Musica Stampata – Issue 1 (February 2021)
The Music Videos Movement: Beyond Simple Entertainment by Andrea Cincotti1
Abstract The music video is not just a way to entertain the audience, it is a mode of expression that encourages, inspires, and motivates. Music video is the proof of how a media product can represent society, stirring up people’s consciousness and addressing crucial topics. Through the analysis of a diverse array of music videos and the application of media theories, the article will demonstrate how music video can play an active role in social movements and ignite social change, becoming a way of identification.
The music video represents one of the innovations that produced major changes in the music-related industry.2 Music videos began to be recognized by the public following the launch of MTV in 1981. However, music video has never been an exclusively television phenomenon; indeed, it existed even before MTV, and only later on began to be shown on many other media too. Associate Professor of Communications Mathias Bonde Korsgaard states that music video is not a televisual genre, but it existed before and will continue to exist beyond television. Therefore, music video should be considered as an independent medium that due to the multifaceted history and its heterogeneity, is difficult to define in a straightforward way.3 It is safe to say though that music video has become not only an integral part of the music industry, but also a powerful and meaningful form of media or, as Stanford Affiliate Researcher Carol Vernallis defines it, “a key driver of popular culture.”4 When approaching music video, we should not consider its history, genre, or visual style; rather we should accept its audiovisual and multimodal nature, trying to rethink our ways of conceptualizing it.5 Indeed, regardless of their genre and visual style, some music videos more than others can really represent a powerful medium to convey meaningful messages. Since “Music videos can push the boundaries and be pieces of pure creativity,”6 they require a strong audience engagement, which stirs up a dialogue within society, giving voice to minorities and creating a sense of belonging for less represented categories. In his work “MTV and the Politics of Postmodern Pop,” David Tetzlaff states that postmodern critics used to see in MTV a mirror-image of the ideal postmodern text, made up of fragmentation,
1 Andrea Cincotti (b. 1998) holds a B.A. in Communications and Creative Writing from John Cabot University (Rome, Italy). 2 Will Straw, “Music Video in Its Contexts: Popular Music and Post-Modernism in the 1980s,” Popular Music 7, no. 3 (1988): 248. 3 Mathias Bonde Korsgaard, “Defining Music Video,” in Music Video after MTV : Audiovisual Studies, New Media, and Popular Music (Routledge, 2017), 16-17, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315617565. 4 Carol Vernallis, “YouTube Aesthetics,” in Unruly Media: YouTube, Music Video, and the New Digital Cinema (Oxford University Press, 2013), 127, https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199766994.001.0001. 5 Korsgaard, “Defining Music Video,” 35. 6 PULSE, “Why Music Videos Are Still So Important: Views from inside the Industry,” Medium, February 4, 2016, https://medium.com/@pulsefilms/why-music-videos-are-still-so-important-views-from-inside-the-industry- ebaa7d4758d2. 2 segmentation and the collapse of past and future into the present.7 But music videos are more than just an example of fragmentation or collapse. For instance, Lady Gaga’s nine-minute “Telephone” music video demonstrates how a music video can hide a deeper meaning behind what could seem a common pop song about a breakup. Lady Gaga told E! News that she wanted to convey “the idea that America is full of young people that are inundated with information and technology and turn it into something that was more of a commentary on the kind of country that we are.”8 Some poststructuralist exponents were interested in the search of an interpretative attitude through which to challenge – and subvert fixed categories. Their concerns were primarily felt by people who did not fit the ordered and predetermined categories and did not accept the conception of the world as binaries, as conceived by the previous movement of structuralism. Considering the objective of poststructuralism, it is possible to understand the music video as a product of the poststructuralist attitude. Deconstructing the superficial meaning of some music videos, it is possible to discover a further and even deeper message that can ignite a sort of social action. Going back to Gaga’s “Telephone,” the prison where Gaga is locked up represents the overflow of information, an ideal cage that the overflow of information and technology create. When one of the guards comments “I told you, she didn’t have a dick” after stripping Gaga of her clothes, the artist’s sexuality is exposed as well as the society’s tendency to speculate about her sexual identity. Gender stereotypes and sexism are addressed throughout the video as well. Indeed, the meaning behind some music videos is not fixed. Music video, as all media products, can be considered as a system of signs. As the Italian philosopher and semiotician Umberto Eco wrote, for every system of signs, signs and their correlations are to be seen in relation to a sender and an addressee. Eco also added that the reception of the message is different and may vary among individuals since a message can have different levels of meaning.9 Eco’s theory on the meaning of the message foreruns poststructuralist ideas. According to the poststructuralist framework, a text is never a self-contained object that can be fully explained by anyone, but rather something that begins to be produced in the moment in which it is read and interpreted. Following this perspective, the meaning of a text does not depend on the author’s intention, but it can have infinite meanings based on the readers’ reception and interpretation of it. The poststructuralist thinker Roland Barthes seems to support this idea in his essay “The Death of the Author,” in which he states that to associate the text with the author means to impose a limit and a fixed meaning to it and, therefore, to put a full stop to the act of writing. Historically, the figure of the author has been compared many times to a father- son relationship because the author is believed to exist prior to his works. Yet, the author is just an artificial figure and, identifying him with his works, imposes a fixed meaning on the texts that should not exist according to poststructuralist thinkers. Therefore, Barthes states that the author needs to die in order for the reader to be born.10 The theory can be applied to analyze media products as well, yet a question arises concerning music videos: who is the real author of a music video? Is it the singer who wrote the lyrics to the song? Is it the director of the music video? Or is it the recording company who commissioned the video?
7 Andrew Goodwin, “Fatal Distractions: MTV Meets Postmodern Theory,” in Sound and Vision: The Music Video Reader, ed. Simon Frith, Andrew Goodwin, and Lawrence Grossberg (Psychology Press, 1993), 37. 8 Courtney Crowder, “Lady Gaga’s New Video Explained: Dead Diners, Americana and Cigarette Sunglasses,” ABC News, March 16, 2010, https://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/SpringConcert/decoding-lady-gagas-telephone- video/story?id=10114081. 9 Prayer Elmo Raj, “Text and Meaning in Umberto Eco’s The Open Work,” The Context 2, no. 3 (2015): 329. 10 Roland Barthes, “The Death of the Author,” in Image Music Text, ed. Stephen Heath (London: Fontana Press, 1977), 142–48. 3
If we think about it, what is depicted in the music video does not always have to do with the words sang by the singer. For instance, even though Justin Bieber’s “Sorry” deals with a repentant boy who tries to make up with the person he loves for some mistakes he’s done, the music video stars the group of dancers “Royal Family” moving to the rhythm of the song. In “Steal My Girl,” One Direction sing about a unique relationship with a girl so perfect that everybody wants to “steal” her. Yet, the music video shows the actor Danny DeVito trying to set up a video in the desert featuring a chimpanzee, sumo wrestlers, acrobats, a marching band, and the Maasai tribe from Tanzania. These are two of the many cases in which it is hard to say that the author of the song is the real author of the music video. Certainly, the author of the song plays a role in the realization of the music video as well: if the director decides to stick to the concept, story, or simply to the mood of the song, the lyrics and music may serve as an input or pattern to follow in the production of the video. So, is the director of the video the real author of the video itself? In order for the audience to extract a meaning out of a work and create a real knowledge, different from just the capitalist values of commodification, meaning does not have to be universal, but fragmented and open to interpretation. Other times, the message behind music videos is explicit enough and does not contain further hidden meanings. For instance, the very visual and discussed Childish Gambino’s “This is America” music video faces powerful topics such as the abuse of guns and violence in America and the discrimination and violence that the Black community undergoes in the States. Madonna’s eight- minute “God Control” music video is commendable for the innovative way it deals with the serious issue of gun control. The director of the video Jonas Åkerlund already explicitly expressed this topic through the visual images in the video, leaving few possibilities for the audience to interpret it in other ways. However, many other videos grant the audience the opportunity to interpret the message behind them without following a fixed or pre-imposed meaning. The music videos that come without a fixed meaning and permit an interpretation of the message can be considered “open works,” as Eco would have called them. According to Eco, “the addressee is bound to enter into an interplay of stimulus and response which depends on his unique capacity for sensitive reception of the piece.”11 Therefore, the audience has an active role in the creation of the meaning behind a work. Indeed, open work means that the author composes the art work, completing it with the desire to be realized by the audience.12 The author provides his own credentials, but allows a multiplicity of perspectives when presented to the audience. This is the case of many music videos where the director acts just as a medium to create the product, leaving its interpretation open to the public. In order to understand the meaning behind these music videos, it is necessary to deconstruct the video itself and see what is behind the surface and the superficial meaning. The French philosopher Jacques Derrida considers the idea of deconstruction as a possibility to deconstruct the workings of political systems, political parties, power structures, and bureaucracies. One of the gestures of deconstruction is to not naturalize what is not natural, in other words, to not assume that what is conditioned by history, institutions, or society is natural. According to Derrida, the disruptive force of deconstruction is always already contained within the very architecture of the work. This is why some music videos explicitly offer the possibility to be deconstructed by the audience.13
11 Umberto Eco, The Open Work, trans. Anna Cancogni (Harvard University Press, 1989), p. 3 12 Eco, The Open Work, 3. 13 Then & Now, “Understanding Derrida, Deconstruction & Of Grammatology,” YouTube, August 25, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HKJlSY0DBBA&ab_channel=Then%26Now. 4
The almost-nine-minute “Alejandro” music video deconstructs itself, giving the audience the opportunity to grasp further meanings behind the superficial one offered by the images. For this iconic music video, Lady Gaga collaborated with the photographer Steven Klein who had never directed a music video before. The clip, as many of Gaga’s music videos, sparked a lot of criticism for its “overly sexual” content and its religious references. Today we are more used to sexual references and content in songs and music videos, (Cardi B and Meghan Stallion’s “WAP” is the latest example), but ten years ago artists were still attacked and criticized for their art, especially by conservatives’ associations. Indeed, the Catholic Community didn’t agree with Gaga’s employment of religious imagery especially in relation to carnal ideas like sex. The video has been often compared to Madonna’s “Like A Virgin,” which led Bill Donohue of the Catholic League to accuse Lady Gaga of being a “Madonna wannabe” and to the spreading of the general idea that Gaga used religious imagery specifically to unleash controversy around her music video.14 However, “Alejandro” music video is much more than a way to trigger controversy; it is the example of how music video as a medium can stir up a social dialogue on important issues that are sometimes neglected. The lyrics to “Alejandro” say “I know that we are young and I know that you may love me, but I just can’t be with you like this anymore, Alejandro” and continues in the chorus saying “Don’t call my name, don’t call my name, Alejandro. I’m not your babe, I’m not your babe, Fernando. Don’t call my name, don’t call my name, Roberto.” Gaga seems to sing about three past relationships, how she lost her love, and how she’s now free to not kiss or touch anyone. As he declared to MTV, Klein wanted to create a video that was a combination of cinema and theater to convey the idea of a woman’s desire to resurrect a dead love and show her pain of living without her true love.15 Indeed, some scenes of the video are dedicated to the Broadway musical “Cabaret.” This aspect of the video seems to reflect Fredric Jameson’s idea of postmodern media products. According to the critic Fredric Jameson, postmodernism represents a celebration of the surface of things. If modernism was about originality and depth, postmodernism is about flatness and absence of depth. The cultural logic of late capitalism (postmodernism) promotes commodification, and every material becomes a mere object of consumption. As a consequence, one of the characteristics of the cultural production during postmodernism is pastiche. Pastiche is an empty parody without meaning or political denunciation. Artists tend to copy and paste already existing ideas because unable to create new ones. Therefore, originality is replaced by intertextuality: citing other authors and works without adding additional meaning. The death of originality and individuality leads to the feeling of nostalgia that causes artists to reuse and reincorporate the past.16 However, by deconstructing the video, it is possible to understand that “Alejandro” is more than just a pastiche of religious symbols or an example of empty musical intertextuality. Indeed, there is the possibility to scratch other meanings behind its surface, like the embracing and appreciation for the gay community and the denounce of the “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” policy. The music video has become a fundamental piece of gay celebration, and it reconfirmed Gaga as one of the most relevant and influent gay icons of all time. Gaga sitting on a throne watching the dancers perform in the snow, with scenes of war and violence shown in a screen behind them, represents her admiration for the gay community and their strength. As she said in an interview, “To be gay and to live openly in this society is something that requires a tremendous amount of strength,
14 Jessica Calefati, “Deconstructing Lady Gaga’s ‘Alejandro’ Video,” Mother Jones, June 21, 2010, https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2010/06/music-monday-critique-lady-gagas-alejandro-video/. 15 James Montgomery, “Lady Gaga’s ‘Alejandro’ Director Explains Video’s Painful Meaning,” MTV News, September 6, 2010, http://www.mtv.com/news/1641136/lady-gagas-alejandro-director-explains-videos-painful-meaning/. 16 Dan Laughey, Key Themes in Media Theory (McGraw-Hill Education, 2007), p. 145. 5 and I admire that and I envy it in so many ways.” 17 The video also shows soldiers in black leather uniforms in a cabaret, male dancers wearing heels, and Gaga wearing a bra equipped with AR-15 rifle while dancing. As Derrida said in his deconstruction analysis, not only signs are dependent on each other for their meaning, but other signs are always present within the meaning of a single sign by the “trace.” The “trace” is not a presence, but the simulacrum of a presence that dislocates, displaces, and refers beyond itself. When we think of a concept, other concepts, sign, signifies and signifiers (among a thousand other things depending on the person) are present in the sign itself to define its meaning.18 This is what happens watching “Alejandro.” For instance, the leather-dressed soldiers and the war and violence scenes on the screen carry with them many other concepts, including also the complaint towards the “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” policy. “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” (DADT) was an official policy of the United States commanded by Bill Clinton in 1994 regarding the military service by gay, bisexuals, and lesbians. The policy prohibited soldiers from harassing or discriminating homosexual members while barring openly gay, lesbians, and bisexuals’ people from military service. This concept is neither present nor absent in the signifier of the video, but it is identifiable by its trace. Therefore, even though Klein’s intent was to describe a painful love story, the way he directed the video offered a possibility to the audience to see something else behind it, and speak about an issue that is not commonly faced within society. The popularity of the “Alejandro” music video grew so much that it allowed Gaga to bring the theme of the “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” on national television too. Indeed, interviewed by Larry King on CNN, Lady Gaga exposed the “archaic things” and the misinformation that surrounded the DADT, hoping and asking the government for a change.19 “Alejandro” was part of a movement that triggered an important social change, since in 2011 the DADT was repealed by the Obama administration. Therefore, “Alejandro” is an example of how music video as a medium can be used as a form of social complaint against injustice and can create a sense of belonging for people, developing an idea of community. “Alejandro” is just one of the many music videos that, behind the apparent light theme of the lyrics and the controversial or “meaningless” images of the video, hide important messages that can positively affect society helping some people feel less lonely and more represented. On February 22 of 2016, Rihanna premiered the music video for her single “Work.” The song was a commercial success, and the video has more than 1 billion views on YouTube. Yet, the music video was not appreciated and understood by everyone. Some critics even defined it as an example of “voyeurism.” Indeed, Hazel Cills of MTV News defined Rihanna’s and Drake’s attitude in the video “playful” and said that the video, especially the second one, was ultimately made for the audience’s pleasure and voyeurism.20 Christopher Hooton from The Independent had a similar opinion, comparing the video to Nicki Minaj’s “Anaconda.”21 However, Rihanna’s “Work” is much more than people twerking in a bar, it is an example of representation of other cultures in media. The “Work” music video is seven- minutes long and is divided into two videos, the first directed by Director X, and the second by the Swedish director Tim Erem.
17 “Larry King Live,” Larry King Live (CNN, June 1, 2010). 18 Then & Now, “Understanding Derrida, Deconstruction & Of Grammatology.” 19 “Larry King Live.” 20 Hazel Cills, “Video Voyeurism: Rihanna, Ciara, And Madonna Dance 4 U,” MTV News, March 3, 2016, http://www.mtv.com/news/2748235/video-voyeurism-rihanna-ciara-and-madonna-dance-4-u/. 21 Christopher Hooton, “Rihanna and Drake Drop Two ‘Work’ Music Videos Separated by a Buffering Bar,” The Independent, February 23, 2016, https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/rihanna-and-drake- drop-two-work-music-videos-separated-buffering-bar-a6891056.html. 6
Watching the first video for the first time, it may look like a bunch of people dancing and twerking in a club while Rihanna and Drake sing and move in a flirty way to the beat. Yet, deconstructing it, the music video may be seen as a tribute to Rihanna’s Caribbean culture. From the very first scene of the video, the colors on the background scream “Caribbean.” Then, with a smart tilt shot, Rihanna’s outfit is revealed: a pierced petticoat with the Rastafarian colors. She is in a bar where people are celebrating their heritage dancing to the music with the typical Caribbean moves, and the most important detail is that all the people in the music video are people of color. The message about immigrants and work possibility is another of the themes addressed by the video. One of the questions that postcolonialism raised was the issue of “media imperialism”, which was related to the issue of the representation of “race” within the media. Media representation was possible only if the colonizing individuals were able to impose their culture, language, and way of thinking to the ‘colonized’ populations.22 Postcolonialism shed light on how the traditional media representation of race, called ‘the grammar of race’, usually included media frames in which black people were portrayed as slaves, ideologically submitted, uncivilized, criminals, or having animal-like characteristics. About her video, Rihanna said: “Being an African-American woman myself, I sometimes find myself disconnected to the ways in which other primarily black cultures outside of America celebrate their heritage. I think we're so used to seeing Caribbean culture represented in such a commercialized way that it is eye opening to see the ways in which it is actually celebrated and made more tangible by someone who actually comes from that culture and can show us the true and beautiful sides of it.”23 Therefore, the apparently meaningless music video for “Work,” actually presents itself as an open work where different layers of meanings overlap in a celebration of culture that inserts itself into the discourse about race representation in Western media. The same thing happens with the second video, which seems even more illogical and senseless than the first one. Even though the director revealed that the choice of the room’s color was not driven by any further motives, viewers have their own interpretation of the pink color. This shows how the video director did not choose to impose a meaning on his work, but decided to let it open to interpretation, recognizing the audience as the real author of the music video. Indeed, the second video builds on the theme of immigrant work possibilities and how the absence of work for immigrants affect families. Rihanna and Drake are alone in what looks like a pink and purple living room. The pink color has been interpreted as an imaginary scenario, maybe in the mind of Rihanna or Drake. They represent a couple torn by the difficulties of immigrant work or work abroad. Indeed, Drake sings “Long distance, I need you . . . When I see potential I just gotta see it through,” referring to job opportunities that may only be available far away. Rihanna also sings, “Please recognize I’m trying, babe. I have to work, work, work, work, work, work.”24 Therefore, even though both the videos for “Work” seem unintelligible and oversexualized with the aim of gaining more views and, as a consequence, earning more money, it actually is an opportunity to celebrate different cultures, make people feel part of a community embracing their own heritage, and deal with one of the delicate and crucial issues of the actual political scene.
22 Laughey, Key Themes in Media Theory, 127. 23 Vannessa Jackson, “Rihanna’s ‘Work’ Music Video Has A Message That Goes Beyond The Lyrics Of The Song,” Bustle, February 22, 2016, https://www.bustle.com/articles/143393-rihannas-work-music-video-has-a-message-that- goes-beyond-the-lyrics-of-the-song. 24 Kay T. Xia, “Music Video Breakdown: ‘Work’ by Rihanna | Arts | The Harvard Crimson,” The Harvard Crimson, March 8, 2016, https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2016/3/8/music-video-breakdown-work/. 7
Just like “Alejandro” and “Work,” many other modern music videos succeed in promoting identification and social solidarity, dealing with issues that are often overlooked or ignored because they do not concern the binary criteria of the world. A music video is not just a product of the industry created for the mere entertainment of the audience, it is actually a mode of expression that encourages the audience’s interpretative attitude, in order to stir up people’s consciences, inspire and motivate them to address the subjects they care about without being afraid to speak up their mind. As other media products such as movies, TV series, and songs, music videos hold a representational power. Indeed, representing someone or something in TV, cinema or in music videos means recognizing its existence on a social level. Music videos fall into the category of media products that are able to faithfully depict society and the cultural issues that are not always faced by media, allowing individuals in the audience to feel less lonely, become part of a community, and develop a sense of belonging.
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Bibliography
Barthes, Roland. “The Death of the Author.” In Image Music Text, edited by Stephen Heath, 142–48. London: Fontana Press, 1977. Calefati, Jessica. “Deconstructing Lady Gaga’s ‘Alejandro’ Video.” Mother Jones, June 21, 2010. https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2010/06/music-monday-critique-lady- gagas-alejandro-video/. Cills, Hazel. “Video Voyeurism: Rihanna, Ciara, And Madonna Dance 4 U.” MTV News, March 3, 2016. http://www.mtv.com/news/2748235/video-voyeurism-rihanna-ciara- and-madonna-dance-4-u/. Crowder, Courtney. “Lady Gaga’s New Video Explained: Dead Diners, Americana and Cigarette Sunglasses.” ABC News, March 16, 2010. https://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/SpringConcert/decoding-lady-gagas- telephone-video/story?id=10114081. Eco, Umberto. The Open Work. Translated by Anna Cancogni. Harvard University Press, 1989. Goodwin, Andrew. “Fatal Distractions: MTV Meets Postmodern Theory.” In Sound and Vision: The Music Video Reader, edited by Simon Frith, Andrew Goodwin, and Lawrence Grossberg, 37–56. Psychology Press, 1993. Hooton, Christopher. “Rihanna and Drake Drop Two ‘Work’ Music Videos Separated by a Buffering Bar.” The Independent, February 23, 2016. https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/rihanna-and-drake- drop-two-work-music-videos-separated-buffering-bar-a6891056.html. Jackson, Vannessa. “Rihanna’s ‘Work’ Music Video Has A Message That Goes Beyond The Lyrics Of The Song.” Bustle, February 22, 2016. https://www.bustle.com/articles/143393-rihannas-work-music-video-has-a-message- that-goes-beyond-the-lyrics-of-the-song. Korsgaard, Mathias Bonde. “Defining Music Video.” In Music Video after MTV : Audiovisual Studies, New Media, and Popular Music, 16–40. Routledge, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315617565. “Larry King Live.” Larry King Live. CNN, June 1, 2010. Laughey, Dan. Key Themes in Media Theory. McGraw-Hill Education, 2007. Montgomery, James. “Lady Gaga’s ‘Alejandro’ Director Explains Video’s Painful Meaning.” MTV News, September 6, 2010. http://www.mtv.com/news/1641136/lady-gagas- alejandro-director-explains-videos-painful-meaning/. PULSE. “Why Music Videos Are Still So Important: Views from inside the Industry.” Medium, February 4, 2016. https://medium.com/@pulsefilms/why-music-videos-are- still-so-important-views-from-inside-the-industry-ebaa7d4758d2. Raj, Prayer Elmo. “Text and Meaning in Umberto Eco’s The Open Work.” The Context 2, no. 3 (2015): 326–31. Straw, Will. “Music Video in Its Contexts: Popular Music and Post-Modernism in the 1980s.” Popular Music 7, no. 3 (1988): 247–66. Then & Now. “Understanding Derrida, Deconstruction & Of Grammatology.” YouTube, August 25, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HKJlSY0DBBA&ab_channel=Then%26Now. 9
Vernallis, Carol. “YouTube Aesthetics.” In Unruly Media: YouTube, Music Video, and the New Digital Cinema, 127–54. Oxford University Press, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199766994.001.0001. Xia, Kay T. “Music Video Breakdown: ‘Work’ by Rihanna | Arts | The Harvard Crimson.” The Harvard Crimson, March 8, 2016. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2016/3/8/music-video-breakdown-work/.
Videography
Bieber, Justin. “Sorry.” YouTube, October 22, 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fRh_vgS2dFE. Childish Gambino. “This Is America.” YouTube, May 6, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VYOjWnS4cMY. Lady Gaga. “Alejandro.” YouTube, June 8, 2010. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=niqrrmev4mA. Madonna. “God Control.” YouTube, June 26, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zv- sdTOw5cs. Rihanna feat. Drake. “Work.” YouTube, February 22, 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UpsKGvPjAgw.