The First Publication of the New Chemistry in America in Mercurio Peruano (1792) by Joseph Coquette Interciencia, Vol

Interciencia ISSN: 0378-1844 [email protected] Asociación Interciencia Venezuela

Bifano, Claudio; Whittembury, Guillermo The first publication of the new chemistry in America in Mercurio Peruano (1792) by Joseph Coquette Interciencia, vol. 32, núm. 4, abril, 2007, pp. 281-288 Asociación Interciencia Caracas, Venezuela

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How to cite Complete issue Scientific Information System More information about this article Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal Journal's homepage in redalyc.org Non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative THE FIRST PUBLICATION OF THE NEW CHEMISTRY IN AMERICA IN MERCURIO PERUANO (1792) BY JOSEPH COQUETTE

Claudio Bifano and Guillermo Whittembury

To David Yudilevich (1930-2006), old friend and keen Humboldtian.

SUMMARY

Joseph Coquette, first director of the non-university schol- try….” in 1793. In addition he published “Didactic dissertation arly learning center, Lima’s Mining Tribunal in Peru, published on Mining…..”, also in 1792. The present essay examines in ex- (1792) a text on chemistry in the Peruvian journal Mercurio tenso “Principles of Physical Chemistry ….”, and comments on Peruano: “Principles of Physical Chemistry ….”, which was the others. Some scholars and institutions of advanced learning the first text published in America on the new chemistry, as it in the New Continent are also mentioned. Mercurio Peruano appeared five years before Lavoisier’s book of 1789 was printed is looked upon in more detail, after Alexander von Humboldt in Spanish in Mexico, in 1797. It was complemented by “About deemed it so important that he donated the 12 volume collec- the need to perfect and reform the Nomenclature in Chemis- tion to the Berlin Library of King Frederick William III.

Chemistry was thought to be coveries and nomenclature of wrote ‘Principles’ in Mercu- only by one of three complex unknown in the new continent. the “new chemistry” which rio Peruano, a journal dedi- routes: sailing the South Atlan- However, Joseph Coquette pub- Lavoisier had compiled only 3 cated to the cultured society of tic, then proceeding round the lished in 1792, in the most iso- years earlier in his revolution- America. tip of South America through lated viceroyalty of the Spanish ary book Traité élémentaire de At the time, while Nueva Magellan’s Strait to the Pacific crown in America, Principios la Chimie, présenté dans un España (Mexico) could be Ocean from the South; sailing de Química Física para servir ordre nouveau et d’après les reached directly from Spain the Atlantic westwards, cross- de Introducción a la Historia découvertes modernes (Ele- by sailing across the Atlantic ing Panama by land and sailing Natural del Peru, (Principles ments of Chemistry; Lavoisier, Ocean and Nueva Granada South to the Pacific Ocean; or of Physical Chemistry to serve 1789) denoted here as ‘Traité’. (Colombia) could also be ap- by crossing the Atlantic to Río as an Introduction to the Natu- ‘Principles’ shows Coquette’s proached directly by sailing de la Plata (Argentina), and ral History of Peru; Coquette, extraordinary knowledge, ca- across the Atlantic and Carib- traveling by land through what 1792c), which is shortened pacity and mastery of this new bean seas, Peru on the South is now Bolivia. hereon to ‘Principles’, an up- and complex subject, and his Pacific was more remote. It To help appreciate Coquette’s to-date text with the last dis- teaching vocation, since he could be reached from Spain scientific achievement, Lavoisi-

KEYWORDS / Coquette Joseph / First Chemistry Text in America / Humboldt Alexander v. / Lavoisier Antoine / Mercurio Peruano / Peru / Received: 12/12/2006. Modified: 01/23/2007. Accepted: 03/15/2007.

Claudio Bifano. Chemist. Uni- de la Tierra. UCV. Apartado Cayetano Heredia, Peru. Senior IVIC, Apartado 21827, Cara- versidad Central de Venezuela 3985. Caracas, Venezuela. e- Investigator Emeritus, Center of cas 1020A, Venezuela. e-mail: (UCV). Ph.D. in Chemistry, mail: [email protected] Biophysics and Biochemistry, [email protected] University of California, San Guillermo Whittembury. M.D. Instituto Venezolano de Inves- Diego, USA. Professor UCV. and Doctor in Medical Sci- tigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Address: Instituto de Ciencias ences (Biophysics), Universidad Caracas Venezuela. Address:

APR 2007, VOL. 32 Nº 4 0378-1844/07/04/281-08 $ 3.00/0 281 RESUMEN

Joseph Coquette, primer director del Tribunal de Minería de “Disertación Didáctica de Minería….”. En este ensayo “Princi- Lima, publicó en Mercurio Peruano (1792) un texto de quími- pios...” es examinado in extenso y los otros dos son comentados. ca: “Principios de Química Física…”, el primer texto sobre la Se mencionan algunas instituciones de aprendizaje avanzado en nueva química publicado en América, pues el libro de Lavoisier el Nuevo Continente y se examina la revista Mercurio Peruano, (1789) en castellano fue impreso en México en 1797. Fue com- tan importante que Alexander von Humboldt donó la colección plementado por “Sobre la necesidad de perfeccionar y refor- de 12 volúmenes a la Biblioteca del Rey Federico Guillermo III mar la Nomenclatura de la Química”. Además Coquette publicó de Prusia en Berlín.

RESUMO

Joseph Coquette, primeiro diretor do Tribunal de Mineria Coquette publicou “Dissertação Didática de Mineria….”. Nes- de Lima, publicou no Mercúrio Peruano (1792) um texto de te ensaio “Princípios...” é examinado in extenso e os outros química: “Princípios de Química Física…”, o primeiro tex- dois são comentados. Se mencionam algumas instituições de to sobre a nova química publicado na América, pois o livro aprendizagem avançada no Novo Continente e se examina a de Lavoisier (1789) em castelhano foi impresso no México em revista Mercúrio Peruano, tão importante que Alexander von 1797. Foi complementado por “Sobre a necessidade de aper- Humboldt doou a coleção de 12 volumes à Biblioteca do Rei feiçoar e reformar a Nomenclatura da Química”. Além disso Frederico Guilherme III de Prússia em Berlin.

er’s contribution to universal those of others in book form for each compound substance in Spanish America as non- science is first outlined, as is in ‘Traité’. All this produced a generic name that referred clericals were discouraged to the cultural level of the Ameri- the rightly called “Chemical to a given class (e.g. acid or conduct such activities. can elite societies of the time, Revolution”, changing most salt) and a specific name, like In the late 18th century, the leaning on some of Humboldt’s scientists’ conceptions (Moore, “sulfuric” in the case of sulfu- bourbon kings of the Enlight- relations with members of the 1939). Some of Lavoisier’s ex- ric acid, to distinguish it from enment of Spain, Charles III intelligentsia of America about traordinary contributions were: other members of its own spe- (1759-1788) and Charles IV which he so enthusiastically i) air is not an element: it is cies. Before Lavoisier, chemis- (1788-1808), stimulated in their wrote (Minguet, 1969). Then, formed in part by a fraction of try was hardly accepted as a colonies the study of natural Mercurio Peruano is reviewed it that is breathable, called oxy- science even in advanced scien- sciences and the exploitation and Coquette’s ‘Principles’ and gen; ii) burning hydrogen and tific centers; after him, it was of natural resources. Interna- his other contributions to chem- oxygen yields water, which is established as a true science tional scientific expeditions to istry examined in detail. “a compound” and not “a sim- (Moore, 1939). In the English America, were encouraged. ple element”, as was believed; colonies, Lavoisier’s Elements Consequently, European natu- The Birth of Modern and iii) chemistry helps under- of Chemistry was published in ralists and scientists arrived to Chemistry stand mineral, animal and plant 1799 (Duveen and Klickstein, America to undertake geodesic kingdoms. After Lavoisier, the 1954) measurements, determine limits Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier chemistry of “principles” was and boundaries between coun- (1743-1794) begun his research replaced by the chemistry of Higher Learning Centers in tries, build fortifications and in 1772, based in clear, quanti- “substances”. Lavoisier’s revolu- Colonial America in the 18th study natural resources aim- tative and reproducible experi- tion showed that some metals, Century ing at their exploitation. The mental measurements. Using metalloids and salts were part European expeditions spread the balance, he determined of simple bodies to begin with, University education in new knowledge and philoso- that the weight change was and that the 4 or 5 elements Spanish colonial America was phies directly to the elites in constant when combustion of in vogue before, were in fact carried out by friars of the the colonies and promoted the phosphorus and sulfur, and cal- more than 30. His irrefutable Dominican Order. They estab- first non-university centers of cination of lead and tin, were results led to the “law of mass lished Universities in the Island learning, which produced sci- achieved in tightly closed con- and element conservation” in of Hispaniola (1538), Lima and ence unlinked to university su- tainers, as in these processes all chemical reactions and to Mexico (1551), Bogotá (1580), pervision, advancing scientific the air inside the containers a new nomenclature that he Santiago de Chile (1589), Quito and technological development was absorbed. Thus, weight conceived with de Morveau, de (1686) and Caracas (1725). Je- in the New World and yielding changes could not be attrib- Fourcroy, and Berthollet, fol- suits founded in 1621 the Uni- important economic gains for uted to “strange anomalies” of lowing the Linnæus binomial versidad Javeriana in Bogotá, the Spanish crown. In Peru, the processes involved, as had system, and which Coquette St. Gregory in Quito (1621), Mexico and Nueva Granada been thought to be observed in (1793b) published in Mercu- and others (Rodríguez-Cruz, teaching mineralogy and min- wrongly planned experiments. rio Peruano. Naturalist Carl 1973). In the English colonies, ing, physics, mathematics and His findings led him to break von Linne (Carolus Linnæus, New College was founded natural sciences received spe- with many concepts of the 1707-1778) had introduced the in 1636, changing its name cial attention in these non-uni- pneumatic chemistry and phlo- binomial system of gender and in 1639 to Harvard College. versity centers, spreading the giston theories of his time. He species to classify plants and When Jesuits were expelled ideas of the Age of Enlighten- published his extensive investi- animals. Lavoisier and col- from Spain and its colonies in ment and making outstanding gations first in separate articles leagues assigned a simple name 1767, Dominicans were mainly contributions to science, its and then he collected them and for each simple substance and responsible for higher education teaching and divulgation. These

282 APR 2007, VOL. 32 Nº 4 institutions were starting points 1997): “In Calabozo, in the relation with Mutis, Francisco pre-Hispanic irrigation channel for an organized scientific de- middle of the llanos, we found José de Caldas and others. He remains. Humboldt adds that velopment in Spanish colonial an electric machine with great wrote “Mutis’ library (in Bo- Coquette explained the use of America, as they trained stu- discs, electrophori, batteries gota) is the largest botanical humus-rich water by coastal dents in the most advanced and electrometers; an apparatus library I have seen, except for pre-Inca cultures to improve methods to explore and exploit as complete as any found in that of Sir Joseph Banks, Presi- agriculture by fertilization. minerals and plants for medical Europe. These objects had not dent of the Royal Society of Proceeding towards Lima he uses (Aceves, 1990). been bought in America but London” (Humboldt, 1986). observed guano that he studied Some of those expeditions made by a man who had never Humboldt spent many months and introduced into Europe and studies were: i) the geo- seen any instruments, who had exploring the Andes in Ec- (Humboldt, 1986). desic mission of Charles de La never been able to consult any- uador. Then, with Bonpland, They reached Lima (~12°S) Condamine (1735) organized body, and who knew about Carlos Montúfar and Carlos October 23rd. He met, among by the French Academy of Sci- electricity only from reading Cortés, a botanical painter that others, Fray Diego de Cisneros, ences and the Spanish crown, Sigaud de la Fond’s Traite and remained in Peru (Núñez and called from the library of El in which also the experts Bour- Franklin’s Memoirs. Carlos del Petersen, 2002), following and Escorial in Spain to organize guer, Godin, Ulloa and Jorge Pozo, this man’s name, had admiring the Inca road, entered the former Jesuit’s library in Juan participated; ii) the study begun by making cylindrical Peru from Loja on August 1st, Lima. He mentions Hipólito (1779-1786) of bishop Martínez electrical machines using large 1802 (Humboldt, 1986; Vegas- Unanue, first physician (proto- de Compañón (1735-1797, that glass jars and cutting their Vélez, 1991; Núñez and Pe- medic) of the Vice-Kingdom produced “An illustrated de- necks. Years later he managed tersen, 2002). They visited the of Peru, founder and first Sec- scription of people, flora and to get two plates from Philadel- Northern Peruvian Andes, the retary of the Academic Soci- fauna of Trujillo del Perú” in phia to make a disc machine to tropics of the Marañón river, ety of Friends of the Country 9 volumes; iii) the botanical obtain greater electric effects. then travelling SW towards (ASFC), who had important expedition of polymath José It is easy to guess how dif- Cajamarca (~7°S), at 2928m publications and already in Celestino Mutis (1732-1808) in ficult it must have been for Sr. of altitude, studied the mag- 1802, ahead of his time, be- Nueva Granada, who produced Pozo to succeed once the first netic equator, fundamental in gun vaccinations against small 51 volumes of Flora…de Nue- Works on electricity fell into geography’s history (Minguet, pox. Humboldt attended many va Granada; iv) Charles III’s his hands, and how he man- 1969; Giesecke, 1959-1960). of the regular and interesting botanical expedition to Mexico aged to work everything out Montúfar and Cortés had evening discussions of ASFC (1787), California, Guatemala for himself. Up to then he… been born in Quito, home of at Unanue’s home. Humboldt and Atlantic islands; v) the had never traveled out of the a famous school of art. There describes a favorable position Philippines’ expedition; vi) the llanos. Our stay in Calabozo were several Cortés painters: towards science in Peru, where expedition of Ruíz and Pavón gave him altogether another Casimiro, José (who painted a he was impressed by non-uni- (1778-1788) to Peru and Chile kind of pleasure. He must have portrait of Humboldt in Quito; versity institutions like Lima’s that produced 4 volumes. To set some value on two travel- Nelken, 1980) and sons Fran- Mining Tribunal, ASFC and improve mining in Peru and ers who could compare his cisco Javier, Manuel Antonio, Mercurio Peruano (Humboldt, to create an advanced learning apparatus with European ones. Nicolás and César, who helped 1986; Vegas-Vélez, 1991; Núñez center, the Tribunal de Min- With me I had electrometers illustrate Mutis’ expedition. and Petersen, 2002). ería de Lima (Lima’s Mining mounted in straw, pith-balls Humboldt and friends arrived On December 24th 1802, Tribunal), Joseph Coquette was and gold leaf, as well as a on October 10th 1802 at the “… Humboldt sailed from Lima called to Lima in 1784 and, small Leyden jar that could be large and furious river Santa, to Mexico, where he remained with a similar aim, the miner- charged by rubbing, following (~9°S) with a torrent that of- for almost a year collecting, alogical expedition (1788-1810) Ingenhousz’s method, which ten blocked the mail between as in the previous years, vast of the amalgamation expert I used for physiological tests. Quito and Lima for longer than amounts of information and Baron von Nordenflycht (1752- Pozo showed his joy when for 10 days (until) in 1800, Sr. materials about the region’s cli- 1815) reached Peru via Río de the first time he saw instru- Coguet (sic), professor of min- mate, natural resources, orog- la Plata. ments that he had not made eralogy in Lima, built a ferry raphy, flora and fauna, and met but which appeared to copy and hanging bridge to solve important groups, elite scien- Humboldt Meets the New his. We also showed him the the problem”. In the village of tists, and other cultivators of Continent’s Intelligentsia effects of the contact of dif- Santa “… we enjoyed the inter- science that helped in his field ferent metals on the nerves of esting company of Sr. Coguet” work. These meetings were to Humboldt sailed from Spain frogs. The names of Galvani (sic), Head of the Santa Re- him extremely useful to de- on June 5th, 1799, on board the and Volta had not yet echoed gion” (Humboldt, 1986). Con- scribe the tropical nature and Pizarro, arriving at Cumaná, in these vast solitudes.” With versations between Humboldt’s to popularize in Europe the Venezuela, on July 16th. He his knowledge, del Pozo helped group and Coquette must have scientific knowledge of Amer- explored the surrounding re- Humboldt obtain and study been particularly interesting, ica. Humboldt enthusiastically gion; then Caracas, where he electric eels (Humboldt, 1956, since Coquette, a French min- wrote about the situation of met the 18 year old Andrés 1991b, 1995a). ing and mineralogy expert, in- science in Mexico: “No city Bello. Towards the Orinoco, Then, Humboldt and Aime terested in Humboldt’s passion, of the New Continent…” (in- through the Llanos of Calabo- Bompland reached the colossal volcanology. Together they vis- cluding the US) “…presents zo, Humboldt, who was keen low Orinoco, the high Orinoco ited pre-Incaic ruins, pyramids, scientific establishments as big to mention people of value he and Casiquiare rivers, returned castle San Ángel, 7km E of and solid as those of Mexico’s came across with, relates his to Cumaná, sailed to Cuba, Santa, with high walls part of capital. I will only quote the surprise at meeting autodi- and then to Colombia. In Bo- a “former city” of consider- Mining School (Colegio de dact Carlos del Pozo y Sucre gotá and Quito, Humboldt had able extension, now mostly Minería) directed by polymath (1743-1813; Pérez-Marchelli, a long and intense intellectual destroyed, and 20-30km-long Elhuyar, the Botanical Gar-

APR 2007, VOL. 32 Nº 4 283 den, the Painting and Sculpture Rossi y Rubí, Demetrio “new” chemistry, which he Academy, the College of Sur- Guasque, Jacinto Calero calls Chimia. He stated in gery and Pharmacy. An Eu- y Moreira and Unanue, his covering letter to the ropean traveler would be sur- among others. It published journal, asking for publi- prised to find in the country's 12 volumes (416 issues, cation of ‘Principles’, that interior, even to the extremes 586 articles and 3586 to- his initiative was triggered of California, young Mexicans tal pages) from 1790 to by his wish to show others that reason about water de- 1795, and had an aver- that in Peru there was an composition in the free air…In age of 350 and a peak of illustrated community in- Mexico, the first Spanish Lan- 517 subscriptions, about terested in science, appre- guage version of Lavoisier’s 60% in Lima, 20% from ciative of the importance ‘Traite’ of chemistry has been other parts of Peru, 10% of the new and fundamen- published. I quote these sepa- from other Spanish vice- tal principles of chemis- rate facts because they give an royalties and 3% from try and physics. Thus, he idea of the strength with which Spain. The number of wrote “Europe that treats study of science has been un- readers has been calcu- as barbarians other parts dertaken in the capital of New lated as 3500-7000 and it of the world will perhaps Spain” (Humboldt, 1991a). contained articles on the admire that in this hemi- The strong pre-Hispanic cul- scientific method, physics, sphere the sublime dis- tural tradition in Peru, Colom- chemistry, natural history, coveries we receive from bia and Mexico, which con- utility of sciences, teratol- her are treated historically tinued in colonial times, was ogy, medicine, religion, and dogmatically….But as fundamental for the local elite Peruvian society, econo- a spark may be sufficient society to appreciate and incor- my, mining, commerce, to burn thousands of trees, porate easily the elements of agriculture, geography, to light the sacred fire the “new philosophy” received maps and travels, besides that constitutes a man of from Europe, based on Coper- usual literary contributions Figure 1. Facsimile edition (1964-1966) of Mercurio knowledge, it is enough to nicus’ and Newton’s theories. (Clement, 1997, 1998). Peruano. From Biblioteca Nacional del Perú. feed him the food that in- Thus, the European scientific Mercurio Peruano was flames him. Be as it may, expeditions arriving in America of difficult access (Figure I believe to have served found a local elite eager to 1), as was the transla- the Country if in this way learn the latest European sci- tion of Lavoisier’s book I can contribute to develop entific advances. in Mexico (Figure 2). the seeds of genius that In Peru, one outstanding in- Both are now available nature profusely spreads tellectual was Joseph Coquette through facsimile edi- among those that are born (Tauro, 1966). Having been first tions which allowed to in this singular Country” posted (1779-1783) as Cavalry study and comment about (Coquette, 1792c). Captain in Guatemala, he was Coquette’s publications. The contents of ‘Prin- called to Peru in 1784 as first Humboldt was so im- ciples’ are: director of the Lima Mining pressed by the impor- Tribunal, which he established tance, high quality of the i.- Preliminary Discourse in 1785 (Molina-Martínez, articles and maps of this (Introduction). Coquette 1992). He proposed a Rimac journal that he donated states that it was not un- river canal, with six dams, to the complete collection usual for men of science improve transportation from to the Berlin Library of to publish scientific ad- Callao to Lima. As a mem- King Frederick William vances and research results ber of ASFC he contributed to III of Prussia (Humboldt, in divulgative journals, to it’s important and widely read 1986, 1991a). Humboldt inform society about the publication, Mercurio Peruano arranged for it to be evolution of science and (Coquette, 1792b, 1793a; Clem- translated into German, its applications. …“From ent, 1997, 1998), with papers in although there existed time sublime men are born volcanology, botany, astronomy a translation into Eng- with outstanding geniuses. and chemistry, among which lish (Skinner, 2005). The Happy the land that pos- was ‘Principles’, the center of German translation is in sesses them, as nature so the present paper. Before exam- two volumes, the first of rarely produces them; but ining ‘Principles’, it is pertinent which is Skinner’s Ger- Figure 2. Facsimile edition (1990) of Tratado Ele- if we appropriate ourselves to provide some information man version and the sec- mental de Química by Lavoisier. From the Universi- of the discoveries of other about Mercurio Peruano. ond is a translation by dad Autónoma Metropolitana-Xochimilco, México. lands, we can enjoy such E.A. Schmidt of the rest a happiness; we must put Mercurio Peruano of the material (Clement, 1997, bunal, and member of the intel- all our effort in increasing our 1998). lectual body of Mercurio Peru- knowledge by this method…” Printing begun in Mexico in ano, Coquette was an illustrat- He communicates the essence 1539 and in Peru in 1584. The ‘Principles’ ed person, well informed about of Lavoisier’s thinking, ….“The journal Mercurio Peruano was a the importance of chemistry for new shape that modern dis- publication of ASFC, the Asoci- As founder in 1785 and first mining, as shown by his initia- coveries give to “Chimia” and ation founded in 1787 by Joseph director of Lima’s Mining Tri- tive to divulge the basis of the the close relationship of the

284 APR 2007, VOL. 32 Nº 4 natural world with physics which chemical reactions are d) Importance of Chemistry refraction, reflection and de- have changed these sciences produced and the composition for human consumption. Here composition indicated that “… so much that it is impossible of reaction products, and shows he mentions that chemistry each of the different threads to understand their phenomena his intuition that “there must explains the amount of nu- that form each of the luminous without a previous knowledge exist some force that keeps trients present in foods and bundles enjoys a different color of the substances that our pres- together the components in the their properties, the quality that is peculiar to it…a painted ent state of knowledge leads to new compound”, the force of and purity of the fluids one specter of the following dif- look as principles of all com- the chemical bond in present drinks and, finally, the proper- ferent colors: from bottom to posite bodies…”. And …“The day terms. ties of the air we breathe. This top, red, orange, yellow, green, purpose of Chimia is to recog- chapter ends informing readers blue, indigo and violet”. At nize the nature and properties iii.- The Usefulness of Chemis- about the knowledge and use the end of this part Coquette of all bodies and to teach us to try. He develops four subtitles: of chemistry: “…a modern asks whether these properties know the intimate and recipro- a) General usefulness, where author affirms that anyone in- of light, that characterize it as cal action that all substances he deals with the manufacture terested in progressing in the something isolated originating that exist in the universe have of porcelain, glass, chinaware, study of nature must have a in the emanations of Sun and among themselves”, giving a tiles and bricks from differ- good covering of Chimia.” Stars and not as an element, clear idea of his pedagogic ent types of clay; and with “should limit us to consider intention, sharing through a the feedback that chemistry iv.- Principles of Matter. Here under this only aspect a matter divulgative journal the new receives from the practical pro- Coquette defines the elements that obeys to chemical attrac- science that enabled man to fessions of tanner, soap-maker, as the substances resulting from tion, as all others we know”. determine with greater preci- distiller, winemaker and baker. the analysis or decomposition He stresses that light interacts sion the nature and properties He stresses the importance of of matter, in agreement with chemically with a great number of the elements. He repeats chemistry in the manufacture ‘Traite’ and adds that after the of substances as exemplified by his didactic approach: “…to of glass and lenses which serve brilliant and decisive discov- the fact that minerals change simplify this essay, as much as as “eye glasses that replace eries of Priestley, Lavoisier, color when exposed to light; possible, I omit History which sight deficiencies in senes- Laplace, etc., the four elements oxides or metallic calxes be- usually bores the beginners…” cence” and help astronomers of Aristotle and Plato, defined come darker and mineral oils and “… I have suppressed part discover “a new sky seeded as “the primitive principles of also darken. In addition, he of the works and ingenious with stars and planets”. Enam- matter” were substituted by mentions the action of light on experiences that have led to els, varnishes and paints “owe light, caloric, oxygen, azote vegetation, growth of plants, the present state of knowledge, phototropism, and the fact that to Chimia their most beautiful and hydrogen, which accord- and I have transferred to the some follow the sun. He re- and solid colors”. b) Useful- ing to Lavoisier would stay as end of this work the part that fers to the experiments of In- ness for mining exploitation, such until new analyses showed deals with attraction, this force genhouz, Bonet and Priestley where he stresses that, before, that these substances are not so necessary for the harmony showing that “plants exposed naturalists had characterized simple but composite ones. of the world that influences to Light and sun empty into metals only by their physi- Coquette mentions here 5 of minuscule corpuscles as well the atmosphere torrents of air as bigger masses, whose laws cal properties, while modern the 33 elements that Lavoisier through their upper leaf pores, seem differentiated or modified naturalists “have added their postulated, but later on lists while those deprived of light by the density, volume, distance chemical properties for their azote, phosphorus, oxygen, hy- exhale a deleterious mofette, of the objects upon which at- classification”. c) Usefulness drogen, sulfur, carbon, gold, truly carbonic acid.” traction exerts its power” “... for medicine. Here he states silver, platinum and mercury. I did not want to complicate “the apothecary, that is located Possibly he mentioned in this b. Caloric was considered by with large difficulties simple el- between artists and scientists, first part what he thought most Lavoisier’s school as the first ements that can be understood needs a great deal of chemical important, because in the table principle of all elements, in by all that read this essay” knowledge to realize the many of simple substances (included which all materials of nature alterations to which the ma- by Lavoisier in ‘Traite’) he re- were submersed, that filled the ii.- Coquette defines Chimia terials he uses are subjected; fers to these elements as “the intermolecular spaces. He dis- with a descriptive and a dy- in order to discover mutations simple substances that belong tinguished free and combined namic part of the reactions. that compound medicaments to the three kingdoms and that caloric. Free caloric “surrounds “The purpose of Chimia is to may suffer and to instruct can be looked upon as elements and penetrates the elements” recognize the nature and prop- himself about the combina- of matter”. With this simplifi- without being incorporated into erties of all the elements teach- tions and decompositions that cation, Coquette centered his them; their intensity can be ing us to learn the reciprocal may develop when simple sub- writing on the essential part of measured with a thermometer. action that have all substances stances are mixed”. Also, the chemistry he wanted to empha- The combined caloric “consti- of the universe”… “The art physician “must not use medi- size. He covered: tutes part of the substance and of Chimia favors the intimate caments without knowing their the solidity of the bodies in reaction of the elements…. In chemical nature”, and ought to a. Light (the first element) is which it has been fixed.” carefully observing the phe- use their chemical properties “a body thrown out of the Sun In the 18th century the theo- nomena that follow….of know- to classify them. With insight, and the Stars that sets us up in ry of caloric took prominence ing the order of composition he mentions the need to learn correspondence and communi- among researchers investigat- of the bodies that result from the chemical properties of hu- cation with the entire nature”. ing in chemistry. After the it…and the adhering force that man body fluids in health and Acting on the optic nerve “…it invention of the thermometer they keep after they are com- disease to know “which humor paints on the retina the im- (Galileo, 1592), many theo- bined”. In this form Coquette dominates in an inflamma- age that the bodies spread”. ries and mechanical applica- establishes the conditions in tory or in a putrid disposition”. Newton’s experiments on light tions developed using heat

APR 2007, VOL. 32 Nº 4 285 as the central element, but with ether, spirit of wine, water plants stop growing and die and indicates that “…to imi- there were two options about and mercury, and pointed out in the absence of light, inde- tate these huge operations of its nature: the first, motivat- that a greater or lesser amount pendent of the temperature. nature, Chemists expose the ed by Francis Bacon (1620) of accumulated caloric induces Also, in many cases luminous matter they want to oxygenate when he stressed that “heat is these substances to pass from effects are produced without or oxidate, to the action of movement”, defined heat as a one state to another. changes in temperature and he atmospheric air and they heat manifestation of the element’s Parenthetically, Count Rum- mentions that this occurs in them to a convenient tempera- particles that showed by effect ford (Benjamin Thompson, some insects like the “lumi- ture…”. He does not describe of their friction; the second 1753-1814) was the first to nous worms” and in putrefy- the experiments that allow to was based in the material- provide evidence that heat ing matter, stressing that this reach these conclusions. He ity of heat. This latter option was a form of energy and fact is even more perceptible presents facts, like that lead, originated the theory of ca- not a mass-less fluid, as he when one observes that the tin and mercury oxidate at loric as a fluid formed by ma- measured the heat produced rays of the moon concentrated temperatures closer to that of terial corpuscles that repelled when cannons were lathed. on a mirror can develop in- the environment, while gold, each other, but were attracted He lathed a cannon for many tense light without producing silver and platinum require by the particles of matter. The hours in a water tank and to heat, and that many substanc- “…of an intense heat, particu- theory was useful to chem- his astonishment water boiled es can be heated to very high larly when proceeding dry…”; ists as it enabled it to explain in the absence of a source of temperatures without produc- although in some cases he contraction and dilation by caloric. He concluded that ing light. briefly describes the experi- heat in a simple way. Caloric the heat produced by friction mental procedure and the nec- was administered to a body was inexhaustible, which was c. His description of oxygen is essary instruments. He refers when heated; when cooled, incompatible with the idea of based on Lavoisier’s reflections that the color of metallic ox- caloric diminished and con- caloric as a substance. The on its nature and properties. ides depends on the metal and traction ensued, explaining idea of caloric was definitely Coquette begins with its abun- degree of oxidation. The latter the relation between volume ruled out when Joule (1847) dance in nature and its great requires a qualitative descrip- and temperature described published a paper showing capacity to combine with other tion of the compound using by Boyle (1660). Similarly, that heat is a form of energy. elements, so that “…it is diffi- two names for each one, one the different states of mat- Coquette describes the ex- cult to isolate oxygen, because to designate the metal that ter could be explained by the periments with ether, spirit of of a reciprocal attraction be- is oxidized and the other its amount of caloric contained; wine, water and mercury in tween oxygen and the matter in color, like black iron oxide, detail to make his arguments contact with it …the union of grey or red lead oxides. Here substances with a great deal clear, and ends the physical- oxygen and caloric constitutes he refers to the “…fertile and of it were gases because par- chemical part of his work the oxygen gas or vital air.” expressive language of mod- ticles repelled and occupied with “…the mellow and con- In a footnote he informs that ern nomenclature that shows large volumes. On the continuous heat that the ineffable “…the basis of vital air that first the degree of oxidation trary, solids and liquids con- architect of the universe keeps fixes itself in breathing beings of the oxides and that in the tained less caloric, there was in nature produces many phe- and in matter that burns itself second place designates acids less repulsion and thus they nomena that Chimia must ap- changing its nature and increas- that end up in -ous, as nitrous occupied a smaller volume. preciate. Vibrations and oscil- ing weight, is called oxygen by and sulfurous acids; and that Coquette uses the changes on lations excited by their pres- the Paris Academicians. This in the third degree constitutes the state of water to explain ence in the solid molecules of word derives from the Greek, acids ending up in -ic, as ni- the phenomenon and comes the bodies, the rarefaction and and is composed of oxux (acid) tric and sulfuric acids…”. In up with an interesting physi- agitation produced by their and γeoiγoηat (to produce), be- the same paragraph he stresses cal-chemical explanation of fluid parts keep an internal cause in fact the most general that this nomenclature is due the transition from liquid to and continuous movement that property of this substance is to to Lavoisier “…who was not gas: “…water boils when one changes step by step the form, form acids…” satisfied with calling oxides applies heat to it so that the dimension and texture of the the combination of metals thermometer rises to 80 de- first, and that alters sensibly d. He mentions the propor- with oxygen, but who general- grees Réaumur; its molecules the consistency, color, taste, in tion of hydrogen and oxygen ized this name applying to the obey the repulsion originated other words the nature of the that produces water; the for- first degree of oxidation of all by the heat, come out of their second. Such is the general mation of sulfuric, nitric and matter that do not become im- field of attraction, rise up in idea we must have of the exis- carbonic acids when oxygen mediately salts: thus he calls vapor and transform them- tence and power of all chemi- reacts with sulfur, azote (ni- phosphorous oxide the first selves into an aeriform and cal phenomena that happen in trogen) and carbon; he adds remains of its combustion…”. invisible fluid.” the natural matter…We must that on the earths' surface all Coquette attempts to give two Coquette indicates that the similarly use this powerful minerals, plants and animals physical-chemical explana- law of Charles-Gay-Lussac could agent to conceive the physical oxidate “and they take …the tions to the oxidation reac- be explained by the theory of alterations to which plants and apparent characteristics of the tion: i) saying that when there caloric: when a gas is com- animals are subjected.” earth, progressively as they is oxidation “…the caloric pressed, the caloric is confined He concludes stating that progressively absorb oxygen…” used in these operations dives in a volume that diminishes one characteristic that dis- Coquette continues with an inside the molecules of the with the increase in pressure; it tinguishes light from caloric explanation of the oxidation metal, separates one from the increases in density and there- is their influence upon the processes of metals, beginning other, diminishes its aggrega- fore the temperature increases. growth of plants, that light with gray and black mercury tion affinity and facilitates the The contrary occurs on expan- cannot be substituted for these oxides, rust and green cop- combination with oxygen…” sion. Lavoisier experimented purposes by caloric, because per mould as natural oxides, and ii) calling attention to the

286 APR 2007, VOL. 32 Nº 4 fact that “…when oxygenation of the air. It has the property sulfuric acid, or by means of combinations of hydrogen and is fast, it is accompanied by of remaining as a gas, indepen- “…red-hot iron, scorching zinc sulphur. heat, light and even flames as dent of temperature and pres- and burning carbon…; they Coquette ends ‘Principles’ when phosphorus combusts in sure, and constitutes part of the have the property of decom- stating “We interrupt for now atmospheric air…” animal matter where it is com- posing water, fixing its oxygen the preceding notes so that Coquette’s descriptions bined with hydrogen, carbon and liberating the hydrogen different articles may stimulate show that in the latter part and in some occasions with that together with caloric gas- the readers. Among them there of the 18th century there was phosphorus. Coquette indicates ifies and fills the glasses set will certainly be many that are a serious attempt to explain important differences between up to obtain it…”. He ends not entertained by science… experimental facts by looking animal and plant matter, be- up consolidating the idea and It seems justified to present at the internal structure of cause the first one contains intention of his book “I have the latter with other articles matter to interpret why, how phosphorus and “…it proves given a brief idea of the prop- more suited to their wishes and what was happening in that the low combustibility of erties of the five elementary and knowledge.” On March its interior, in order to find animal matter depends on the substances that are considered 8th, 1794 Unanue announced a reaction mechanism. These amount of azote they contain, as principles of compound mat- the publication of ‘Principles’ were the founding steps to while hydrogen is the main ter: I could have multiplied the was to continue in Mercurio science development in the component of plant matter and examples, and bring into con- Peruano. Unfortunately this th 19 century. makes them among the most sideration a series of convinc- was not to happen as the jour- Although there is no evi- combustible”. ing facts; but this would have nal stopped in 1795 (Clement, dence that the author dedi- He explains the preparation anticipated knowledge reserved 1997, 1998). cated himself to research, the of oxides and of nitric and ni- for future chapters. My inten- fact that he backs up his as- trous acids according to Cav- tion has been to establish the Coquette’s other sertions with experimental endish, and of ammonia says differences between them and Contributions in Chemistry proofs and the way he ends that “Mr Berthollet in his own to fix the beginners attention for Mercurio Peruano his chapter on oxygen confirm researches analyzed ammonia as to its nature.” his conviction of the need of and proved this alkali is com- ‘Principles’ was followed by quantitative elements to un- posed of hydrogen, azote and g. About sulphur he writes “About the need to perfect and derstand natural phenomena. caloric”. Finally, he deals with that: i) it is found pure in vol- reform the Nomenclature in Thus, he compares Stahl’s obtaining azote from air by canoes and forming part of rot- Chemistry” (Coquette, 1793b). phlogiston theory and the use means of Volta’s eudiometer, ting animal and plant matter; In this 40 pages long funda- of the “oxygen principle” to by extracting it from animal ii) its combination with metals mental article the author trans- explain a number of chemical matter by means of “cold and forms “…metallic sulpherets, as lates the report of the commis- processes, stating: “…although debilitated” nitric acid, and gold sulpheret (golden pyrites), sion formed by the most distin- the same objections can be with the reaction of ammonia silver sulpherets (vitreous sil- guished chemists of the day, de raised against oxygen as a with metallic oxides, in which ver), lead sulpherets (galen)…” Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet principle as against Stahl’s “…the hydrogen of ammonia while in combination “…with and de Fourcroy, to study the phlogiston, because we do not know this latter principle combines with the oxygen of alkalies form sulphur livers need that chemical nomencla- as an isolated entity that is the oxide and forms a great (sic) that are also called sul- ture should be changed. always combined with caloric amount of water, as Mr. Four- pherets”; iii) its combination The commission had origi- in vital air or in the residues croy had observed, while the with oxygen in clays and with nated in 1782, requested by of combustible bodies, and as azote is liberated as gas.” “…many other substances with de Morveau, and worked for 5 phlogiston does not pass from which it forms salts which are years. The report, read at the one matter to another…There f. Coquette defines hydrogen called sulphates”; and iv) com- Royal Academy of Sciences in nd is however a large difference as one of the principles of wa- ments on the mixture of sul- Paris, on May 2 , 1787, begins between these two theories: ter, being highly combustible phur to prepare gun powder. with Lavoisier’s Introduction; the oxygen theory has all the “…its existence and properties The series of articles fin- then, de Mourveau explains characteristics of exactitude are known only recently; it is ishes with chapters on carbon, the method used to change the and truth because it is based widely scattered in nature; its phosphorus and other elements. nomenclature. An explanation upon addition or subtraction union with caloric forms hy- ‘Principles’ is 40 pages long, follows of the acidifiable bases of weight, which is not the drogen gas and its affinity with tables (some very large) not (or acid radicals), a section on case of Stahl’s theory…” caloric is such that the most included. Tables are on: i) spe- metallic substances, and one exquisite experiments have not cific caloric contained in some about the earths (with an ap- e. Azote (nitrogen) is the non- been able to separate it from substances (after Kirwan); ii) pendix). Finally, de Fourcroy breathable part of atmospheric caloric which gives hydrogen expansions produced by ca- explains the table of the new air. About its chemical proper- its fluidity and elasticity; be- loric on vital air and on some nomenclature. ties “…they are still not well cause of that it has not been gases (after Duvernois and de The other article (Coquette, known….its name derives obtained as an isolated and Morveau); iii) binary combina- 1792a) explains modern terms from its property of depriving pure element…”, an elegant tions of oxygen and metallic, in mining for lay people and animals of life…. composed way of stating that hydrogen non-metallic, oxidizable and miners. This useful practical of the Greek privative a and can combine itself with other acidifiable substances (after publication was reprinted sep- of zoe, life…”. He comments elements like oxygen to form Lavoisier); iv) expansive force arately. Didactic Dissertation about its abundance in nature water, from where its name of the spirit of wine (after Be- on Mining and other topics and that when azote combines originates. He mentions that tancourt); v) binary combina- on Chemistry and Physics: An with caloric it produces the hydrogen can be obtained by tions of hydrogen; vi) binary Index and Supplement to Kir- gaseous azote which forms part dissolving iron and zinc with combinations of azote; and vii) wan’s Mineralogy covered 38

APR 2007, VOL. 32 Nº 4 287 pages and 8 tables. Its topics modern aspects of the chemis- ruano IV (154): 193-230. Fac- chez. Vol I, 322 pp, with plates are: Preliminary observation, try of his time, as also shown sim. ed. 12 vols. (1964-1966). i-vii. Vol II pp 323-656, with Introd. by C. Cueto Fernan- plates viii-xiii. Plates signed by where the Peruvian and Kir- in his two publications re- dini. Biblioteca Nacional. Lima, Mrs. Lavoisier. Chardon. Paris, wan nomenclature for some viewed above. Peru. France. 83 compounds is compared. Coquette J (1792b) Ensayo sobre Lavoisier AL (1790) Elements of i- Table of Combinations of 3- ‘Principles’ is not a transla- la Estructura y Física de los Chemistry, in a New Systematic pure Sulfur with Earths and tion of ‘Traité’. It is an up- Vegetales. Mercurio Peruano Order, containing all the Mod- Metals, and 17 metals that to-date (for its time), abbrevi- V (154): 124-137. Facsim. ed. ern Discoveries. Illustrated with sulfur combines with; the new ated, didactic, simplified text of (1964-1966). Biblioteca Nacio- 13 cooper plates. Translated nal. Lima, Peru. from the French by Robert Kerr. nomenclature, the old names chemistry, without the length, Coquette J (1792c) Principios de Printed for William Creech. Ed- and the names used in Peru. number of Tables and erudition Química Física para servir de inburg, UK. 511 pp. ii- Table of Combinations of of ‘Traité’. In fact, although Introducción a la Historia Natu- Lavoisier AL (1797) Tratado El- Carbonic Acid (Fixed Air) ‘Principles’ reproduces many ral del Peru. Mercurio Peruano emental de Chímica, traducido with Metalic Oxides (known ideas and tables from ‘Traité’, VI (183-187): 74-113. Facsim. al Castellano para el uso del as Carbonates); a list of 7 Coquette adds sources different ed. (1964-1966). Biblioteca Na- Real Seminario de Minería de cional. Lima, Peru. oxides with the old nomen- from Lavoisier’s, like de Four- México. Tomo I. Transl. from Coquette J (1793a) Electricidad As- the French edition of 1789 by clature, names used in Peru croy’s “Elements” and others, tronómica. Mercurio Peruano Vicente Fernández. Mariano adapted to the new nomencla- partially shown in the tables of IX (292): 111-122. Facsim. ed. Zúñiga y Ontiveros. Mexico. ture. iii- Supplement to Mines ‘Principles’ listed above, and in (1964-1966). Biblioteca Nacio- Reed. Facsim. (1990) Universi- of Gold, explaining the physi- the author’s other papers. Un- nal. Lima, Peru. dad Autónoma Metropolitana- Xochimilco. Mexico. 263pp. cal and chemical characteris- fortunately, there is no way of Coquette J (1793b) Sobre la necesi- tics of gold, and those in the knowing about the content of dad de perfeccionar y reformar Minguet C (1969) Alexandre de la nomenclatura de la Química Humboldt. Historien et Géogra- mines and in the gold placer- the unpublished part of ‘Prin- leída en la Junta Pública de la phe de L’Amerique Espagnole mining sites. iv- Describes ciples’. Be as it may, Coquette Academia Real de las Cien- (1799-1804). Maspero. Paris, Platinum, Silver Mines and should be listed as one of the cias de París. Por Mr Lavoisier. France. 693 pp. different forms in which Sil- first authors of the new chem- Mercurio Peruano IX (305-310): Molina-Martínez M (1992) El real ver may be found, and Lead. istry in the New Continent. 218-264. Facsim. ed. (1964- tribunal de Minería de Lima 1966). Biblioteca Nacional. v- Simple substances that so (1785-1821). Publicación Nº 7. Lima, Peru. Diputación Provincial de Se- far ought to be looked at as ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Duveen DI, Klickstein HS (1954) villa. Spain. 396 pp. elements (light, caloric, oxy- A Bibliography of the Works Moore FJ (1939) A History of Chem- gen, hydrogen, azote; sulfur, The authors thank Marcos of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier. istry. Rev. Hall WT. 3rd ed. Mc- phosphorus, carbon, muri- Cueto, for lending his personal 1743-1794. Wm Dawson & Sons Graw-Hill. New York, USA. atic radical, fluoric radical and copy of Mercurio Peruano, and E Weil. London, UK. 491 447 pp. pp. boracic radical). vi- Signifi- and for his discussions; Roger Nelken H (1980) Alexander von cance of some words used by Guerra-García, Miriam Eche- Giesecke A (1959-1960) Magnetismo Humboldt. His Portraits and terrestre en Peru. Rev. Inst. Ge- their Artists. A Documentary Kirwan, like acids (carbonic, varría and Juan José Toledo- ogr. Lima Nº 6 pp. 93-97. fluoric, muriatic, nitric, nitro- Aral for bibliography on Mer- Iconography. Reimer. Berlin, Humboldt A von (1956) Viaje a Germany. 179 pp. muriatic, sulfuric, tungstenic). curio Peruano and Tribunal las regiones equinocciales del vii- Definitions of water, at- de Minería de Lima; Francisco Nuevo Continente hecho en Núñez E, Petersen G (2002) Alexan- 1799, 1800, 1801, 1802, 1803 der von Humboldt en el Perú. mospheric air, alkali, azote, Javier Álvarez-Leefmans for his Diario de viaje y otros escritos. caloric, iron carbon, fluate, of encouragement and provision y 1804 por A de Humboldt y A Bompland. Redactado por A de Banco Central de Reserva del different gases (azote, hydro- of literature, Duccio Bonavia Humboldt. Lisandro Alvarado, Peru. Lima, Peru. 316 pp. gen, oxygen) and gases inside for help and advice in vari- Eduardo Röl, José Nucete-Sardi Pérez-Marchelli H (1997) Del Pozo, the mines (azote, hydrogen, ous parts of this paper, Claude (Transl.). 2nd ed. Ministerio de Carlos. In Diccionario de la sulfurated hydrogen, phospho- Chaptelaine for information Educación. Caracas, Venezuela. Historia de Venezuela. Fun- nd rized hydrogen). about the pre-Inca Santa Valley 5 vols. dación Polar. 2 ed. Ex Libris, Humboldt A von (1986) Reise auf Caracas, Venezuela. Vol. 3 pp ruins, and Antonio M Gutiér- 726. ‘Principles’ Is Original, not rez for discussions and help dem Rio Magdalena, durch die Anden und Mexico. Vol I: Tex- Rodríguez-Cruz AM (1973) Historia a Copy of ‘Traité’ with the illustrations. te. Akademie Verlag. Berlin, de las Universidades Hispanoa- Germany. 402 pp. mericanas. Periodo Hispánico. Tomo I. Instituto Caro y Cuer- After having exhaustively REFERENCES Humboldt A von (1991a) Ensayo compared ‘Principles’ with Político sobre el Reino de la vo. Bogota, Colombia. 602 pp. three editions of the ‘Traité’ Aceves P (1990) La difusión de la Nueva España. Porrúa. Mexico. Skinner J (2005) The Present State by Lavoisier (1793, 1790 and química de Lavoisier en el Real 698 pp. of Peru. Richard Phillips. Lon- Jardín Botánico de Mexico y en Humboldt A von (1991b) Cuadros don (1805). Facsim. ed. Elibron 1990; Duveen and Klichstein, Classics. London, UK. 488 pp. 1954), it is concluded: el Real Seminario de Minería de la Naturaleza. Siglo XXI. (1788-1810). Quipu 7: 5-36. Mexico. 494 pp. Tauro A (1966) Diccionario Enciclo- Clement JP (1997) El Mercurio Pe- Humboldt A von (1995a) Personal pédico del Peru. Vol. I. Mejía 1- Coquette had a solid train- ruano, 1790-1795. Vol I: Estu- Narrative of a Journey to the Baca. Lima, Peru. 361 pp. ing in chemistry. dio. 308 pp.VoI II: Antología. Equinoccial Regions of the New Vegas-Vélez M (1991) Humboldt en Vervuert, Frankfurt, Germany. Continent. Penguin. London, el Perú. Diario de Alejandro de 2- He had studied and knew Iberoamericana. Madrid. Spain. UK. 312 pp. Humboldt durante su permanen- well ‘Traité’, long before it was 329 pp. Lavoisier AL (1789) Traité élémentai- cia en el Perú (Agosto-Diciem- translated into Spanish. Coquette J (1792a) Disertación re de la Chimie, présenté dans bre de 1802). Trans. from the Didáctica de Minería y otros un ordre nouveau et d’après les French by Manuel Vegas-Vé- rasgos de Chimia y Física. Ín- découvertes modernes. Cuchez lez. Centro de Investigación y 2- Coquette was well versed dice y Suplemento a la Minera Paris. 588 pp. (1793). Traité Promoción del Campesinado. and up to date in the most logía de Kirwan. Mercurio Pe- élémentaire. Paris, Chez Cu- CIPCA. Piura, Peru. 99 pp.

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