Positioning China's Aid to Educational Development in Africa: Past

Post-Education-Forall and Sustainable Development Paradigm: Structural Changes with Diversifying Actors and Norms Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa: Past, Present, and Post-2015 Changsong Niu Jing Liu Article information: To cite this document: Changsong Niu Jing Liu . "Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa: Past, Present, and Post-2015" In Post-Education- Forall and Sustainable Development Paradigm: Structural Changes with Diversifying Actors and Norms. Published online: 17 Jun 2016; 269-299. Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S1479-367920140000029018 Downloaded on: 22 June 2016, At: 06:17 (PT) References: this document contains references to 0 other documents. To copy this document: [email protected]

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*Related content and download information correct at time of download. POSITIONING CHINA’S AID TO EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA: PAST, PRESENT, AND POST-2015

Changsong Niu and Jing Liu

ABSTRACT

This chapter aims to investigate and interpret China’s educational aid by analyzing its history, philosophies, and practices in Africa. The study is based on review and analysis of governmental documents, reports, academic papers, and news by Chinese and foreign scholars on China’s aid, particularly educational aid to Africa. The analysis unveils three transformations of China’s aid “from pro-ideology to de-ideology,” “from single area to multiple areas,” and “from pragmatic economy driven to sustainable and humane economy focused” in Africa. Meanwhile, it indicates a continuity of the philosophy of solidarity, morality, and reciprocity in China’s South-South cooperation with African educational development.

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) The analysis also shows China’s educational aid does not match well with the framework of the Western donors. China, under the FOCAC

Post-Education-for-All and Sustainable Development Paradigm: Structural Changes with Diversifying Actors and Norms International Perspectives on Education and Society, Volume 29, 269À299 Copyright r 2016 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1479-3679/doi:10.1108/S1479-367920140000029018 269 270 CHANGSONG NIU AND JING LIU

framework, is devoted to higher education cooperation, human resources training program, scholarship, and Chinese language education with African partners. With the growth of its economic and political influence, China will play multiple roles as the biggest developing country and as an active promoter and provider for South-South cooperation in the negotiation and construction of the post-2015 agenda. Nevertheless, we assume China will keep a pragmatic higher education cooperation with its developing country partners to inclusively link it with business, technology transfer, and people-to-people exchange. This study delivers a comprehensive review and analysis of paradigm shift, philosophy, mechanism, and practice of China’s educational aid to Africa to fill up the literature gap in this field. It also timely presents China’s stance toward discussion on the post-2015 agenda. Keywords: China; Africa; South-South cooperation; solidarity; mutual benefit; higher education

INTRODUCTION

… The Post-2015 Development Agenda, while focusing on poverty eradication and promotion of common development, should attach great importance to addressing the inequality and disparity between the North and the South and build a renewed global development partnership of win-win cooperation … Wang, Sergey, and Sushma (2015) In a Joint Communique of the 13th Meeting of the Foreign Ministers of Russia, India, and China on February 2, 2015, the ministers’ statement

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) shows their stance for the post-2015 development agenda mentioned above. While the EFA 2015 targets are closing to the ﬁnal curtain, there are increasing world-wide debates both on the post-2015 agenda itself and the participation of donors from the North and the South. China, as the biggest developing country and an emerging power in international cooperation, is considered as a conservative actor in the current construction of the post-2015 agenda (King, 2014; Mao, 2014). Nevertheless, in the planning of the 6th Ministerial Conference of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) to be held in South Africa in 2015, there is the possibility that the post-2015 agenda might be integrated in the FOCAC discussion (Zhang, 2014a). Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa 271

China has a long history of educational exchange and cooperation with the African countries (He, 2007b; King, 2010). China-Africa cooperation represents a speciﬁc example of South-South cooperation (Chen & Zhang, 2015). In this chapter, we will investigate the positioning of China’s aid to educational development in Africa as a case study in order to understand (a) the continuity and changes of China’s aid to education in Africa; (b) the formulation of China’s practices by their culture, philosophy, development experiences, and worldview; (c) the decision-making mechanisms and practices of China’s aid to education in Africa; and (d) the extent to which China has devoted attention to the discussion about the post-2015 agenda.

CHINA’S AID TO AFRICA: CONTINUITY AND CHANGE

China started its development aid to Africa in the 1950s. Based on the changes in the domestic and international environment and the different agendas in different periods, China’s foreign aid can be divided into three phases, stretching from the 1950s to the present era.1 China’s educational aid to Africa can be understood and explained in the contexts of China- Africa relations and China’s domestic development. The historiography of China’s assistance to Africa indicates that China’s aid is not new. China’s engagement with Africa has continued for the past 60 years and has demonstrated unique features of a cooperative model. The following section indicates three transformations of China’s engagement in Africa, including “from pro-ideology to de-ideology,” “from single area to multiple areas,” and “from pragmatic economy-driven to sustainable and humane economy-focused.” Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) The First Phase (1950À1978)

This period was characterized by the use of aid as a political and ideological tool to gain international support and solidify China’s own independence (Li, 2007). During this period, China gave its foreign aid to the countries in the Third World and supported liberation movements of African countries still under colonial rule. After the Bandung conference in 1955, and particularly after the split of the Sino-Soviet relation, China’s foreign aid shifted its focus to those “China-friendly” countries that recognized its One-China policy. In 1956, 272 CHANGSONG NIU AND JING LIU

China provided grants to Egypt in support to its movements to claim its independence.2 In the same year, four Egyptian students arrived in China to study fine arts, philosophy, and agriculture, and seven Chinese students went to Egypt to study Arabic, culture, and history according to the China-Egypt Cultural Cooperation Agreement (He, 2007b). In 1963, China sent medical teams to Algeria. In 1964, during Premier Zhou Enlai’s visit to Mali and Ghana, he launched “China’s Eight Principles of Economic and Technical Assistance” which featured equality, mutual benefit, and no conditionalities (Information Office of the State Council, China, 2011a). The principles are still the key guideline of China’s foreign policy. The construction of the 1,800 mile Tanzania-Zambia Railway (TAZARA or Tanzam Railway)3 in the 1970s was the largest project ever undertaken by China at that time. It was built to eliminate Zambia’s economic dependence on Rhodesia and South Africa. This project could be said to have covered a large-scale attempt to transfer skills to thou- sands of workers and supervisors in Zambia and Tanzania (King, 2007). In the 1960s, the Chinese government began to value the relations with the newly independent African countries. Reciprocal exchange of the repre- sentatives of both sides promoted mutual educational cooperation. In response to specific demands from African countries, China dispatched some science teachers and experts to Mali and Guinea and donated £30,000 to the University of Dar Es Salaam for teaching capacity building. In the same spirit, China gifted some teaching materials to African countries (Wang, 2000). However, with the advent of the Cultural Revolution in 1966, almost all links concerning education exchanges were cut off with other countries. From 1949 to 1978, China’s foreign policy was deeply affected by the international political situation. Therefore, the aim of its foreign aid, mainly in form of the lending equipment assistance and technical assistance, was to

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) win the political support from “The Third World.” Little or no weight was given to economic beneﬁts, despite the fact that China’s own domestic economic situation was far from optimal. However, by 1978, China had established diplomatic relations with 43 African countries (Li, 2007).

The Second Phase (1979À1999)

After the Cultural Revolution ended in 1976, China’s foreign policy shifted its focus from ideological overseas alliances to domestic economic development. So the total amount of foreign assistance decreased dramatically Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa 273

with the decline of bilateral trade between China and Africa.4 Meanwhile, China’s assistance to Africa took on pragmatic dimensions, provided aid in more diversified and flexible ways, emphasized economic benefits and long-term results. In 1983, the Chinese government proposed the Four Principles of China-Africa economic and technological cooperation, which reaffirmed the rationales of “equality and mutual benefit, efficiency, diversity and attainment of common progress” (Li, 2006, p. 16). China began to employ other forms of economic assistance such as preferential and discounted loans, and cooperative and joint ventures for projects in Africa (Li, 2006). By the end of 1987, they had completed 388 projects in Africa (Li, Liu, Pan, Zeng, & He, 2012). Moreover, China started to reform its foreign trade and foreign assistance institutions. In 1993, the Chinese government set up the Foreign Aid Fund for Joint Ventures and Cooperative Projects to support Chinese small- and medium-sized enterprises to build joint ventures or conduct cooperation with companies from the recipient counties. In terms of educational cooperation, in 1989, China launched “Higher education and Science Research Project” for Africa to assist in building some science labs in African universities5 in accordance with the central government’s policy spirit of the promotion and improvement of intellec- tual aid and technical and cultural exchange with African countries.

The Third Phase (2000 to the Present)

Since the establishment of FOCAC in 2000, China-Africa partnership has entered into a new period. FOCAC provided a unique diplomatic mechanism and platform for mutual experience sharing and a long-term cooperation between China and Africa. In this period, economic and trade cooperation,

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) together with people-to-people and cultural cooperation are considered as “two indispensable wheels” of China-Africa cooperation (Li, 2014). At the ﬁve FOCAC meetings between 2000 and 2012,6 the Chinese government pledged to implement measures to support African economic and social development, which covered areas such as agriculture, education, human resources training, health, security, and energy. In addition to traditional bilateral cooperation, China has facilitated multilateral negotiation and dialogue with the recipient countries at the international and regional level. Under the framework of FOCAC, China-Africa educational cooperation covers the following areas: (a) human resources training; (b) higher 274 CHANGSONG NIU AND JING LIU

education partnership; (c) rural school construction; (d) Chinese language teaching; (e) Chinese government scholarship; (f) scholar and student exchange. Since the fifth FOCAC meeting, the China and Africa relationship is set to substantially change, since social and cultural exchanges, and people-to- people contact are to be given more attention. This is a change from the old partnership driven by the political and economic priorities. In 2013, President Xi Jinping’s first visit to Africa as the head of state demonstrated China’s efforts to strengthen brotherly ties with African countries. Xi stated China and Africa have been “a community of shared destinies” (Xi, 2013). Under Xi’s administration, China has highlighted a new and diversified policy momentum in Africa. First, China is seeking collabora- tions with African nongovernmental organizations and helping more to resolve the livelihood problems of Africa. China has spent half of its overseas aid budget on Africa, focusing on anti-poverty, agriculture and clean- water projects, and disaster relief. Second, besides the bilateral cooperation with the individual Africa country, China also works closely with the African Union (AU) and African sub-regional organizations in a variety of fields. Third, the FOCAC mechanism is being modified with “461 China- Africa Cooperation Framework” proposed by Premier Li Keqiang during his speech in Addis Ababa in 2014. The digit 4 in the framework stands for adherence to the principles of equal treatment, solidarity and mutual trust, tolerance and development, innovation and cooperation; the digit 6 stands for cooperation in the fields of industry, finance, poverty reduction, envir- onmental protection, educational and cultural exchanges, and peace and security; and the digit 1 for perfecting FOCAC that started in the year 2000 (Li, 2014). The historical review above unveils three transformations of China’s engagement in Africa, including “from pro-ideology to de-ideology,” “from

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) single area to multiple areas,” and “from pragmatic economy driven to sustainable and humane economy focused” under the South-South cooperation framework. The following section interprets the philosophies of China’s aid policy to explore the change of logics in the paradigm shift.

PHILOSOPHIES OF CHINA’S FOREIGN AID POLICY

From the late 1990s, China’s engagement with Africa has aroused doubts and criticisms including the so-called traditional donors. Critical Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa 275

comments, particularly from the traditional donors, claim that the main driver of China’s interest in Africa is to secure energy and resources (Davies, Edinger, Tay, & Naidu, 2008; Six, 2009). Moreover, China’s aid policies and practices do not match well with the current development discourse constructed by the traditional donors. How should we understand China’s foreign aid policy and its difference from those of the traditional donors? How should we apply these understandings to policies and practice of China-Africa educational cooperation? It is necessary and important to understand and interpret the new donors’ approaches through looking at their own history, culture, and philosophies (Yamada, 2014). National policy and strategy are embedded in the state’s cultural norms and values. And policy is determined by culture debate rather than a real political-economic calculation (Liu, 2013). This section aims at interpreting characteristics of China’s foreign aid through linking China’s discourse on foreign aid, and China-Africa educational cooperation in particular, with traditional Chinese culture and values, China’s experiences in social development, China’s experiences as a recipient country, and China’s foreign policy.

Chinese Culture of Solidarity as a Core Value

Firstly, the following analysis elucidates a clear reflection of Chinese culture of solidarity as a core value in China’s foreign aid policy and their practices in China-African education cooperation. More specifically, these are presented by the idea of harmony, friendship, the emphasis on mutual benefit, and the attitude toward charity and education.

Harmony (和, he) Harmony is considered as the core value of Confucianism in Chinese cul-

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) ture. With the influence of the culture of harmony, such as “harmony between man and nature, 天人合一 (tianrenheyi)” and “harmony is invalu- able, 和为贵 (heweigui),” the beliefs of family harmony, neighborhood harmony, and good interpersonal relationships have been deeply adopted in daily life of Chinese (Information Office of the State Council, China, 2011a). The terms such as peace and harmony have become the keywords in China’s foreign aid policy documents. Peaceful co-existence has been considered as the main foundation of China’s foreign policy since the 1950s. The continuity of the emphasis on peace can be identified in China’s Foreign Aid published in 2014 (Information Office of the State Council, China, 2014). 276 CHANGSONG NIU AND JING LIU

However, harmony does not suggest sameness. Confucians believe that a harmonious world relies on diverse things existing in the same world. For example, in Chinese, there is a key phrase “unity without uniformity, 和而不同 (heerbutong).” The traditional Chinese thinking indicates that diversity creates a lively world (Li, 2006). This kind of thinking can be found in China’s foreign aid policies. For example, the first White Paper on China’s Foreign Aid published in 2011 clarifies that “China respects recipient countries’ right to independently select their own path and model of development” (Information Office of the State Council, China, 2011a, p. 4).7 It means that the Chinese government believes the diverse paths of development can lead to a harmonious development of the world. It also can explain why China keeps emphasizing the no interference in recipient countries’ internal affairs. China’s foreign aid policy does not aim at changing the economic and political structure of the recipient countries (Li & Wu, 2009).

Friendship (友谊, youyi) The term “Friendship” is taken as one of ﬁve basic human relationships of the harmonious world in Confucianism. The importance of friendship has been adopted as a key concept into China’s foreign aid policy. In China’s African Policy launched in 2006, the part of China’s relations with Africa started with “China-Africa friendship is embedded in the long history of interchange” (MOFA, 2006, p. 2). During the visit to Kenya by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of PRC in January 2015, how to improve the capacity of self-development of “African friends” was emphasized in his TV interview (Wang, 2015). Kobayashi (2008) interpreted the relationship between China as a donor and the recipient country as a friendship. China’s foreign aid is an act of friendship with the overall goal of achieving world harmony. His analysis on the statement of China’s government

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) shows China as a member of the developing world taking their aid as a kind of help among poor friends. In 1989, Deng Xiaoping interpreted the aid from China to Burundi as a symbol of friendship between poor friends in the third world during the conversation with Burundi’s President (Shu, 2010). The emphasis on mutual understanding and friendship can be identiﬁed in the names of many China-assisted projects, such as Nouakchoott’s Friendship Port in Mauritania, Friendship School in the Republic of Cote d’lvoire, Sino-Egypt Friendship Model School (Information Ofﬁce of the State Council, China, 2011b; MOFCOM, 2010). According to FOCAC (2012b), China helped Africa to build 50 China-Africa friendship schools. Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa 277

Niu (2014a) interpreted the objective of China’s education cooperation with Africa as strengthening mutual understanding and friendship.

Mutual Benefit (互利互惠, huhuihuli) Mutual benefit is another key concept of China’s traditional culture. According to Guo (2009), the Analects says that kindness will enable you to employ the services of others. In general, it means the emperor needs to treat his people well so as to receive their support. Traditionally, it stands for a logic for managing a harmonious society. Once people receive kindness from the emperor or government, they will give support to the emperor or government to maintain a harmonious nation. In China’s culture, kindness and benefit are not contradictory. In order to get benefit, people should show kindness first. Giving kindness and getting benefit will keep a harmonious and stable society (Xing, 2014). In 2013, Foreign Minister Wang Yi emphasized the concept of amity, sincerity, mutual benefit, and inclusiveness as the basic principles of our neighborhood diplomacy.8 In the Confucian view, mutual benefit within harmony does not influence mutual benefit. Meanwhile, Confucian thought provides the background for the concept of win-win cooperation and of mutual benefit (Li, 2006). The emphasis on mutual benefit can be found in Premier Zhou’s Eight Principles of China’s aid to foreign countries in 1964. Since then the Chinese Government has always been following the principle of equality and mutual benefit in providing aid to other countries (Information Office of the State Council, China, 2011a, 2011b, 2014; Kobayashi, 2008; Liu, 2008a; Shu, 2010; Zhang & Huang, 2012). This point can be understood through the focus on a harmonious relationship which implies mutual complement and mutual support between the parties. The cooperation in higher education between Africa and China can also be considered as an example of mutual benefit. The cooperation may have strengthened the African universities’ capacity of management

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) and enhanced their capacity to solve problems by utilizing their local knowl- edge (Niu, 2014a). Meanwhile, this partnership is becoming one pathway for the internationalization of China’s higher education (King, 2013).

Attitudes toward Charity and Education As part of Chinese culture, there is an idiom “Never eating a handout, 不食嗟来之食 (bushijielaizhishi)” which can be interpreted as the attitude of Chinese toward receiving helps or aid without dignity. According to King (2013), this notion shows historically a Chinese preference to work much harder rather than receiving aid or donations. One of the basic features of China’s foreign aid is to help recipient countries build up their 278 CHANGSONG NIU AND JING LIU

self-development capacity (Ramo, 2004). In the Eight Principles for China’s aid to foreign countries, it emphasizes “the purpose of the Chinese Government is not to make the recipient countries dependent on China but to help them embark step by step on the road of self-reliance and independent economic development” (quoted in King, 2013, p. 213). Similarly, the China’s Foreign Aid policy published in 2011 also shows the focus on self- development capacity of recipient countries. It says

…In providing foreign aid, China does its best to help recipient countries to foster local personnel and technical forces, build infrastructure, and develop and use domestic resources, so as to lay a foundation for future development and embarkation on the road of self-reliance and independent development. (Information Office of the State Council, China, 2011, p. 4) More importantly, Confucianism believed education played a unique social function which is indispensable for social stability and development (Guo, 2009). They hold that leaders should rely on the education of people to reinforce and further develop human ethics. There is a Confucian saying: “if you plan for a year, plant a seed. If for a hundred years, teach the people” (Lengauer, 2012). Moreover, another idiom “Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day” can also be applied to Chinese attitude toward education. In contrast to simply giving a man fish, traditional Chinese culture shows emphasis on a sustainable and lifelong effect of teaching man to fish. In the Eight Principles for China’s Aid in 1964, the Chinese government emphasized they will train the personnel of the recipient country to fully master techniques which they provided (quote in King, 2013, p. 213). In addition, through bilateral and multilateral channels, China runs research and training programs for government officials and education programs for developing countries.

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) China’s Experiences in Social Development

Secondly, the Chinese way of doing foreign aid is shaped by China’s own experiences and history of social development. The core concept of China’s African Policy is not to promote a China’s Model for other developing countries but to emphasize on the search for common development, mutual understanding, and joint learning (Liu, 2008b). The so-called Beijing Consensus which is a widely debated concept around “China’s Develop- ment Model” takes economic change as social change. According to Ramo (2004), this approach uses economics and governance to improve society.9 Similarly, Cheng, Fang, and Lien (2012) pointed out that China focuses more on productive sectors in contrast to the social sectors and poverty Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa 279

reduction emphasized by the traditional donors. Moreover, China takes education as a means for generating socialist market economy and promoting economic collaboration (Liu, 2013). According to FOCAC (2005), relevant education has a signiﬁcant effect on economic development and poverty of elimination. Meanwhile, China emphasized the importance of capacity building through technical training. Based on its own history, China gained experience of how important the human capital and technological skills are for poor countries to catch up in the global market (Cheng, Fang, & Lien, 2012). This can explain why the Chinese government provided many scholarships for African universities, and training courses for technical and vocational education. There are two aspects which make China’s aid in education distinct from other donors. On the one hand, China’s support to education in other developing countries largely depends on Chinese resources, Chinese staff, and Chinese universities. On the other hand, China’s human resources development is aimed at fostering manage- rial and technical personnel in various ﬁelds and master degree professional training programs (King, 2013). These are different from traditional donors whose main targets are largely related to the MDGs and basic education. This can be interpreted as a focus on fostering human resources more gener- ally for contributing to economic development mentioned above, rather than a formal education support program. In contrast to the basic education-centered EFA goals or the MDGs, China gives more attention to higher education. It is shaped by China’s experience in educational development after the economic reform in particular. In contrast to the disaster of higher education during the 10 years of the Cultural Revolution, the enrollment rate of basic education in China was relatively higher than higher education in the beginning of Deng’s economic revolution. Both the Chinese government and international organizations considered higher education in China suffered most during the

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) “Lost decade.” Therefore, both sides gave particular promotion of higher education development. According to Gu (2001, p. 21), “the ﬁrst 10 World Bank projects to China were all higher education related.” Accordingly, China may utilize their experience in higher education cooperation with international organizations as their experience to initiate higher education cooperation with African countries instead of basic education.

China’s Experiences as Recipient Country

Thirdly, we argue that China’s foreign aid policy is formulated by China’s experiences as recipient country. China’s engagement in African often 280 CHANGSONG NIU AND JING LIU

simply repeats patterns established by the West and Japan in China. China learned how aid could be mixed with other forms of economic engagement and observed how aid would benefit both the donor and the recipient (Brautigam, 2009; Cheng et al., 2012; May, Giles, & Marus, 2010). On the one hand, China’s emphasis on self-reliance in development may be influenced by their experiences in economic and technical cooperation with Soviet Union in the 1960s and Japan and other western donors in the 1980s. The abrupt cancellation of aid from the Soviet Union in the 1960s left the Chinese leadership with a negative image of dependence on aid and drove them toward the policy of self-reliance by refusing aid from foreign countries in the next 20 years (Kobayashi, 2008; Zhang & Huang, 2012). The politicization of Japan’s ODA to China also strengthened China’s stance for being self-dependent. Inada (2002) pointed out that the Japanese government considered China as a potential market and a major supplier of raw materials to Japan. He also pointed out that Japan’s ODA to China has become a political issue. The granting of ODA is related to political and strategic factors such as an end to nuclear testing, a reduction in arms exports, modest military expenditures, and respect of human rights (Inada, 2002). The politicization of Japan’s ODA to China created a negative reac- tion that deteriorated the Sino-Japanese relationship. On the other hand, China learned the importance of human recourse development for economic development through Japan’s ODA. According to Inada (2002), Japanese ODA to China also contains a large number of human resource development programs which finances the training of around 900 people every year. Whereas in the 1980s this training program focused on industrial technologies, in the 1990s the focus shifted to corporate management and capacity building in judicial and administrative systems. Japan’s ODA to China stared to shift from infrastructure and capital centered to people-centered ODA to China in 2000 (Okada, 2008). The

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) discussion on the shift emphasized the necessity to pay more attention to poverty reduction, environment issues, and education.

South-South Cooperation

Lastly, it is necessary to reconsider the philosophy of China’s foreign aid through the framework of South-South Cooperation instead of discussing it within the framework of international cooperation by traditional donors. The South-South cooperation agenda and South-South cooperation initiatives must be determined by the countries of the south, guided by the principles of respect for national sovereignty, national ownership and Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa 281

independence, equality, non-conditionality, non-interference in domestic affairs, and mutual benefit.10 According to Lengauer (2012), the concept of China’s aid is still considered as cooperation between developing countries under South-South cooperation framework. The first white paper on China’s foreign aid policy published in 2011 starts with the sentence “China is a developing county.” (Information Office of the State Council, China, 2011a, 2011b, para.1). It clearly indicates China’s stance as member of the developing world in South-South cooperation. This document also emphasized China’s aid is under the South-South cooperation framework with the concern to conduct complementary and fruitful trilateral and regional cooperation on the basis of respecting the needs of recipient countries and jointly promote the process of global poverty alleviation (Information Office of the State Council, China, 2011a, 2011b). According to Kobayashi (2008), this can be considered as a vision of South-South cooperation, a form of cooperation in which developing countries commonly share development experience and technologies to advance development effectively. Respect for the sovereignty of the recipient countries and absence of conditionalities have been maintained to date. The first paragraph of the second white paper on China’s Foreign Aid 2014 showed that China’s foreign assistance to other developing countries is within the framework of South-South cooperation:

China is the world’s largest developing country. In its development, it has endeavored to integrate the interests of the Chinese people with people of other countries, providing assistance to the best of its ability to other developing countries within the framework of South-South cooperation to support and help other developing countries, especially the least developed countries (LDCs), to reduce poverty and improve livelihood …. (Information Ofﬁce of the State Council, China, 2014)

This stance explains why China has kept emphasizing a mutual learning process between China and Africa rather than one-way learning process for developing countries. Moreover, it also shows the consensus between Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) China’s philosophy of foreign aid and the features of South-South Cooperation, such as the principles of respect for national sovereignty, national ownership and independence, equality, non-conditionality, non- interference in domestic affairs and mutual beneﬁt.

Toward the Post-2015

Entering into 2015, there has been an increasing number of discussions and debates on whether and how China will take part in discussion and forma- tion on the post-2015 development agenda.11 Studies show that China has 282 CHANGSONG NIU AND JING LIU

not been actively (or conservatively) participating in the post-2015 debates (King, 2014; Mao, 2014; Zhang, 2014b). As Mao (2014) pointed out, the current attitude of China toward the post-2015 agenda shows their willingness to act as a developing country keen on achieving its own development and avoiding taking too much international responsibility. Nevertheless, policy review shows a continuity of China’s philosophy in international cooperation, such as its respect for diversity as well as its respect for the independence of all countries in determining development strategies and development models (MOFA, 2013; Ye & Fues, 2014). Moreover, China continues to emphasize the friendship among developing countries and its position in the South-South cooperation framework. Review of China’s Aid Policy published in 2011 and 2014 shows the Chinese government has started adding up discourse on the MDGs with their commitments to their friends in the developing world (Information Office of the State Council, China, 2011a, 2011b, 2014). The policy of 2011 declared “China will continue to promote South-South cooperation … promote the realization of the UN Millennium Development Goals …” (Information Office of the State Council, China, 2011a, 2011b, “Conclusion” section, para.2). In a word, this section indicates that a continuity in Chinese traditional philosophy, culture, and development experience has significantly influenced China’s foreign aid polices to the developing world. In order to further visualize the implication of these philosophies on China’s practices in international cooperation, the following sections provide analysis of decision-making mechanisms and practices in China-Africa educational cooperation as case study to visualize educational cooperation with China’s characteristics and link the discussion on China’s position in the post-2015 development agenda. Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) THE DECISION-MAKING AND IMPLEMENTATION MECHANISM OF CHINA-AFRICA COOPERATION

FOCAC has become the most important policy framework for China- Africa cooperation in a range of sectors. While education is not perceived as separate sector in the framework, it is possible to analyze the key com- ponents of the FOCAC framework to explain the decision-making mechanism of China-Africa educational cooperation. The highest policy-decision organ in China is the National People’s Congress. China’s supreme executive body is the State Council under which Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa 283

there are 28 ministries. FOCAC is led by the State Council and operates according to the Chinese national system. In order to implement measures committed by Chinese government at FOCAC, in 2000 China established the Chinese follow-up Action Committee (CFAC) of FOCAC which included 27 government institutions in the process. The three core ministries in the Committee are Commerce, Foreign Affairs, and Finance. The Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM) is the administrative institution authorized by the State Council to be responsible for foreign trade and international economic cooperation. To perform these responsibilities, 25 functional departments were set up under MOFCOM. The relevant func- tions of MOFCOM in terms of foreign aid are the following:

• Formulate related rules and regulations in the management of foreign economic cooperation and trade. • Organize and coordinate the negotiation and signing of foreign government loans. • Approve foreign aid projects. • Exercise sector management in foreign cooperation projects.

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) is ofﬁcially responsible for overall foreign policy. However, MOFCOM has been playing an increasingly important role in the interpretation and implementation of foreign aid policy (Corkin, 2011). Before 2000, the Foreign Affairs Department in the Ministry of Finance (MOF) was in charge of the overall budget on foreign aid. However, adjustments implemented after 2000 moved this responsibility to the concerned departments of respective ministries and committees. FOCAC’s policy-making mechanism is characterized by multi-level interactions between China and Africa based on equity and mutual respect

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) through various exchange and communication channels (Li et al., 2012). Over the past 12 years, FOCAC has instituted a number of conferences and dialogue mechanisms at various levels and in different forms. The ﬁrst level is the direct interaction between heads of the Chinese and African states. One example is the political consultations between Chinese and African foreign ministers on the sidelines of UN General Assembly. The second level is the Chinese-African Senior Ofﬁcials Meeting (SOM). SOM is held between any two FOCAC sessions to discuss the implementation of measures and to prepare for the next ministerial conference. The third and the most fundamental level is the interaction between Chinese and African diplomats and the host countries. 284 CHANGSONG NIU AND JING LIU

The Choice of Projects

The Chinese side takes initiatives, then collects opinions and requests from the African side. After producing a ﬁrst draft version of possibilities, the Chinese side gets a second-round feedback from Africa before making the selection of projects (Li & Liu, 2012).

Multi-Level Interactions in Decision-Making Procedure

Through the Chinese embassies in African countries, the Chinese side collects cooperation requests of the African countries. Although Chinese ambassadors and the economic and trade counselors have relatively low decision-making authority, they work closely with local African commu- nities (and local civil societies) and play a vital role in the decision-making process (Li & Liu, 2012). At the same time, African diplomats in Beijing contact their own capitals and put forward some opinions and suggestions from African countries regarding Chinese assistance projects.

The Role of the CFAC

The CFAC is made up of 27 member units, which coordinate and collabo- rate to fulﬁll the commitments at FOCAC. The CFAC regularly communi- cates with Chinese embassies to ascertain the demands from the African side. The Action Committee holds meetings with African diplomatic corps every two or three months to discuss the implementation of measures committed at the last ministerial conference and to negotiate the possible cooperation programs at the next conference.

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) The Department of Africa under MFA acts as the secretariat of the Follow-up Action Committee, along with the Department of West Asia and Africa under MOFCOM. Together, they are responsible for coordinat- ing both the Chinese and African embassies, drafting and submitting reports to the MOF in order to apply for disbursement, etc. Although the MOF does not participate directly in the decision-making process, it makes the ﬁnal decision on which projects will be supported, based on the proposals from the MFA and MOFCOM (see Fig. 1). The Chinese Embassy which reports directly to the MFA and the Economic Counselor’s Ofﬁce, which reports to the MOFCOM, are responsible for the implementation of foreign aid programs of the country to Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa 285

FOCAC

FOCAC CFAC Secretariat of the Office CFAC

27 member units MFA MOF MOFCOM

Fig. 1. Institutional Framework of FOCAC Structure. Source: Li and Liu (2012).

which they are accredited. China Exim Bank, established in 1994, is responsible for concessional loan programs. The implementation of aid projects also involves the coordination and support from other ministries and committees, such as Ministry of Science and Technology, Ministry of Education (MOE), Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Public Security, and the National Women’s Federation. Because many central government ministries and agencies as well as sub-national governments are involved in aid activities, MOFCOM, MFA, and MOF officially established national foreign aid inter-agency liaison mechanism in 2008. In February 2011, the liaison mechanism was pro- gressed into the inter-ministry/agency coordination mechanism. It is noteworthy that some sub-forums have been set up under FOCAC, such as FOCAC Science and Technology Forum, FOCAC Cultural Ministers’ Forum, FOCAC Think Tanks Forum. The institutionalization of these sub-forums is broadening China-Africa cooperation and bringing out a new dynamism of the China-Africa cooperation. In the education sector, the MOE is responsible for China-Africa Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) educational cooperation, providing human resource development support. The Department of International Cooperation and Exchange (DOICE) under the MOE directly takes charge of training programs and university cooperation. The China-Africa 20 + 20 higher education cooperation plan was launched in 2010. The China Scholarship Council (CSC), which is a non-profit institution affiliated with the MOE, takes charge of management of African students studying in China. The Office of Chinese Language Council International (or Hanban)/the CI headquarter is in charge of the administration of Confucius Institutes. The Ministry of Commerce facilitates public bidding by Chinese companies on aid projects, such as school 286 CHANGSONG NIU AND JING LIU

Chinese Central Gov.

State Council

Hanban MOFCOM MFA MOE

Department of Chinese DOICE Foreign Aid Embassy CSC

School construction 20+20 Cooperation

CI Training Training Scholarship

Fig. 2. The Institutional Framework of China’s Education Assistance to Africa. Source: Prepared by the authors.

construction, and provides professional training for African countries (see Fig. 2). According to the description above, which is somewhat different from the DAC donors, several ministries and organizations are involved in the decision-making process of China’s cooperation with African countries. The current fragmented systems with many programs from different ministries are not conducive to the effective implementation of the education cooperation programs. Another obvious difference is that the whole system of FOCAC lacks the evidence-based feedback and evaluation mechanism. Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT)

THE PRACTICE OF SINO-AFRICA EDUCATIONAL COOPERATION

The analysis of practice of China’s educational cooperation to Africa shows that there is limited engagement of China with the EFA goals and the MDGs on education of African countries except for school construction.12 China’s engagement with education and training in Africa gives more emphasis on higher education, training program, TVET, and Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa 287

scholarships under the umbrella of South-South cooperation and mutual beneﬁt. More interestingly, the educational cooperation is widely involved in other social and economic development sectors rather than simply limited to the education sector itself.

School Construction

School construction is the field which is mostly related to the EFA agenda and the MDGs. In 2006, Chinese government decided to help African countries to build 100 rural schools from 2007 to 2009 (FOCAC, 2006). In 2009, China has fulfilled the commitment by building 107 rural primary schools in Africa (Niu, 2014a). Moreover, in the same year, Chinese pledged to provide 50 China-Africa Friendship Schools (FOCAC, 2009). The White paper on China’s Foreign Aid 2014 shows from 2010 to 2012 China has committed its pledge with building 150 primary and secondary schools in Africa (Information Office of the State Council, China, 2014). In principle, China’s aid delivers completed projects based on the request from recipients. The Chinese side conducts survey and provides feedback regarding the plan submitted by the related departments of the recipient side. Then, they call for bids domestically and select the construction company. After the construction, the African side is in charge of school management (Niu, 2014b; Nordtveit, 2011; Yuan, 2011). The tied aid can be considered as an approach for achieving the mutual benefit. Moreover, the way of providing school construction instead of providing construction fund makes China’s education cooperation with African countries more visible. It also prevents corruption in school construction (Niu, 2014b). Besides these, China also built schools for vocational training and education and higher education. They helped Ethiopia to build the Ethio-

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) China Polytechnic College (ECPC) between 2005 and 2007. China also has been responsible for the construction of a new Fendell campus of the University of Liberia, a Science and Technology University for Malawi which was just opened to students in 2013 (King, 2013).

Technical Vocational Education and Training

Besides school construction for TVET, China also provides assistance for teaching and curriculum development. China has been involved in the reform of agricultural technical and vocational education and training 288 CHANGSONG NIU AND JING LIU

system in Ethiopia since 2001. From 2001 to 2012, China dispatched over 400 teachers to Ethiopia to train the local teachers working in agricultural vocational and technical education (Information Ofﬁce of the State Council, China, 2014). The ECPC has adopted China-Ethiopia cooperative running of the institute and has established partnership with Tianjin University of Technology and Education (TUTE).13 The Chinese government dispatches about 10 professional teachers and 5 administrative staff to the college per year. They jointly teach courses with their Ethiopian colleagues, and collabora- tively develop curricula and compile teaching materials. Also, they build cooperative linkages with Chinese companies in Ethiopia and some local companies and training centers in order to improve students’ practical skills and facilitate their placement and future employment. Furthermore, the cooperation for technology transfer and training also includes global telecom enterprises of China, such as ZTE and Huawei. ZTE provided training services to 1,000 Ethiopian engineers and to the key technical personnel for ultimately improving their comprehensive skills. They also sent 100 Ethiopians to ZTE University in China for more advanced training. Moreover, ZTE also offered local college students access to their training labs as corporate social responsibility. Similarly, Huawei also has decided to open their training center to engineering students from universities around Nairobi as well as to upgrade their training center into a research and development center for the local students to develop and test their own inventions (King, 2013). Apparently, such technology transfer and training not only can strengthen the mutual trust between local employees and Chinese companies but also can foster human resources for the development of telecom industry in the speciﬁc country.

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) Higher Education Cooperation

Higher education cooperation between China and Africa has a long history and diverse activities. In general, it includes scholarships, institutional cooperation, Chinese language education, and high-level communication.

Scholarships Scholarships for university study in China have been a traditional component of China’s education assistance since the 1950s (Niu, 2010). Scholarships provide African students opportunities to study in China. They also cultivate talents in all ﬁelds that make contributions to African Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa 289

development and to facilitate diverse cooperation between China and Africa. In general, there are ﬁve types of scholarships for African students, including Chinese government scholarship, Confucius Institute scholarship, Local government scholarship, University scholarship, and Enterprises scholarships.14 From 2000 to 2011, China has received 79,000 African students, including 33,000 government scholarship students (Lou, 2014). In 2012, they offered 6,717 government scholarships to African countries (Information Ofﬁce of the State Council, China, 2014).

Institutional Cooperation The higher education institutional cooperation between China and Africa started from the 1950s. There was limited scale of such cooperation until the 1990s (He, 2007b).From 2000, the start of FOCAC took this cooperation into a new stage. The new modality gives more emphasis on the cooperation among the individual universities. The “China-Africa 20 + 20 higher education cooperation plan,” initiated in 2010, is designed to promote capacity building and internationalization of higher education institutions through one-to-one inter-institutional collaboration between universities in African and China (FOCAC, 2009; MOE, 2012; Yuan, 2011). These partner universities have implemented a variety of cooperation based on mutual comparative advantages, such as collaborative research, faculty and/or student exchange, training, course teaching, co-writing of teaching materials development, building and equipping the laboratory, co-sponsoring symposiums. MOE of China provides different amounts of annual funding to these partnerships according to their proposals and budget. Then Chinese partner universities offer matching grants for the project. Through this platform, some Chinese universities have established courses and majors which have met the needs of African universities. As a mutual beneﬁt, they could upgrade their internationalization through expanding

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) admission scale of international students and exploring the possibilities for joint school management. Meanwhile, this partnership also promoted industry and technology transfer for Chinese enterprises in Africa (Lou, 2014). In addition, FOCAC has initiated China-Africa Think Tank Forum and China-Africa Joint Research and Exchange Plan (2010À2012) to promote interaction and exchanges between the academia of China and Africa (FOCAC, 2012a; Information Ofﬁce of the State Council, China, 2013).

Chinese Language Education Chinese language education has become a main pillar for promoting culture exchange and mutual understanding between China and Africa since 290 CHANGSONG NIU AND JING LIU

the 1950s. With the rapid development of Confucius Institutes (CI) initiated by the Chinese government from 2004, there have been 37 CIs and 10 Confucius Classrooms in 31 African countries (Hanban, 2010). The CI is a non-proﬁt education organization for Chinese language education and culture exchange outside of China. Hanban provides grants for the creation of CIs, supplies teaching materials and facilitates cooperation between the partner institutions in China and abroad which run CI. Moreover, they are in charge of dispatching experienced language teachers and volunteers from China.15 The typical arrangement of African CIs is that they are hosted by an African University with the partnership of a university in China. Since 2004, about 106 volunteers and teachers have taught Chinese in African CIs. In addition, Hanban has established the Confucius Institute Scholarship Program to encourage African students and Chinese language teachers to strengthen their language skills and conduct research regarding Chinese language and culture in China. For example, in 2009, the Nairobi CI provided a range of shorter and longer term language training in China, including master degree, four-year bachelor degree, one-year training course, one-semester training course, and four-week training courses (King, 2010).

High-Level Communication A Forum for Sino-Africa University Presidents represents a high-level communication for higher education cooperation between China and Africa. It started from 2006 in order to exchange experiences in high education reform and international cooperation (Zhang, 2012). Moreover, a Seminar among UNESCO-China-African universities was held in Paris in 2011. It provided three sides with common experiences and procedures in higher education management. It also promoted a multilateral cooperation among UNESCO-Africa-China. Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT)

Human Resource Development Cooperation

In China’s context, human resource development cooperation refers to different kinds of research and training programs for government ofﬁcials, education programs, technical training programs, and other personnel exchange programs for developing countries (Information Ofﬁce of the State Council, China, 2011a, 2011b). The Chinese Government took the training for professional personnel in the developing countries as their responsibility in the national education development strategy (The State Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa 291

Council, 2010). These training projects can be categorized into two types, including short-term training course (about 2À3 weeks) for African government official from different departments, and short-term course (between six months and a year) for training professional technicians, focusing on practical skills such as agro meteorology, medical techniques, and hybrid rice technology (Niu, 2014a; Nordtveit, 2011). Since the mid-1990s, China has been supporting the capacity building for other developing countries through enlarging the scale of technical training and hosting training programs for officials from developing countries to China. In 2000, China set up an African Human Resources Development Foundation for training African personnel. In 2006, the Chinese Government further committed its role this fund (MOFA, 2006). Ministry of Education and Ministry of Commerce jointly established master education program for developing countries in 2008. It aims at fostering high-level human resource to accommodate the diverse needs for human resources training in these countries. There were 252 trainees from 40 African countries joining this program between 2008 and 2011 (MOE, 2012, p. 71). Between 2000 and 2012, it is estimated that no less than 45,000 African professionals took part in short-term training in China funded by the African Human Resources Development Foundation (King, 2013). From 2010 to 2012, China ran training sessions with a total capacity of 27,318 trainees for officials and technical personnel from 54 countries and regions in Africa. The training sessions covered the fields of public management, energy, health, social security, and manufacturing (Information Office of the State Council, China, 2013). In the 5th Ministerial Conference of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation, Chinese government announced “African Talents Program” to train 30,000 African professionals in various sectors (FOCAC, 2012a; Information Office of the State Council, China, 2014).

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) Only a handful of these courses are related directly to the education sector (King, 2010). Ministry of Education has set up 10 “foreign aid resources bases” in universities. Since 2000, they have entrusted these resources bases and other institutions to offer 78 seminars, including 45 seminars on vocational education, distance education, education management, and early childhood education. About 1,443 education ofﬁcials, university presidents, middle school headmasters, scholars, and teachers from over 40 African countries have taken part in the seminars (MOE, 2012; Niu, 2014a). Above all, the analysis untangled China’s engagement in educational cooperation to Africa. Firstly, different from traditional donors, China 292 CHANGSONG NIU AND JING LIU

made more efforts on scholarships for higher education, TVET, training program, and language education rather than basic education related to EFA goals or the MDGs. Secondly, China’s engagement in aid to education is reciprocity oriented. However, it is a product or service based but not direct ﬁnancial investment based. Thirdly, the education assistance is not limited to education sector but more closely related to the overall aid for social and economic development of recipients (King, 2010; Yuan, 2011).

POSITIONING CHINA’S AID IN THE POST-2015 AGENDA

We started this chapter with reviewing the historical change of China’s foreign aid to African education in particular. If we have to label a “paradigm shift” in this change, then we would like to define the trajectory as three transformations, including “from pro-ideology to de-ideology,” “from single area to multiple area,” and “from pragmatic economy driven to sustainable and humane economy focused.” This chapter indicates a “pragmatic and mutual benefit driven” foreign aid of China which is different from the Western donors. Moreover, the analysis of China’s aid policy and practice indicates China’s aid continuously embeds its culture, development experience and foreign policy presented by the following key terms: (1) solidarity and moralism; (2) developing country; and (3) South-South Cooperation. Moralism is the means for fulfilling solidarity through friendship, harmony, and mutual benefit. Positioning itself as a developing country and as a provider of South-South cooperation helped China to establish an equal partnership which both China and its friends in the developing world preferred. Moreover, the analysis above also elucidates some of China’s unique

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) feature of educational aid; these do not ﬁt well with the Western donors’ framework of aid to education development. Firstly, China gives more emphasis on school construction, professional training, and higher education cooperation rather than basic education widely supported by the Western donors. Secondly, following a reciprocity oriented aid policy, China prefers more product/or service delivery aid rather than direct ﬁnance-based projects. Moreover, these projects are closely linked with each other and involve multiple stakeholders through business investment and technology transfer. In terms of the discussion on post-2015 in China’s aid agenda, there are two issues for further discussion and consideration. Firstly, document Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa 293

review shows China’s willingness to act as provider for South-South cooperation and speak in “global language” about development and international cooperation for construction of post-2015 agenda (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, & United Nations System in China, 2013). The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China published China’s Position paper on the Development Agenda beyond 2015 in 2013. Meanwhile, the foreign aid policy of 2014 indicates China’s financial assistance to low-income developing countries to promote the realization of the MDGs (Information Office of the State Council, China, 2014). Moreover, in the fifth Ministerial Conference of Forum on China-Africa Cooperation, the conference declaration shows China’s concern on the post-MDGs framework of sustainable development (FOCAC, 2012b). More interestingly, China’s interests in international education cooperation is also written in the Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010À2020). It emphasized the promotion of international aid to education through human resource development for developing countries. Chinese scholars interpreted it as China’s willingness to further share China’s development experience to international community in order to change the situation of the developed dominated international cooperation. They believe China should confidently take such responsibility as a big developing county (Gu & Shi, 2010; The State Council, 2010). Secondly, despite of this, it indicates that China has different priority for the post-2015 agenda and has more interest in making their own priority agenda under the South-South cooperation framework rather than the world-wide one (King, 2014). China continuously takes poverty reduction and the promotion of common development as the major tasks for development agenda beyond 2015 (Mao, 2014; MOFA, 2013). It shows a different stance of a developing country toward the core task in the post-MDGs framework (Mao, 2014; Ye & Fues, 2014; Zhang, 2014b). Moreover, China

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) takes the role of North-South cooperation as the core channel for the post- 2015 agenda construction while considering the South-South cooperation as supplement the former (Mao, 2014). More importantly, within the South-South cooperation framework, China is willing to act as a provider for other developing countries under its own agenda for a mutual harmonious and prosperous world. Apparently, through trade and investment, China has been investigating a unique approach for achieving common development among developing countries for the post-2015. It includes diverse platforms, such as FOCAC, BRICS, Shanghai Cooperation Organization, China-CELAC Forum, and the newly launched “One Belt One Road” project and Asia Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB). In addition, China’s 294 CHANGSONG NIU AND JING LIU

moderate attitude toward the MDGs can be interpreted in the light of China’s development experience. China considered its achievement in implementation of the MDGs as more likely the achievement of China’s own national development strategy. Furthermore, they fulﬁlled their universal primary education and nine-year compulsory education before the fully implementation of the MDGs after 2000 (King, 2014; Li, 2013; Mao, 2014). Arguably, China’s aid policy on educational development and practice is formulated by its cultural norms, development experience and China’s worldview in different historical periods. The experience in the past shows a paradigm shift of China’s aid “from pro-ideology driven to sustainable and humane economy focused.” Also, there is a continuity of the philosophy of solidarity, morality and reciprocity in China’s aid to the developing world. However, the analysis of the current aid policy and practice shows China’s aid to educational development does not match well with the framework of the Western donor. China, under the South-South cooperation framework, is devoted to constructing its own aid agenda with the developing world. With the growth of economic and political inﬂuence, China will play multiple roles as the biggest developing country, an active promotor and provider for the South-South cooperation in the negotiation and construction of the post-2015 agenda. In terms of aid to educational development, we assume China’s policy and practice will continue to be different from the Western donors. Aid to education development will be kept pragmatic through higher education cooperation. And it will be inclusively linked with business, technology transfer, and people-to-people exchange between China, Africa, and the rest of the developing world.

NOTES

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) 1. Scholars hold to different opinions about the period division of China’s foreign aid. For example, Li and Wu (2009) divided China’s ODA into three stages: the ﬁrst stage is from 1950 to 1973; the second stage is from 1974 to 1990; from 1991 to the present is the third stage. 2. Egypt, which was independent in 1922, is the ﬁrst African country to establish diplomatic relations with China. 3. The project of the Tanzania-Zambia Railway lasted for seven years from 1970 to 1976. China provided a $500 million interest free loan for the project. 4. The data of China’s foreign assistance is different one from another according to different statistics by different scholars but these scholars share the same idea on the trend of aid commitments. See Kobayashi (2008); Kim (1989, p. 38). 5. From 1995 till the end of 2003, about 21 advanced laboratories were set up in African universities (He, 2007). Positioning China’s Aid to Educational Development in Africa 295

6. Five FOCAC meetings have been held so far À the first was in Beijing in 2000, the second in Addis Ababa in 2003, the third in Beijing in 2006, the fourth in Sharm El Sheik, Egypt in 2009, and the fifth in Beijing in 2012. 7. Also see Information Office of the State Council, China, (2011a, 2011b) and MOFA (2006). 8. See Embark on a new journey of China’s diplomacy. Addressed by Foreign Minister Wang Yi at the Symposium, New starting point, new thinking and new practice 2013: China and the World, Beijing, December 16, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.en84.com/nonfiction/remarks/201312/00014081.html 9. Ramo (2004) elaborated three theorems of Beijing Consensus including the usage of innovation for reform; sustainability and equality in development; and self-determination. 10. See United Nations office for South-South cooperation homepage. Retrieved from http://ssc.undp.org/content/ssc.html 11. Following the emphasis on tracking and monitoring the position of China on the post-2015 agenda by King (2014), the authors’ observation on public seminars hosted or jointed hosted by CIDRN during July 2013 and June 2014 shows the warming up regarding this issue among academics and think tanks in China. Thus 5 out of 10 public seminars from 2013 to 2014 were relevant to the post-2015 development agenda (CIDRN, 2014, p. 3). 12. According to He (2007), between the 1950s and the 1980s, China dispatched teachers of mathematics, physics and chemistry at basic education level to Africa. 13. China also established Tianjin University of Technology and Education (TUTE) as the first base for educational cooperation in Africa to be in charge of vocational training for African countries, dispatch of teachers to Africa and train- ings in China for teachers from Africa. In recent years, TUTE has already closely cooperated with vocational and technical schools of Ethiopia in textile, machining, automobile repair, road, and bridge construction (He, 2007b). 14. Also see http://www.csc.edu.cn/laihua/scholarship.aspx 15. See Hanban’s homepage for more details. Retrieved from http://english. hanban.org/

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Downloaded by Nagoya University, Doctor Jing Liu At 06:17 22 June 2016 (PT) This chapter is extended based on the following paper: Niu (2013). The research has been supported by Ministry of Education in China (15JZD033), and is a part of a larger study of Cultural Cooperation and People-to-People Exchanges between China and Foreign Countries. The Ministry is not responsible for the views expressed in this chapter.

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