Waste recycling. compressed Joint reduced air supply air for used energy by compression 20%. MWth 157.6 energy saved. waste 158MW additional and heat reduced resource use. Water Savings m³ / 170,000 year savings Hot water recycling. Water exchanges and improved efficiency the reduced total water consumption by 10%. Ecological / Biological. biota Land fill not destroyed (not quantifiable, but copper is toxic to land fill microbes). of tons Diverted wastes from materials being land filled. of tons Diverted wastes from materials being land filled. ontinuation ontinuation C
Sludge- 37,500 lbs. Graphite / lbs. Graphite Sludge- 37,500 or land filled not Sludge Copper water dumped in municipal system. ORA ECO-PARK, NORWAY. ROTTERDAM, NETHERLANDS. INES Table 4.2. 4.2. Table Case Study / Implemented CaseImplemented Study / Synergy / Company. Continues… North Texas Graphite / Copper.
31 et et (2005). Literature Source. Venta and Nisbet (1997). Kurup al., Chertow (2000).
Gaseous Gaseous Residue Reduction. of 926 toones CO2 emissions reduced. of 4.5 tonnes SO2 emissions reduced. of 1.5 tonnes per NOx day emissions reduced
Liquid Residue Residue Liquid Reduction Unknown. All data available here considered to be to considered available here All data 34,000 tons of Power plant Gypsum. Gypsum. plant Power of 34,000 tons slag, mill Steel of 200,000 tons slag, blast furnace of 85,000 tons ground), (fine dust Saw of 28,300 tons wood, uncoated dust from saw of 15,600 tons andboard, recyclable paper of 100,820 tons residual wood, of 445,000 tons bark, of 28,000 tons textiles, of Waste 310 tons of Shives, 650 tons chips, and tire tires used of 5,500 tons Coke, Oil of 4,500 tons meat waste, and house Slaughter of 5,400 tons malt, Spent of 45,000 tons yeast, Fodder of 3,100 tons cake, seed of Rape 350 tons scrap. Iron non-alloy of 130,00 tons Solid residues. Solid Solid Residue Solid Residue Reduction. Reduced 175,000- 200,000 tons FGD of perGypsum in year used wallboard production. Energy Savings. Energy Savings. MW and 50 100 from electricity Cogeneration involving 4 party saves synergy energy from consumption material. virgin tonnes 149,000 industrial Coal Ash saved. Water Savings Unknown. Unknown. Ecological / Biological. Diverted 200,000 tons of from materials being land filled. Diverted several tons of wastes from materials being land filled. ontinuation ontinuation C Table 4.2. 4.2. Table Case Study / Implemented CaseImplemented Study / Synergy / Company. SARNIA-LAMBTON, CANADA. STYRIA, AUSTRIA.
32
Literature Source. Tampico By- Mexico product Synergy project (1998). www.hatch.c a and Mark Jeffrey (2002). Gaseous Gaseous Residue Reduction. CO2 Reduced by emissions 85% through for recovery in the its use food industry. 57,058 tons per of year associated emissions Reduced. Liquid Residue Residue Liquid Reduction Use of 70,000 tons year per Stream Ferric for Chloride wastewater treatment. Unknown. Solid Residue Solid Residue Reduction. per 134 tons year / Polyethylene Polypropylene waste in used cargo plastic palettes manufacture. and Recovery 6,500 reuse of Chemical empty drums and barrels. of 86,242 Trips Truck Reduced. (10%). Energy Savings. Energy Savings. of Replacement by fuel gas natural per tons 51,000 Spent of year butadiene. day tons per 12 heat with Stream content of 5,000 –to energy Btu/ lb waste saved. year GJ / 114,416 of Gas saved (10%). Water Savings of Reduction 30.4 % (44.820 tons metric per year) waste water. m³ 213,196 of per year water saved. (10%). Ecological / Biological. Biological from benefits CO2, reduced NOx and energy requirements achieved. ontinuation ontinuation C 2 million tons of Slag used in in Slag used of tons 2 million plant (single lime place of operation). TILBURY INDUTRIAL PARK, CANADA. Table 4.2. 4.2. Table Case Study / Implemented CaseImplemented Study / Synergy / Company. TAMPICO BY-PRODUCT SYNERGY, MEXICO. Autlan Minera
33 4.2. INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY.
Figure 1: Potential Material and Energy Flows in a Cement Plant-Centric IE System. Reconstructed after Vigon (2002).
Material and Energy Flows in the Cement Plant (Vigon, 2002).
+ Waste heat from the Cement plant for municipal heating. + Nickel, zinc, copper and lead from Cement plant for secondary smelter. + Kiln dust from Cement plant used in road construction. + Energy generated from Cement plant for electric power plant. + Cement plant uses scrap tires from tire dealers or manufactures. + Cement plant uses waste solvents from hazardous waste facility. + Cement plant uses scrap tires, wastewater sludge, and MSW incinerator ash from municipal waste facility. + Cement plant uses beer sludge, waste filtering material and rice hull from food processing and beer brewering.
34 + Cement plant uses meal, bone and fat from slaughter house and meat processing. + Cement plant uses silica fume, gypsum, spent pot liner and slag (aluminium) from non-ferrous metal foundry. + Cement plant uses fly ash and FGD (gypsum) from electric power plant. + Cement plant uses blast furnace and steel from iron and steel plant. + Cement plant uses paper sludge and clay from pulp and paper industry. + Cement plant uses shredder residue from auto scrap reprocessing. + Cement plant uses foundry sand and waste paint from auto manufacturing.
35 5.0 DISCUSSION.
The environmental performance of existing materials, water and energy exchanges among firms in the Nineteen Industrial Parks / or regions used as case studies for this research have been presented. There is clear evidence of improved environmental performance as revealed by the obtained results following a critical assessment of the indicators used in measuring the degree of performance in respective reference cases investigated. It is important to note that in environmental performance assessments, the selection of indicators to a large extent determines the answers to questions about the degree of expected performance as stressed by Svensson et al., (2006). In this study, the indicators used are Energy, Water and Materials flows in respective reference cases investigated. Therefore, this chapter discusses the implications of the obtained results in relation to Eco-Industrial Park development as an enduring tool in achieving one of Industrial Ecology’s principal goals of promoting a sustainable industrial system devoid of environmental disasters.
5.1 CASE STUDY SELECTION CRITERIA INFLUENCE ON OBTAINED RESULTS.
No doubt, of great importance in this study is the extent to which the method adopted in the selection of reference cases had impacted on the obtained results thereby leading to the conclusion that “there is clear evidence of improved environmental performance following a critical assessment of the indicators used” as stipulated above. Indeed, this view motivates the need to state that in addition to the fact that the obtained results showed an improved environmental performance being achieved as the core aim of this research, a critical analysis is required to demonstrate if the principal objectives following the aim, had also been addressed (see section 1.2).
Nonetheless, the selection criteria for the respective case studies was based on models of eco-industrial parks proposed by Chertow (2000) where three out of the five originally proposed taxonomy by Chertow were considered suitable for this study (see section 3.3). These models had materials exchange as components needed to organize further examination of industrial projects as suggested by Industrial Ecology.
For example, model “Type 3” which was described by Chertow as “a situation where businesses and other organizations located in the equivalent of an industrial park can exchange energy, water, and materials and can go further to share information and services such as permitting, transportation, and marketing”, created a line of direction toward selecting reference cases that rightly belong to this category by reviewing their respective characteristics documented by consulted literature. Because the emphasis was on the exchange of energy, water and materials in a definitive location such as the industrial park, the results obtained from this study typically reflects an expected environmental performance in a supposedly organized fashion after the “Type -3” model which may be regarded as products of planned industrial symbiosis projects. Table 4.2 is
36 a semi-quantitative matrix that summarizes and tabulates evidence underlying the construct, which in this case is referred to as the evidence of improved environmental performance achieved by critically assessing the respective case studies investigated. This approach reflects patterns previously used by Miles (1979) to check validity of generalizations made. Respective case studies covered by this model are; Ora- Ecopark, Tampico, Tilbury, North Texas, Guayama, Brownsville and Burnside.
Similarly, model “Type-4” was also described by Chertow (2000) as “developing symbiotic relationship among firms with an already “in-placed facilities” within a given area by linking existing businesses and at the same time, creating the opportunity to fill in some new ones over time”. Chertow cited a typical example of this approach to the Kalundborg industrial systems. The Kalundborg experience has been regarded as the “standard” for a successful industrial symbiosis model by experts in the field of Industrial Ecology because of its notably empirical evidence to claims of environmental and economic benefits achieved (Ehrenfeld and Gertler, 1997). The obtained results from this study showed that case studies modeled after Kalundborg did indicated evidence of improved environmental performance even though in some cases, there were no comprehensive empirical data documenting the extent of achievement as in the case of Kalundborg. Table 4.2 also provides evidence to this claim. Probably, because of the existing facilities on which the symbiotic agreements were based, the evolution of such systemic interdependence was “goal-oriented” towards achieving enhanced environmental and economic performance as reflected in the case studies covered by this model which includes; Kalundborg, Map Ta Phut, Montreal, Kawasaki, Alberta, Styria, Sarnia-Lambton, Golden Horseshoe and Rotterdam respectively.
Model “Type-5” represents “exchanges that allow the benefits of industrial symbiosis to be expanded to encompass a regional economic community in which the potential for identification of by-product exchanges is greatly increased owing simply to the number of firms that can be engaged” according to Chertow (2000). Respective case studies that are covered by this model include Kwinana, Gladstone and NISP. These cases demonstrated remarkable characteristics fulfilling their selection based on the specified model. The obtained results from this study did point to the fact that regional exchanges of materials among firms also enhance environmental performance if adequately implemented. For example, kurup et al., (2005) critically analyzed the diverse benefits of industrial symbiosis to regional sustainability and based their conclusion on a “triple bottom line accounting” principle that encompassed economic, social and environmental benefits of regional industrial symbiosis. Particularly on the environmental benefits, the authors specified improved environmental quality, reduced resource consumption and ecological footprint as well as reduced waste generation and landfill demands as exceptional advantages of successful regional industrial symbiosis. Given the fact that the selection criteria adopted in this study did created a solid foundation on which the obtained results were based and the overall conclusion of clear improved environmental performance reached, one can not totally undermine the possibility of uncertainties that would have challenged the credibility of the stated conclusion from arising. Some critiques would have imagined the impact of substituting for example, eight out of the twenty selected case studies with another eight cases that
37 does not meet the requirement for any of the three selection models adopted. Bearing this in mind, it should be noted that the twenty selected case studies does not represent a “perfect” frequency needed to arrive at the stated conclusion, instead its role was to create room for a variation that allow for a critical comparison to occur among the respective cases. Again, the supposed environmental performance assessment would have been done using just one example with all the indicators. Therefore, the impact of the imagined scenario would not have changed the obtained results and the conclusion would have still remained the same. This generalization is based on the notion that industrial symbiosis is entirely a “win-win” concept as earlier visualized by Côte (2003).
Another possible uncertainty would have been the influence of a perceived difference in environmental performance expected to occur among respective case studies that the evolution of symbiotic relationship among the participating firms was naturally or spontaneously achieved in some case studies whereas in other cases, interdependence was a product of careful industrial systemic planning. For example, the case of Kalundborg, which has always been viewed by experts in the field of Industrial ecology as the standard for industrial symbiosis, evolved, based on individual discussions between potential participants rather than a collaborative planning process (Vigon, 2002). With this as a reference point, some critiques of the industrial symbiosis principle would have drawn a conclusion that the idea of replicating the Kalundborg experiences elsewhere under a proper planning process was not necessary. But the obtained results from this study have shown that improved environmental performance is possible, not considering whether the industrial ecosystems were designed or whether they evolved over time. The cases of Brownsville, Guayama and Tampico among others are typical examples of designed industrial ecosystems that indicated clear evidence of improved environmental performance (Table 4.2).
Further more, the illustrated examples of industrial symbiosis as seen in the respective case studies investigated, showed that there is enormous potential for environmental improvements through industrial symbiosis in ways such as increasing energy efficiency through cogeneration and by-product reuse, recycling gray water to achieve overall reduction in draw downs, recovering solvents, and reusing many diverse residue streams that need not be rejected as wastes. This reflects Chertow (2000) views on similar projects on industrial symbiosis. Chertow concluded by making this statement:
“Given these advantages, one might ask why more companies are not engaged in these types of projects”.
Therefore, improved environmental performance is discussed under the following headings to cover the indicators used and the related impacts of other specified objectives addressed in this study on the overall conclusion.
38 5.2 ENERGY SAVINGS.
The results obtained in this research showed a tremendous achievement in energy savings across the reference cases resulting from symbiotic cooperation among participating firms (table 4.2). This finding confirmed previous reports from eminent scholars in the field of Industrial ecology. For example, Venta and Nisbet (1997) reported series of advantages pointing to energy conservation as a result of by-product exchanges citing remarkable reference to the Bruce Energy Centre, Ontario, Canada where by-product steam only, is used by six companies as energy substitute for heavy oil. The authors gave an empirical value of the resultant environmental benefits from the Bruce Energy Centre example as representing an annual avoidance of 487 tonnes of SO2, 93 tonnes of NOx and 1.7 tonnes of VOCs emissions respectively.
The environmental implications of alternative energy fuel sources have been stressed (NJCAT, 2001). One of the evidence is that of a life cycle energy savings from virgin materials not completely exhausted during industrial operations. A typical example of implemented results is seen in Alberta and North Texas industrial systems (table 4.2). In these cases, several tonnes of life cycle energy were saved as a result of the synergistic exchange of materials among the firms. Further more, the alarming issue of global warming caused mainly by burning of fossil fuel to produce energy also emphasized the importance of reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from energy utilization. This study showed that there is a remarkable reduction in the amount of associated emissions linked to energy savings in respective case studies (table 4.2). This is a clear evidence of the bond between energy and materials flows as described by Adriansee et al., (1997).
As illustrated table 4.2, energy savings was empirically documented in thirteen case studies out of the Nineteen investigated. The idea behind this is that no matter the variation observed in the amount of energy savings across the reference cases, it is a significant example pointing to a future hope of relying on the concept of Industrial Symbiosis to address the menace of global warming on one hand, as well as conserving the scarce energy fuel sources of the world for sustainable development.
5.3 WATER SAVINGS.
Like energy, water is used by virtually all manufacturing and service industries (Martin et al., 1996). Bearing this fact in mind, it is imperative to imagine the scenario of not having enough water to meet the demands from the industrial sector. The overall impacts, no doubt would definitely be on the negative side.
Essentially, the water saving results obtained from this study showed that there is a significant conservation of water in the respective case studies assessed. This conclusion was reached following an empirical comparison of annual quantities of water savings in documented nine case studies out of the Twenty under investigation (table 4.2).
39 Ideally, this resultant savings in the overall water demand of respective case studies would have been achieved through “water cascading”. This term simply mean the sequential reuse of water (Martin et al., 1996). In this process, water is used first in processes with strict purity requirements and is cascaded to processes that can use the wastewater of the previous process with further treatment.
One thing that is important to note is the characterization of industrial wastewater. Typical industrial wastewater could fall into three broadly defined categories according to Martin et al., (1996). These include; oily water, water with heavy metals, and water with organic compounds. For instance, the oil refinery, the oil recycling plant, the textile plant, and the discrete parts plants generate oily water. On the other hand, the discrete parts plant, the automobile parts manufacturer, the power plant, and the oil refinery generate water with heavy metals content. Only the food processing plants releases water with organic compounds such as nitrogen and phosphorus (Martin et al., 1996). On a general note, there is hardly any situation where one can not find at least one or two types of industrial waste-water categories with its described constituents as above, being produced in all the nineteen industrial park case studies investigated in this research.
The environmental implication of industrial wastewater reuse through Industrial Symbiosis, which ultimately results in water savings, is enormous. For example, the excessive nutrient load into water bodies, which leads to eutrophication, has been linked partly to industrial wastewater discharges (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 1994). Eutrophication depletes dissolved oxygen (DO) content in water bodies causing death of organisms such as fish. By reusing industrial wastewaters, this environmental burden is subsequently reduced.
More so, industrial wastewater containing heavy metals and oil for example, find its way into water bodies thereby causing aquatic pollution. Lowe (2001) reported that these large numbers of hazardous substances persist in the environment and often accumulate and concentrate as they move up the food chains. This is another way of demonstrating the environmental benefits of industrial water savings by synergistic relationship among firms.
Given the fact that table 4.2 showed the annual quantities of water savings in nine case studies, the result is indicative of an expected projection in environmental performance of industrial systems if adequate symbiosis is implemented. This trend observed is in accordance with studies by van Berkel and Bossilkov (2004) on industrial symbiosis for regional sustainability. The author demonstrated that the environmental benefits of industrial symbiosis are much greater and more diverse than just the resource efficiency gains achieved from waste / by-product exchanges with reference to Kwinana and Gladstone industrial systems, Australia.
Therefore, water savings through industrial symbiosis has been proved by this research to enhance environmental performance by reducing pollution as well as conserving natural sources of water from being over-exploited for a sustainable water consumption process that would promote sustainable industrial systems.
40 5.4 MATERIAL SAVINGS.
As illustrated in table 4.2, material flows savings was measured by the quantities of both solid and liquid materials that were re-used or recycled in each case study due to symbiotic processes and thus reduced their potential environmental burdens by diverting them from being land-filled.
These results indicate a positive step toward achieving a “zero emissions” industrial system, which propagates the effective utilization of all wastes, generated during industrial processes to eliminate these wastes from being disposed by incineration and landfill.
Where wastes in this instance applies to sludge, waste acids, waste alkali, waste plastics, waste oil, metal slag, glass, ceramics, dust, waste wood chips, waste paper, waste textile, animal and plant residues (food wastes), and sludge in septic tanks. Table 4.2 showed the categories of wastes and the respective case studies where they were reused in industrial processes. However, it is of primary concern to know that the system approach implemented to reduce the amount of waste materials designated for land-fills also indirectly reduces the emissions of green-house gases into the environment. These reductions in waste discharges were achieved through sludge reuse in cement manufacture, shredded processes (e.g. papers) for reuse as packaging materials and recycling (e.g. plastics, metals etc). For instance, NJCAT (2001) documented that in an Auto Shredded Residue (ASR) synergy at the North Texas by-product synergy project, 120,000 tonnes per annum of ASR was mined for metal reclamation and as possible fuel source. The ecological effect of this process was that 98, 000 tonnes per annum of ASR were not land filled for substituting it as fuel from Midlothian shredder alone. Further more, SO2 emissions was reduced for using ASR instead of 66,000 tonnes of coal. Nevertheless, by reducing the quantity of new materials used for industrial purposes, the net benefit will be an increase in efficiency of material utilization.
The results obtained from this research on waste materials reduction agree with Cote (2003) proposed guideline for materials flows and “waste” management for eco-industrial park (EIP) development. Cote stressed that for an effective waste management to be achieved in EIPs, efforts should be directed toward ensuring maximum re-use and recycling of materials among EIP businesses.
5.5 AREAS OF COOPERATION / MATERIAL EXCHANGES.
The concept of Industrial Symbiosis point to the fact that environmental benefits can be obtained by cooperation between independent companies (Eilering and Vermeulen, 2004). Following this concept, it may sometimes appear unclear what would be the areas that interested firms would like to explore for possible cooperation. Another factor would be the extent at which independent companies are willing to cooperate.
41
In this regard, this study showed an observed trend in the areas on which the respective case studies based their cooperation. Table 4.2 revealed that most of the case studies practically involve on cooperation revolving around: (a) Re-use of materials (b) Recycling (c) waste-water treatment and re-use. Out of the nineteen case studies, available data showed that fifteen cooperate in the areas mentioned above. These case studies include; Alberta, Burnside, Brownsville, Gladstone, Golden horseshoe, Kalundborg, Kawasaki, Kwinana, Map Ta Phut, Montreal, NISP, North Texas, Styria, and Tampico.
The environmental implications is that majority of the environmentally industry-based problems are basically rooted from these three principal areas of cooperation. This is because pollution resulting from industrial activities features majority of its pollutants in these categories either as solid or liquid wastes. Therefore, if more awareness campaign is directed toward encouraging industrial cooperation in this order, the environmental burden from industrial processes can be reduced drastically.
Another area of cooperation observed among respective case studies is substituting virgin material for a “waste” as production raw materials. Case studies with this feature include Alberta and North Texas. In these instances, table 4.2 also revealed that the substituted materials had similar or better quality than the virgin materials. In the same vein, life cycle energy required to harness the virgin material was saved and air emissions reduced. This practice is essentially good if we are to think in the direction of sustainable development. Ethically, Daly (1996) sated that “the basic needs of the present should always take precedence over the basic needs of the future, but the basic needs of the future should take precedence over the extravagant luxury of the present”. Considering this fact, sustainable industrial development should mean conserving much of the present natural resources for future generational use. The findings from this research are in perfect tune with this philosophy as it concerns resource conservation.
Cogeneration is the third area of cooperation by respective case studies. Similarly, table 4.4 revealed that four case studies featured in this area. These include Brownsville, Kwinana, Sarnia-Lambton and Tampico. In the respective reference cases, energy is saved as a result of cogeneration.
Following the obtained results as summarized in table 4.2, the need for a better understanding regarding industrial symbiosis concept’s potential to contribute to sustainable development have been achieved. This result agrees with the framework proposed by Eilering and Vermeulen (2004), which was used in analyzing eco-industrial parks development in the Netherlands.
42 5.6 PATTERN OF ORGANIZATION
Bossilkov et al., (2005) had maintained that in the development of a successful industrial ecosystem with the aim of achieving significant Industrial Symbiosis, it is important to ensure the co-location of two or preferably even more major process industries.
The results obtained from this study showed that there were successful synergies implemented and environmental performance in respective case studies was enhanced. The material and energy exchange sections of chapter four revealed the types of synergies that go on in each case study. Also, the organizational structure and actors sections of each case study in chapter four revealed the principal industrial sectors involved in the symbiotic relationships in each case study.
In line with Bossilkov et al., (2005) claims, the results obtained in this study also indicate that there is the presence of heavy process industries in each of the case studies investigated. No doubt the improved result in environmental performance obtained with regards to energy, water and material flows as indicators used for the assessment.
Brands of industry that showed a common pattern due to their continued occurrence in respective case studies include (1) oil refineries (2) cement manufacturing companies (3) steel manufacturing companies (4) petro-chemical companies and (5) power plants. These type heavy process industries ensured the continuous functioning of the industrial systems, which is accomplished by generation of wastes as raw materials in respective case studies where they occurred.
5.7 REFERENCE CASES VERSUS ANCHOR TENANT PRINCIPLE.
Referring to the selection criteria for respective reference cases adopted in this study as based on models of eco-industrial parks proposed by Chertow (2000), a critical review of consulted literature revealed a substantial inventory of definitions for eco-industrial parks proposed by scholars in the field of Industrial Ecology. These definitions are interwoven with each other but all centered on the exchanges of materials and energy flows among firms in an eco-industrial park. The definitions further buttressed Chertow’s proposed models from which three of these models were suitable for this study. For instance, Côte and Hall (1995) proposed this definition: “An eco-industrial park is an industrial system which conserves natural and economic resources; reduces production, material, energy, insurance and treatments costs and liabilities; improves operating efficiency, quality, worker health and public image, and provides opportunities for income generation from use and sale of wasted materials”.
Another definition was put forward by Lowe and Evans (1995) as:
43 “An eco-industrial park is a community of manufacturing and service businesses seeking enhanced environmental and economic performance through collaboration in managing environmental and resources issues including energy, water and materials. By working together, the community of businesses seeks a collective benefit that is greater than the sum of the individual benefits each company would have realized if it optimized its individual interests”.
The President’s Council on Sustainable Development (1996) provided two definitions for serious consideration. The first was;
“An eco-industrial park is a community of businesses that cooperate with each other and with the local community to efficiently share resources (information, materials, water, energy, infrastructure and natural habitat), leading to economic and environmental quality gains, and equitable enhancement of human resources for the businesses and local community”.
The second definition given by the President’s Council was;
“An eco-industrial park is an industrial system of planned materials and energy exchanges that seek to minimize energy and raw materials use, minimize waste, and build sustainable economic, ecological and social relationships”.
But Ayres (1995) summarized these definitions by viewing the eco-industrial park as an Industrial Ecosystem. Ayres suggested that an industrial ecosystem would involve at least one major firm exporting raw or processed materials, connected to one of more firms capable of utilizing significant portions of the major waste streams of the “anchor” industries. In turn, these would be linked to several “satellite” enterprises converting wastes into usable products. A coordination mechanism and information sharing would facilitate cooperation.
Supporting the views expressed by Ayres (1995), consulted literature revealed that experts are already considering proper integration of the “anchor tenant” principle during planning of eco-industrial park development. For example, Vigon (2002) reported that there are indications that certain types of processes or industries are well suited to becoming “anchor” facilities around which other industries might congregate. The author cited example to industries that provide a large amount of waste heat or those that can serve as long-term sources or users of raw materials and concluded that these types of industries appear to have the potential to serve as anchors. Similarly, Chertow (1998) had suggested establishing an eco-industrial park around one or more primary “anchor” tenants as a way to create a more definable set of possible inter-connections.
Following a careful examination of all the reference cases as revealed by documented evidence of the principal industrial sectors present in each case study, the results obtained from this study showed a strong support for the suggestions earlier proposed by the respective authors on the “anchor tenant” principle. For instance, empirical data revealed that out of the nineteen case studies investigated, eight had the presence of one prominent
44 industry (which is the cement industry) as part of the principal actors in their industrial systems (see the organizational structure / actors’ sections of chapter 4). More importantly, this figure represents 40% of the total number of case studies investigated, which is a significant percentage to base a meaningful conclusion on.
More over, as discussed in the “Patterns of Organization” section of chapter five, brands of heavy processed industries that showed a common pattern in terms of their continued occurrence in majority of the case studies investigated were five in number as revealed by the obtained results. Considering this inventory of special industrial sectors with potentials of exporting raw or processed materials and utilizing such from other industrial donors which included (1) oil refineries (2) cement industries (3) steel industries (4) petrochemical industries and (5) power plants, the obtained results showed that the cement industries were more suitable to play the “anchor tenant” role in eco-industrial parks. This is because of the cement industry’s ability to generate large amount of waste heat and at the same time, serving as a long-term users of raw materials.
It is extremely necessary to mention here that Vigon (2002) confirmed the findings obtained on this issue by concluding that the cement plants show some potential for meeting the criteria specified by Ayres (1995) for an “anchor tenant” role in an eco- industrial park which takes into consideration a particular industry’s ability to export raw or processed materials to more firms that are capable of utilizing significant portions of the major waste streams of the “anchor” industry or an industry’s ability to provide a large amount of waste heat, and serving as long-term sources or users of raw materials. To this end, Vigon stated that the cement industry demonstrates these potentials by its use of alternative fuels and raw materials as well as in its ability to provide excess heat from kiln firing and recovered co-products of cement making. The excess heat, according to the author, could be used for other processes or to provide district heating for commercial or residential buildings. Figure 1 (turn to chapter 4) illustrates a proposed scenario of potential materials and energy flows of a cement plant’s “anchor” role in an eco- industrial park.
More evidence for this claim point to the enormous environmental benefits associated with successful synergies occurring in the cement industry. For example, figure 4 showed an impressive environmental impact of adding slag in cement production using the Alsen cement and Salzgitter steel works as a reference point.
The Cajati Industrial park in Brazil is a true example of a successful anchor role of the cement industry that is being implemented. In this case the cement plant was sited to take advantage of a sub-product of another industry. Millions of tonnes of waste have been avoided during the operating period of the collaboration between the cement plant and the phosphate processing operation. The cement plant intends to start burning alternative fuels in its kiln. The cement plant will seek to develop relations with an increasing number of industrial partners that will be able to supply it with industrial residues (example, figure 1). Vigon (2002) reported that an application for licensing to commence this operation has already been lodge at the appropriate governmental authorities.
45 6.0 CONCLUSION
Indeed, the results obtained from this study are convincing that Industrial Symbiosis could influence environmental performance thereby resulting in positive changes capable of reducing environmental pollution from an industrial sector perspective. A cross-case comparative assessment of identified Industrial Symbiosis cases across the regions of the world led to this conclusion.
However, the notion that environmental stewardship of industries can be assessed by looking at eco-industrial development concepts which seek to promote environmental performance at the firm, industrial park and community levels was confirmed by this study using water, energy and material flows as indicators in assessing the varying degrees of environmental performance in respective case studies.
By understanding the types of material exchanges that go on in the respective case studies assessed, it was possible to quantify to some extent, the environmental benefits of industrial symbiosis as documented in available literature consulted on each case study investigated. The findings are critical for future development and implementation of Industrial Symbiosis projects across the globe; hence the results obtained from this study aid to reduce the lack of empirical foundation effects from impacting on future research in this field because of the current menace of inadequacies of not quantifying effectively, the collective environmental performance of companies in eco-industrial parks.
However, given the fact that successful implementation of synergies enhanced environmental performance in respective case studies, the materials and energy flows as revealed by the obtained results indicated that there is a common pattern of industrial presence in respective case studies which enables the continuous functioning of the industrial systems accomplished by the generation of wastes as raw materials. For example, the presence of heavy process industries such as oil refineries, cement industries, petrochemical industries, steel industries etc were seen as occurring more frequently among the respective case studies assessed.
The principle of “anchor tenant” proposed by some experts in the field of Industrial Ecology was strongly supported by this study. The inherent characteristics of industries possessing the capabilities of playing the “anchor tenant” role in eco-industrial Park was exhibited and confirmed in the cement industry for providing large amount of waste heat and serving as long-term sources or users of raw materials in the respective case studies where it occurred.
Participating firms in various symbiotic relationships as described in respective case studies investigated, based their co-operation mainly on cogeneration, re-use of materials, recycling and waste-water treatment and re-use.
Therefore, Industrial Symbiosis is a “win-win” concept and should be promoted to help achieve a sustainable industrial system that would continue to reduce environmental burdens.
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Thoresen, J. (2001). Evaluation and Monitoring of eco-efficiency; Ora Ecopark example. Paper presented at first Conference of the ISIE, Leiden, November 12-14, 2001. Oestfold Research Foundation, Norway.
Tampico, Mexico By-Product Synergy Project (1998). Business Council for Sustainable Development, Gulf of Mexico, Retrieved from www.hatch.ca
Tibbs, B. C. (1992). Industrial Ecology: an Environmental Agenda for Industry, Whole Earth Review, 1992 (winter), pp.4-19.
Vigon, B. (2002). Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry: Industrial Ecology in the Cement Industry. An Independent Study commissioned by World Business Council for Sustainable Development. van Berkel, R., and Bossilkov, A. (2004). Sustainable Development reporting in the Australian Minerals processing Industry. Green processing 2004 (2nd International Conference on Sustainable processing of minerals and metals), Fremantle (WA), Australia, Australasian Institute for Mining and metallurgy. van Berkel. R. (2006). Regional Resource Synergies for Sustainable development in Heavy Industrial Areas: An overview of opportunities and experiences. Curtin University of Technology, Australia.
Venta, G., and Nisbet, M. (1997). Opportunities for Industrial Ecology Parks in Canada, Case Study; Sarnia-Lambton Industrial Complex, Environmental Canada. www.cein.ca www.nisp.org.uk www.hatch.ca www.elements.bnim.com
Young, R., (1999). By-Product Synergy: A Demonstration Project Tampico, Mexico, Business Council for Sustainable Development-Gulf of Mexico.
51 APPENDIX A
1 Alberta, Canada.
McCann and Associates (1999) carried out an inventory of the Alberta Industrial Heartland (AIH) to summarize the number of existing industries and facilities occurring in the region. They recorded a cluster of 22 process industries particularly in the northeast of Edmonton, the capital city of Alberta. The principal objective of the AIH was to make use of the synergy possibilities that occur within the recorded industry cluster to attract new industries to the area.
Organizational structure / actors.
The organizational structure of the region as represented by the AIH group members includes:
Major Petrochemical by-product companies such as; + Shell, Imperial Oil, Petro-Canada Midstream, Agrium, Celanese, and Dow. Then, the extractive industries of the By-product synergy group (McCann and Associates, 1999).
2. Brownsville / Matamoros Eco-Industrial Parks, Texas (U.S.A).
Martin et al., (1996) described Brownsville to currently boast of ten established industrial parks from which two are of peculiar interest – the Airport Industrial park and Port of Brownsville Industrial park. Similarly, Martin et al., (1996) also reported that there are five existing industrial parks in Matamoros. Due to the existing business opportunities in the Brownsville/Matamoros region, the authors stated that there was a need to organize candidate firms into a prototype for eco-industrial project. Screening for candidate firms were done and symbiotic links identified among them.
Organizational structure / actors
The organizational structure highlighting member companies (actors) that constitutes the Brownsville / Matamoros Eco- Industrial park includes the following:
+ Refinery: Noted for its three products; naphtha, diesel, and oil by the author. + Stone company: Noted for the importation of limestone into the port which is sold to the asphalt company. + Asphalt Company: Noted to use limestone from the stone company and residual oil from the refinery to produce asphalt for use on roads in the area. + Tank Farms: Noted for its clusters of tanks for fluid storage within the port. + Discrete Parts Manufacturer: Noted for its production of plastic and metal parts. + Textile Plant: Noted for garment assemblage. + Auto Parts Manufacturer: uses plastic injection molding, metal stamping, and
52 powdered metal forming to make small parts for assembly at a maquiladora facility. + Plastic Recycler: accepts 12 types of plastics, grind it, and also sales the grind overseas. + Seafood Processor and Cold Storage Warehouse: processes seafood and acts as a cold storage warehouse. + Chemical Plant: manufactures anhydrous hydrogen fluoride. The major by-product is gypsum.
3. BURNSIDE ECO-INDUSTRIAL PARK, CANADA.
Cote (2001) described Burnside Eco-Industrial Park as one of the largest five of its kind in Canada with approximately 1300 companies. The author stated that it is an industrial park for light manufacturing, distribution and commercial activities.
Organizational Structure / Actors.
Table 4.1 lists some of the sectors represented in Burnside. Companies encompass the range of types from local to multinational.
Table 4.1 Sectors represented in Burnside Industrial Park (source: Cote, 2001)
Accommodations Distribution Adhesives Door & Window Manufacturing Air Conditioning Electrical Equipment Automotive Repair Environmental Services Beverage Products Furniture Manufacturing Building Materials Food Equipment Business Centers Industrial Equipment Business Firms Steel Fabrication Carpeting and Flooring Machine Shops Chemicals Processing Medical Equipment Commercial Cleaners Paint Recycling Clothing Manufacturers Paper/Cardboard Products Communications Equipment Printing Computer Assembly and Repair Metal Plating Construction Refrigeration Containers and Packaging Transportation Dairy Products Warehousing
53 4. GLADSTONE INDUSTRIAL AREA NETWORK (GAIN).
Bossilkov et al., (2005) described Gladstone to be located approximately 550 Km north of Brisbane on the Queensland coast of Australia. The authors stated that the industrial area has its principal focus on the minerals processing and chemical production for the mining and minerals processing industry.
Organizational Structure / Actors
According to Bossilkov et al., (2005), nine major industries constitute the Gladstone Area Industrial Network (GAIN). These industries are as follows:
+ Queensland Alumina Limited- Described as the largest alumina refinery in the world (Bossilkov et al., 2005). Has the capacity to process annually 8 million tons of bauxite, this is used as a raw material to produce 3.7 million tons of alumina. + NRG – Gladstone Power Station- Described as the largest coal fired power station in Queensland. + Cement Australia- Receives limestone mined from the nearby East End Limestone mine. + Boyne Smelters Limited- Produces over 500,000 tons of aluminum annually. + Orica Chemicals Plant Limited-Currently produces 275,000 tons of ammonium nitrate, 50,000 tons of sodium cyanide and 9, 500 tons of chloride annually (Bossilkov et al., 2005). + Comalco Alumina Refinery (CAR) – Described as the first new alumina refinery in Australia since 1995 (Bossilkov et al., 2005). + Central Queensland Port Authority – Handles about 40,000,000 tones of coal per year Bossilkov et al., (2005). + Queensland Energy Resources Limited (QERL) – Described as a demonstration plant by the authors. + Gladstone Area Water Board (GAWB) – Supplies water to industries and community within the Gladstone region.
5. GOLDEN HORSESHOE, CANADA.
Hatch (2001) described the Golden Horseshoe by-product synergy project as a proven programme aimed at creating more awareness that companies are provided the opportunity to turn wastes into profit generation. The authors stated that the Golden Horseshoe project started with 62+ participating firms, which were championed by Dofasco, Canada’s largest manufacture of hot and cold steel sheet.
Organizational Structure / Actors
The organizational structure or the principal actors involved in the Golden Horseshoe Industrial Symbiosis are expressed in terms of the sectors represented in the by-product synergy project. These sectors are as follows:
54 *Industrial Gases, * Steelmaking, *Carbon black, *Wood products, *Solvent and refrigerant reclamation, *Cement, *Concrete products, *Power generation, *Fuel distribution, * Fertilizers wholesale, * Commodity shipping, *Waste collection services.
6. GUAYAMA, PUERTO RICO.
Chertow and Lombardi (2004) described the Guayama by-product project as inter-firm exchanges that provide an example that can be used to analyze the environmental and economic issues for Industrial Symbiosis. The authors explained that prior to 1940; the area was basically an agricultural economy with some light manufacturing industries.
Organizational Structure / Actors.
Sectors represented in the Guayama Industrial Symbiosis project are as follows.
* Petrochemical refinery, *Four pharmaceutical companies, * Aluminum can manufacture, * Plastic bottle manufacturing, * Heavy machinery repair, *Oral care and detergent manufacturing, *Coal-fired power plant (since 2002).
7. KALUNDBORG, DENMARK
Grann (1994) described the Industrial Symbiosis program in Kalundborg, Denmark as a product of gradual development of co-operation among four industries and the municipality of Kalundborg. The author stressed that it was not a project that went through careful environmental planning process.
Organizational Structure / Actors
Participants in the Kalundborg symbiosis include the following:
+ Asnaesvaerket: Described as the largest power plant in the whole of Denmark by the Author. + The Statoil Refinery: Described as the largest refinery in Denmark with a production capacity of 3 million tons/yr by the author. + Gyproc A/S: Has a production capacity of approximately 14 million tons/yr plaster board which is an essential raw material for the building industry (Grann, 1994). + Novo Nordisk: Described by the author as a biotechnological industry. + The Kalundborg Municipality: Described by the author as the major operator overseeing distribution of water, electricity, and district heating in the Kalundborg area.
8. KAWASAKI ZERO EMISSION INDUSTRIAL PARK, JAPAN.
ICETT (1998) reported that the principal aim of setting up an industrial symbiosis project in the Kawasaki area was to check against pollution of the city’s coastal area while
55 promoting the achievement of a zero emissions among small and medium sized enterprises. This resulted into setting up an Eco-Town policy, which encouraged friendliness among the companies within the region thereby marking the commencement of industrial synergies among the various companies’ production units. NKK (2003) confirmed that there are 18 member companies constituting the Kawasaki Zero Emissions project. Organizational Structure / Actors
The main industrial sectors represented in the Kawasaki Zero Emissions Industrial Park according to NKK (2003) include among others, the following:
* Steel, *Stainless, * Petrochemical, * Cement, *Power plant, *Electricity and R & D.
9. KWINANA INDUSTRIAL AREA (KIA).
Bossilkov et al., (2005) described Kwinana industrial Area (KIA) as Western Australia’s fore-most heavy industrial region since the past five decades. The authors explained that the nearness of the industrial region to mineral deposits and the existence of infra- structural facilities within the region enhanced the heavy industrial nature of the area thereby giving rise to possible co-operations among the companies.
Organizational Structure / Actors.
The organizational structure of the principal participating firms in the Kwinana Industrial Area symbiosis is presented below with a brief description of their major products:
+ Alcoa World Alumina Australia – Described by the authors as having at its centre of industrial activities, the mining and refining of bauxite for export. + BP Refinery (Kwinana) PTY Ltd –Described by the authors as Western Australia’s only oil refinery with production capacity of 138, 000 barrels per day. + Cockburn Cement – Established in 1955 to manufacture cement. + Coogee Chemicals Pty Ltd – Manufactures inorganic chemicals. + CSBP Ltd – Described by the authors as the largest producer of fertilizers and chemicals for agricultural, mining and other industrial activities. + Fremantle Ports – Described as the major cargo port in the region. + HIsmelt Corporation Pty Ltd – A research facility responsible for the generation of data for commercial evaluation of technology. + Nufarm Coogee Pty Ltd – Described by the authors as a joint venture that basically produces chloro-alkali chemicals. + Tiwest Joint Venture – Produces white titanium dioxide pigment. + Water Corporation – Supplies water to domestic and industrial users within the region. + Wesfarmer LPG Pty Ltd – A natural gas company. + Western Power – Kwinana Power Station – A power station that burns coal, natural gas and fuel oil. + WMC Kwinana Nickel Refinery –Described by the authors as the world’s 3rd largest producer of refined nickel.
56 10. MAP TA PHUT INDUSTRIAL ESTATE, THAILAND. van Berkel (2006) described Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate as one that was established in 1985 in the province of Rayong. Again, the industrial estate is the largest industrial sea port in Thailand according to the author.
Organizational Structure / Actors
The following constitute the type of industrial sectors represented in the Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate project in Thailand:
+ 8 Public utility industry to include power, steam and gas sectors. + 24 Petrochemical industry factories. + 2 Oil refineries. + 15 Chemical and fertilizer industry factories. + 7 Steel industry factories.
11 MONTREAL, CANADA.
Hatch (2001) documented the genesis of the Montreal Industrial Symbiosis project. The authors reported that the initiative was launched in April 2000 by the Montreal industry leaders as a By-Product Synergy (BPS) initiative. The leaders had as their goal when initiating the project “To promote joint commercial development among economic sectors so that one industry’s waste becomes another industry’s inputs”.
Organizational Structure / Actors.
The industrial organizations that currently participate in the Montreal Industrial system according to Hatch (2001) include the following:
*Abitibi Consolidated, * Air Liqiude Canada, * Eka Chimie Canada Inc, * Ispat Sidbec, * Nexfor, *Noranda CCR, * Noranda CEZ; * Noranda Corporation and NTC, *NOVA Pb, * QIT-Fer et Titane, * Shell Canada, *SNF, *Stablex, *Trigen Energy Corporation, * Wolverine Tubes.
12 National Industrial Symbiosis Programme (NISP), UK.
The NISP was described by several authors as the first world’s Industrial symbiosis Initiative to be launched at the national level (Mirata, 2004, NWCI) with several references across the UK. One of such reference cases includes the Mersey Banks Industrial Symbiosis (MBIS) Project.
57 Mersey Banks Industrial Symbiosis (MBIS) Project.
This was a North-West Chemical Initiative (NWCI) project that spanned between July 2001 and June 2003 (NWCI, 2004). The initiative was aimed at creating an opportunity for the process industries within the Mersey estuary to identify possible areas of collaboration that would enhance sustainability by reducing environmental burdens.
Organizational Structure / Actors
The Mersey Banks Industrial Symbiosis project involved 23 participating companies. The list includes the following:
*Air products plc, * Cabot Carbon Ltd, *Dalkia Utilities Services Ltd, *Industrial Chemicals Ltd, * Ineos Fluor Ltd, * Octel Waste Management Ltd, * Rockwood additives Ltd, * Salt Union Ltd, * Shepherd Widnes Ltd, * United Utilities Ltd, *Vivendi Water Systems Ltd, *Bayer Cropscience UK Ltd, * Cahnce and Hunt Ltd, * Cleanright Industrial services Ltd, * Great Lakes (UK) Ltd, * Ineos Chlor Ltd, * LGC (NW) Ltd, * Onyx UK Ltd, * Saffil ltd, *Shell UK Oil Products Ltd, *The Associated Octel Co Ltd, * Unichema Chemicals Ltd.
13 NORTH TEXAS, USA.
Information retrieved from elements.bnim.com revealed that this by-product synergy project started in 1999 and was finished in April, 2000 by the Business Council for Sustainable Development, Gulf of Mexico (BCSD-GM).
Organizational Structure / Actors.
Participating companies in the North Texas Industrial Symbiosis project include the following:
* Air Products and Chemicals Inc, *Trigen Energy Corporation, *Gahman Metals and Recycling, * Texas Industries Inc, * Mary Kay Cosmetics, *TXU, *Poco Graphite Inc, *Vetrotex America, *Texas Instruments.
14. ORA ECOPARK, NORWAY.
Mark Jeffery (2001) described the Ora Ecopark as a mix variety of industrial sectors. The authors stated that businesses participating in the Industrial symbiosis project are working on water efficiency and solid waste reduction possibilities.
58 Organizational Structure / Actors.
Thoresen (2000) listed the principal Industrial sectors represented in the Ora Eco-Park project to include among others, the following:
* Titanium pigments, *Fish and vegetable oils, * Municipal waste handling and energy generation, *Chemicals, *Gypsum board, * Polymers, *Margarine and fruits, * Paints, * Industrial waste handling.
15 ROTTERDAM, THE NETHERLANDS.
The Regional Council of Etelä-Savo (2006) described the Rotterdam Industrial Ecosystem project (INES, for short) as a project that started in 1992 in Rotterdam Harbor. A group called the Europort/Botlek Interest industry Association in addition to 80 other member industries initiated this project.
Organizational Structure / Actors.
The Regional Council of Etelä-Savo (2006) stated that industrial sectors represented in the Rotterdam Industrial Ecosystem project include more than 30 chemical manufacturing companies and 4 refineries.
16. SARNIA-LAMBTON, CANADA.
Venta and Nisbet (1997) described this project as a case study used to assess an industrialized area. The authors explained that the region was selected basically to analyze the possibilities for resource conservation and pollution reduction via the establishment of an industrial ecosystem.
Organizational Structure / Actors.
Industrial sectors represented in the Sarnia-Lambton Industrial Ecosystem project according to Venta and Nisbeth (1997) include the following:
*Petrochemical, * Polymers, * Plastics, * Oil refineries, * Industrial gasses, * Insulation wool, * Resin plant.
17. STYRIA, AUSTRIA.
Schwartz et al., (1997) described the Styria Industrial Symbiosis project as an “industrial recycling network” located in the Province of Styria, Austria.
59 Organizational Structure / Actors.
Industrial sectors represented in the Styria by-product synergies include the following:
*Iron manufacturing, *6 cement manufacturing companies, * Construction materials, * 2 power stations, * 6 paper producing companies, * 2 textile industries, * Chemical industry, *Colour industry, *2 Stone and ceramic industries, * Waste water treatment, * Iron scrap dealer, *3 used oil dealers, * Waste paper dealer, *Saw mills, * Plastics manufacturing, *Fuel producing, * Agricultural associations.
18. TAMPICO, MEXICO.
Young (1999) described the Tampico by-product synergy project as one that created the room to demonstrate proposed ideas of a functional industrial symbiosis project where by-product re-use as raw materials would enhance energy savings and thus reduce environmental damage. The author stated that this project was initiated in 1997 by the Business Council for Sustainable Development-Gulf of Mexico (BCSD-GM) with 21 participating local industries.
Organizational Structure / Actors.
Industries participating in the Tampico by-product synergy are as follows:
*Indelpro S.A. de C.V., *G.E. Plastics, *Grupo Promex, * Policyd, * Polioles, * Pecten Poliesters, *PPG, *Dupont, *Novaquim, *NHUMO, *INSA-Emulsion, *INSA-Solucion, *Pemex, *Petrocel-DMT, *Petrocel-PTA, *Sulfamex, *Minera Autlan, *Cryoinfra, *Grupo Tampico, *Johns Mansville, *Enertek.
19 TILBURY ECO-INDUSTRIAL PARK, CANADA.
Mark Jeffery (2002) described the Tilbury eco-industrial park as a Greater Vancouver Regional Development (GVRD) project, which is aimed at networking industries within the area into a programme that would effectively deliver existing pollution prevention initiative for sustainable industrial production in the region.
The Tilbury area includes over 650 Businesses ranging from small retailers to large manufacturers according to Mark Jeffery (2002).
On annual basis, Tilbury businesses:
+ Consumes $10,600,000 worth of electricity. + Consumes $9,100,000 worth of natural gas. + Require more than 1,000,000 truck trips to and from the Tilbury area. + Use more than 2,000,000 m³/y of fresh water.
60 + Emits 57,000 tons /yr of CO2 (a greenhouse gas).
Organizational Structure / Actors.
The sectoral breakdown of industries represented in the Tilbury Industrial Park is as follows:
*10 agricultural companies, *64 cement and manufacturing companies, *23 chemical manufacturing companies, *23 food and hospitality companies, *12 food manufacturing companies, *3 institutions, *3 mining, oil and gas companies, * 64 miscellaneous industries, *59 multi-family (leasers of real estate) firms, *52 other manufacturing, *93 retail companies, *65 servicing companies, *27 transporting companies, *81 warehousing and distribution companies, *33 wood and forest products companies, *8 suspected former landfills companies.
61