International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Biosciences Volume 6, Issue 12, 2019, PP 16-21 ISSN 2394-5885 (Print) and ISSN 2394-5893 (Online)

Survey Bibliographic Summary of Pests

Dr. Carlos Henrique Marchiori Ciências Biológicas, Parasitology. Instituto Federal Goiano, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil *Corresponding Author: Dr. Carlos Henrique Marchiori, Ciências Biológicas, Parasitology. Instituto Federal Goiano, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil, Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This study aimed to make a bibliographic summary of insects pests, as well as their technical, characteristics, interactions, Medical and Veterinary importance, Economy and classification. Keywords: Lepidoptera, Diptera, Homoptera, , injuries.

INTRODUCTION Human exposure to sensitizing antigens usually occurs in one of four ways: pests (less than 1% of all species) are those insects that feed on, compete for food  inhalation of airborne particles with, or transmit diseases to humans and  ingestion with foods livestock (Borror, et al., 1981).  dermal contact, or The larvae of certain flannel moths (Megalopygidae) and slug caterpillars  unintentional injection (as by rubbing the eyes) (Neves, 2016). (Limacodidae) do not have a stinger, but they also inflict a sharp, stinging pain upon contact. Immunological responses of the human body These insects have specialized urticating vary, but sneezing, watery eyes, a runny nose, or hairs that inject a painful chemical when skin rashes are common manifestations. touched. The sensation, like that of a stinging Chronic asthma, allergic rhinitis, and eczema are frequently aggravated by exposure to nettle, is an intense localized pain that gradually antigens (https://projects.ncsu.edu fades after several hours. Saddleback caterpillars /cals/course/ent425/text18/medical.html). Sibine stimulea (Clemens) (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae) are probably the most conspicuous The prognosis for treatment of "arboallergies" is of the stinging caterpillars. They feed on a variety not very promising. One option, of trees and shrubs, including cherry, plum, elm, immunotherapy, involves successive exposures to increasing concentrations of the offending and poplar (Borror, et al., 1981). allergen in an effort to desensitize the immune Skin and eye irritation, respiratory system. This approach may provide some relief inflammation, and various types of chronic for some patients, but the only "sure cure" is allergies may also be caused by insects and complete avoidance of exposure to the allergens related . An allergic reaction can be (https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent425/tex induced by nearly any component of an insect's t18/medical.html). body, but hairs, scales, exuviae, and fecal Of all the arthropods, only the larvae of certain products are the most common culprits. (Diptera) are adapted to invade and Allergies to household dust, for example, can consume the tissues of a vertebrate host. An often be traced to dander from by any of these flies is known (Siphonaptera), cockroaches (Blattodea), or as (Neves, 2016). In North America, house dust mites Dermatophagoides spp. this type of is most common among (Acariformes: Pyroglyphidae). Larvae of the domestic (particularly sheep, cattle, and browntail moth Euproctis chrysorrhoea L. horses), but it can also be a problem among the (Lepidopera: Erebidae) have hairs that cause an poor and elderly of the human population where irritating rash on the skin of many people it is usually associated with neglect and (Borror, et al., 1981). unsanitary conditions (Turnock, 2012).

International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Biosciences V6 ● I12 ● 2019 16 Survey Bibliographic Summary of Insects Pests

Some of these flies breed in carrion or manure; larvae leave their vertebrate host by passing out others live in spoiled food. or larvae may as excrement. They pupate in the soil and be ingested and survive in the vertebrate's emerge as adults several weeks later intestinal tract, or larvae may crawl into the (Marcondes, 2001 and Urquhart, et al., 1998). bowel through the anus. The screwworm These agents may include a wide variety of hominivorax (Coquerel) (Diptera: microorganisms (e.g. mycoplasmas, bacteria, ) lays its eggs in open, festering protozoa, spirochetes, and rickettsias) as well as wounds (Marcondes, 2001 and Urquhart, et al., fungi, helminths (roundworms and flatworms), 1998). Larvae feed on these injured tissues and and viruses. A host is any living organism that prevent healing. Screwworms are endemic to is infected by a pathogen, regardless of whether and the southwestern United States or not symptoms of the disease are present. where they are a major pest of sheep and cattle. Some hosts die quickly, others may kill or A sterile-male release program has eradicated inactivate the pathogen, and still others may screwworm populations from Texas and New retain the pathogen in a condition of readiness to Mexico, but ranchers in southern Mexico still infect other hosts. Whenever a host serves as a suffer heavy losses from these flies (Turnock, source of new infections for other hosts (of the 2012) (https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/ course/ same or different species) it is known as ent425/text18/medical.html). a reservoir. Since pathogens do not have legs The family Oestridae includes warble flies, or wings, they must be "carried" from one host cattle grubs, and bot flies whose larvae also to another by vectors. Insects and related parasitize domestic animals. Cattle grubs arthropods are among the most important Hypoderma bovis L. and Hypoderma. lineatum vectors of pathogens. (Marcondes, 2001). (Vilers) (Diptera: Oestridae) lay their eggs on Despite the efforts of modern medicine, spread the legs of cattle. After hatching, larvae burrow of arthropod-borne disease is still one of the through the skin and migrate upward, first to the most serious concerns facing public health digestive system and eventually to the back officials and the medical community in general. where they produce swellings known as The World Health Organization (WHO) "warbles". Full grown larvae cut their way out estimates that as many as 4 million people die of the warble leaving a hole that decreases the each year from the consequences of arthropod- hide's value when it is tanned for leather borne disease. Obviously, the problem is most (Turnock , 2012). The sheep bot fly Oestrus severe in underdeveloped countries where ovis L. (Diptera: oestridae) (Neves, 2016). access to good medical care is limited. But produces live young and deposits them in the even here in the United States, encephalitis nostrils of sheep. These larvae migrate into the (-borne), Lyme disease (tick-borne), sinus cavities where they complete and Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (tick-borne) development. Large fly populations can are still regarded as epidemic-scale problems. weaken or kill the sheep (Marcondes, 2001 and The Communicable Disease Control Center Urquhart, et al., 1998). (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia estimates that eight Larvae of flies in the family Gastrophilidae (the out of every ten Americans will be infected by horse bot flies) are internal parasites of horses an arthropod-borne disease sometime during and mules. Most species lay their eggs around their lives. Pathogens coexist in elaborate the 's nose or mouth. Of all the ecological relationships with their hosts and arthropods, only the larvae of certain flies vectors. Without a vector, the pathogen could (Diptera) are adapted to invade and consume the not infect new hosts, and without new hosts, the tissues of a vertebrate host (Marcondes, 2001 pathogen would eventually become extinct. and Urquhart, et al., 1998). The term biocenosis (pl. biocenoses) can be used to denote an ecological group that includes The horse bot fly Gasterophilus intestinalis a pathogen and all of its hosts and vectors (DeGeer) (Diptera: Gastrophilidae) lays its eggs (https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent425/tex on the legs, flanks, or shoulders of the horse t18/medical.html). (Neves, 2016). These eggs hatch immediately when they are licked and ingested by the horse. Some pathogens may have multiple hosts, The presence of bots (fly larvae) in the animal's reservoirs, or vectors. For example, Pasteurella digestive system often causes malnutrition, tularensis (Thiotrichales: ‎Francisellaceae), the ulceration of the digestive tract, and even tularemia pathogen, can be transmitted to complete blockage of the intestine. Mature humans by deer flies, ticks, fleas, or body lice

17 International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Biosciences V6 ● I12 ● 2019 Survey Bibliographic Summary of Insects Pests from reservoirs in rodents as well as other Although vectors typically acquire a pathogen humans. Other pathogens, like the only by feeding on an infected host, there are a Plasmodium species that cause malaria, have a few species that pass infection through the much narrower biocenosis -- they survive only stage from generation to generation. as long as they remain within their human hosts Such transovarial transmission occurs most and mosquito vectors. Finally, there are commonly in ticks (https://projects.ncsu.edu/ pathogens (e.g. the causal agents of cholera and cals/course/ent425/text18/medical.html). amoebic dysentery) that can survive for long Of all the insect species now living on earth, at periods outside the bodies of living hosts. least half of them (400,000 - 500,000) feed These infectious agents are often spread to directly on the tissues of living plants. It is humans by flies or other insects that visit probably no exaggeration to claim that every sewage and garbage (https://projects.ncsu.edu/ plant species on earth serves as food for at least cals/course/ent425/text18/medical.html). one species of insect. No parts of a plant are In some cases, pathogens may simply adhere to immune from attack: insect herbivores chew a vector's feet or mouthparts, catching a quick the leaves, suck the sap, mine the cambium, ride to a new host. This is known gather the pollen, invade the buds, destroy the as mechanical transmission. Most of the flowers, and devour the fruit. Even plants that pathogens that are transmitted mechanically are manufacture potent insecticides (such as the able to survive short-term exposure to the nicotine in tobacco, pyrethrum in atmosphere and sunlight. Many types of chrysanthemums, or rotenone in tropical arboviruses (short for arthropod-borne viruses) legumes) have insect pests that are especially are spread by mechanical transmission on the adapted to feed on their tissues and detoxify mouthparts of mosquitoes (https://projects.ncsu. their chemical defenses (https://projects.ncsu. edu/cals/course/ent425/text18/medical.html). edu/cals/course/ent425/text18/plantpests.html). In contrast, biological transmission occurs when Herbivores with chewing mouthparts consume a the pathogen survives for a time inside the plant directly. They use mandibles to masticate vector's body, and is later spread to another host. (knead), triturate (grind), or abrade (scrape) Some of these pathogens relocate within the plant tissue into manageable bites. Most body of the vector, traveling from the gut to the species consume entire roots, stems, leaves, salivary glands, for example. Others, such as buds, flowers, fruit, and/or seeds. All members the rickettsia of rocky mountain spotted fever, of the orders Orthoptera and Phasmida feed in remain dormant in the vector's body and only this manner, as do nearly all larvae of Lepidoptera. Chewing herbivores are also become activated after feeding commences. found in the order Diptera (e.g. larvae of Removing a tick within 1-2 hours of attachment Tephritid fruit flies), in the Coleoptera (e.g. usually will ensure too little time for activation larvae and adults of weevils, scarab beetles, leaf and transmission of its pathogens. Some beetles, and many others), and in the pathogens can reproduce in the vector, and a Hymenoptera (ants, some bees, and the larvae of few (the plasmodium of malaria, for example) all sawflies). Immatures of aquatic orders, such must complete a part of their life cycle inside as Trichoptera, Plecoptera, and Ephemeroptera, the vector's body (https://projects.ncsu.edu/ also feed by chewing plant tissues but they are cals/course/ent425/text18/medical.html). seldom regarded as major pests. colonies. As the fungus becomes established in each new Newly hatched insects are usually pathogen- tree, it changes the micro-environment of the free. After feeding on an infected host, the wood and improves reproductive success for the vector may be able to infect new hosts bark beetles. A blue-stain fungus carried immediately (in the case of mechanical by Ips spp. (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) bark beetles transmission) or there may be a waiting period and Dutch elm disease spread by Scolytus spp. (latency) of days to weeks (in the case of (Coleoptera) bark beetles are examples of this biological transmission) while the pathogen type of symbiotic relationship between pathogen migrates or reproduces inside the vector's body. and vector (Turnock, 2012) (https://projects. Nc Once infected, a vector may retain the pathogen su.edu/cals/course/ent425/text18/plantpests.html). for the rest of its life (persistent infection) or may eventually eliminate or inactivate the Plant pathogens may also be carried internally in pathogen (non-persistent infection) (Neves, the salivary glands, digestive tract, or 2016). reproductive system of insect vectors (biological

International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Biosciences V6 ● I12 ● 2019 18 Survey Bibliographic Summary of Insects Pests transmission). These pathogens are usually each species is narrowly adapted to its host plant inoculated into new hosts during feeding or and produces a distinctively shaped gall oviposition, but they may also be spread through (https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent425/tex the insect's feces. Several families of vectors t18/plantpests.html). show strong affinity for biological transmission Herbivores may also injure their host plants of pathogens in specific taxonomic groups. during oviposition; females often cut holes or Thrips, aphids, and whiteflies, for example, tend slits in plant tissues as they deposit their eggs. to be vectors of virus pathogens, whereas Oviposition scars from cicadas, crickets, and leafhoppers are more likely to transmit katydids may be severe enough to kill twigs or mycoplasma-like organisms (MLOs) ((https:// stems. This problem is most troublesome in projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent425/text18/plan nurseries and greenhouses where ornamental tpests.html). plants with obvious injury are less marketable Not all chewing herbivores consume entire (https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent425/tex portions of their host plant. Leaf miners t18/plantpests.html). (represented by several families in the Diptera Many insects that feed on plants also serve as and Lepidoptera) are specialized herbivores that vectors of plant diseases. All major taxa of plant excavate galleries in mesophyll, the inner layer pathogens are spread by insects, including of cells between a leaf's upper and lower viruses, mycoplasmas, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, epidermis. Other species concentrate on and nematodes. Plant pathogens may be carried epidermal cells. The pear slug (an immature externally on a vector's feet, mouthparts, or sawfly) skeletonizes the leaves of its host plant ovipositors (https://projects.ncsu.edu/ cals by abrading only cells from the lower epidermal /course/ent425/text18/plantpests.html). surface. Many bark beetles feed only in cambium, the layer of cells just beneath the bark This mechanical transmission has been well- of a tree or shrub (https://projects.ncsu.edu documented in vectors representing at least /cals/course/ent425/text18/plantpests.html). eight arthropod orders [Hemiptera (both suborders), Thysanoptera, Orthoptera, Diptera, Plant tissue is also damaged by herbivores with Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, plus piercing-sucking mouthparts. Some species Acarina (mites) (Borror, et al., 1981). (e.g., stink bugs) stab their feeding stylets into individual plant cells, inject digestive enzymes Some pathogens even provide symbiotic to liquify the substrate, and then suck out the advantages for their insect vectors. Bark partially digested food. Other species (e.g., beetles, for example, infect trees with a aphids) thread their stylets delicately through pathogenic fungus whenever they establish new intercellular spaces, tap into the plant's vascular Virtually any product or commodity derived or system, and feed by withdrawing sap from the manufactured from plant or animal matter may phloem (https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/en be damaged by insects. Silverfish, ants, t425/text18/plantpests.html). Most pest species cockroaches, and psocids (e.g., booklice) will with piercing-sucking mouthparts belong to the feed on starch sizing, wallpaper paste, book orders Hemiptera (Heteroptera and Homoptera) bindings, and old photographs. Ants, beetles, and Thysanoptera (Borror, et al., 1981). and moths will destroy animal products such as furs, leather, shoes, stuffed museum specimens, Damage from these insects is often less visible and even pinned insects! Some beetles will than that of chewing insects, but it may still chew through inedible packaging just to reach result in severe injury to the plant. Gall-making the food inside. One species, known as the insects are herbivores that live within the tissues "short-circuit" beetle, became notorious for of a plant. They secrete a hormone-like chewing through lead sheathing on telegraph substance that stimulates growth in surrounding cables in order to eat the fiber insulator around plant tissue and induces the host plant to the copper wires. Drugstore beetles, Stegobium produce a specialized shelter (gall) that paniceum L. (Coleoptera: Ptinidae), have been nourishes and protects the herbivore inside. reported feeding on at least 45 different types of Gall-making insects (sometimes called drugs in addition to nuts, ginger, chocolate, cecidozoa) include species in the orders cork, and pepper (https://projects.ncsu.edu/ Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and cals/course/ent425/text18/plantpests.html). Diptera. Gall formation is also induced by certain species of mites, fungi, and bacteria. Stored agricultural products such as seeds and Gall makers are highly specialized herbivores; grains, cheese, cured meats, dried fruits, grain

19 International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Biosciences V6 ● I12 ● 2019 Survey Bibliographic Summary of Insects Pests products (e.g. flour and corn meal), hay and The scientific study of pests and pest control other forages, and even cured tobacco serve as strategies is often called economic food for a variety of beetles, moths, entomology in recognition of the financial cockroaches, ants, and silverfish. These insects impact insects have on industry, agriculture, and inhabit grain bins, silos, elevators, warehouses, human society in general. To be sure, grocery stores, and home pantries wherever food economically important insects are not always is stored. In addition to damage caused by pests; we have already stressed their value as feeding, these pests also accelerate spoilage of pollinators, natural enemies, producers of silk, agricultural commodities by introducing honey, etc. But wherever pest populations bacteria, fungi, and fecal matter. The U. S. develop, their impact always results in monetary Department of Agriculture estimates that losses loss, either directly or indirectly. In most cases, incurred from pests of stored food total nearly losses from insect pests are directly proportional $2 billion a year (https://projects.ncsu.edu/ to the density of the pest population -- high cals/course/ent425/text18/plantpests.html). density increases the extent or severity of damage and makes the need for control more Textiles and natural fibers, including wool, critical (https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/ course/ cotton, silk, hemp, kapok, raffia, jute, flax, and ent425/text18/economics.html). sisal serve as food for carpet beetles and clothes moths. These insects destroy upholstery, Many people use the terms "damage" carpeting, draperies, and clothing by consuming and "injury" interchangeably, but entomologists the natural fibers. Before the invention of usually make an important distinction between nylon, clothes moths were a major cause of them Injury is defined as the physical harm or damage to hemp and sisal rope used in destruction to a valued commodity caused by shipyards (https://projects.ncsu.edu/ cals/course the presence or activities of a pest (e.g., /ent425/text18/economics.html). consuming leaves, tunnelling in wood, feeding on blood). Damage is the monetary value lost to Lumber, wood products and wooden structures the commodity as a result of injury by the pest are subject to attack by a variety of insects (e.g., spoilage, reduction in yield, loss of quality including termites, wood-boring beetles, (https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent425/tex carpenter ants, and carpenter bees. At least 10 t18/economics.html). species of termites are found in the United States, mostly in southern or coastal regions. Any level of pest infestation causes injury, but The eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes not all levels of injury cause damage. Plants flavipes (Kollar)(Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae), often tolerate small injuries with no apparent is the most destructive species. It is distributed damage and sometimes even overcompensate by throughout the South and Southeast from Texas channelling more energy or resources into to Pennsylvania where it causes more than $800 growth terminals or fruiting structures. A low million in damage each year. The National Pest level of injury may not cause enough damage to Control Association estimates that nearly justify the time or expense of pest control 700,000 infested structures are treated for operations. These sub-economic losses are termites every year (https://projects.ncsu. simply part of the cost of doing business edu/cals/course/ent425/text18/economics.html). (https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent425/tex t18/economics.html). Wood-boring beetles (including members of the families Anobiidae, Bostrichidae, Buprestidae, REFERENCES Cerambycidae, Curculionidae, Lyctidae, and Scolytidae) are responsible for extensive [1] Borror, D. J., De Long, D. M. & C.A. Triplehorn, damage to lumber both before and after it is C.A. (1981). An introduction to the study of insects. Saunders, Philadelphia. 827 pp. harvested. The lumber industry estimates that about 10 percent of its annual saw timber [2] https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent425/text production sustains enough insect injury to 18/economics.html. affect its grade. Loss of value may be only [3] https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent425/text about 10 cents per board foot, but with annual 18/medical.html. timber production at nearly 45 billion board [4] (https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent425/te feet, the total loss is close to $450 million each xt18/plantpests. html). year (https://projects.ncsu.edu/ cals/course/ ent [5] Marcondes, C. B. (2001). Entomologia Médica 425/text18/economics.html). e Veterinária. São Paulo: Atheneu. 432 pp.

International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Biosciences V6 ● I12 ● 2019 20 Survey Bibliographic Summary of Insects Pests

[6] Meyer, J. R. As pests – (2006). Department of [9] Turnock ,W. J. (2012). Insects pests. Published Entomology. 425 pp. Online. [7] Neves, D. P. (2016). Parasitologia Humana. [10] Urquhart, G. M., Armour, J., Duncan, J. L., São Paulo; Atheneu. 427 pp. Dunn, A. A. & Jennings, A. M. (1998). [8] Sovak, J. (1994). Insects Coloring Book. New Parasitologia Veterinária. Rio de Janeiro: York, United States. Dover Publications Inc. 48 pp. Guanabara Koogan. 273 pp.

Citation: Dr. Carlos Henrique Marchiori, "Survey Bibliographic Summary of Insects Pests", International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Biosciences, 2019, 6(12), pp. 16-21. Copyright: © 2019 Dr. Carlos Henrique Marchiori. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

21 International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Biosciences V6 ● I12 ● 2019