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Information Ethics in the Post 9/11 Period

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View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by eScholarship@McGill INFORMATION ETHICS: AN APPLIED STUDY OF UNITED STATES FOREIGN INTELLIGENCE SURVEILLANCE UNDER PRESIDENT GEORGE W. BUSH Michelle Louise Atkin School of Information Studies McGill University, Montreal January 2011 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy © Michelle Louise Atkin 2011 1 Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………..... 4 Résumé…………………………………………………………………………………….. 5 Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………... 7 Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………………… 8 Glossary of Terms…………………………………………………………………………. 10 Part I: Information Ethics in the Post 9/11 Period Chapter 1. Overview of the Research Design………………………………….….. 15 Research Question Methodology Research Design Overview of Main Research Findings Implications Chapter 2. Literature Review………………………………………………….….... 26 Broad Legal and Political Considerations Constitutional Considerations National Security Considerations Part II: Towards an Ethical Framework 57 Chapter 3. Philosophic Approaches to Information Ethics……………….……….. Moral Reasoning From Theory to Practice: Normative Theories and Applied Information Ethics Developing an Ethical Framework Part III: Civil Liberties in Insecure Times: Case Studies in Applied Ethics Chapter 4. U.S.A. PATRIOT Act: A Necessary Tool in the War on Terror?............ 76 Backgrounder: The U.S.A. PATRIOT Act of 2001 Patriot Act Reauthorizations Ethical Concerns Chapter 5. Warrantless Surveillance: An Extension of War Time Powers?............ 93 Backgrounder: The Terrorist Surveillance Program Presidential Power and the TSP The Role of the Telecoms Legal Troubles Ahead 2 Change in the Legal and Political Tide Addressing the Remaining Legal Concerns Ethical Concerns Chapter 6. FISA Modernization: Mitigating Legal Liability……………………… 117 Backgrounder: The Protect America Act of 2007 Expired on Sunset: Filling the Gap Left by the Lost Legislation Arguments for Modernization Retroactive Immunity and the FISA Amendments Act of 2008 Legislative Provisions Legal Outcomes: Ruling of the FISA Court Dismissal of the Class Action Lawsuits Ethical Concerns Part IV: The Future of Privacy in Post 9/11 America Chapter 7. Privacy Rights and Limits of Government Intrusion…………………... 142 The Path Forward Terry v. Ohio: Proportionality A More Rigorous Proportionality: Oakes Test Chapter 8. The Future of Privacy in Post 9/11 America: Conclusion……………... 156 Developing an Ethical Framework Need for Checks and Balances Challenges and Limitations of Information Ethics Research Contribution to the Information Studies Literature Directions for Future Research Works Cited……………………………………………………………………………...... 166 Appendices Legislation A. U.S.A. PATRIOT ACT of 2001, selected sections……….………………...……. 181 B. U.S.A. PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005……………... 183 C. Protect America Act of 2007, selected sections……………………………….... 185 D. FISA Amendments Act of 2008, selected sections ……………………………... 193 Case Summaries E. R. v. Oakes………………………………………………………………………. 199 F. Terry v. Ohio………………………………………………………………...…... 204 3 Abstract This dissertation examines the philosophical foundations of information ethics and their potential for application to contemporary problems in U.S. foreign intelligence surveillance. Questions concerning the limits of government intrusion on protected Fourth Amendment rights are addressed by analyzing the post-9/11 changes to the U.S. foreign intelligence surveillance law and policy in terms of the traditional ethical theories commonly used to support or discount these changes, namely utilitarian and contractarian ethical theories. This research combines both theoretical elements, through its use of analytic philosophy, and qualitative research methods, through its use of legislation, court cases, news media, and scholarship surrounding U.S. foreign intelligence surveillance. Using the U.S.A. PATRIOT Act, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) and the Terrorist Surveillance Program as case examples, the author develops and applies a normative ethical framework based on a legal proportionality test that can be applied to future cases involving U.S. foreign intelligence surveillance. The proportionality test developed in this research, which is based on a modified version of the Canadian Oakes Test, seeks to balance legitimate concerns about collective security against the rights of the individual. As a new synthesis of utilitarian and contractarian ethical principles, the proportionality test laid out in this dissertation has potential for application beyond U.S. foreign intelligence surveillance. It could act as a guide to future research in other applied areas in information policy research where there is a clear tension between individual civil liberties and the collective good of society. Problems such as passenger screening, racial and ethnic profiling, data mining, and access to information could be examined using the framework developed in this study. 4 Résumé Cette thèse porte sur les fondements philosophiques de l'éthique de l'information et sur leur potentiel d'application aux problèmes contemporains en matière de surveillance du renseignement étranger aux États-Unis. On aborde des questions relatives aux limites de l'intrusion du gouvernement sur les droits protégés par le quatrième amendement en analysant les changements post-9/11 aux lois et aux politiques en matière de surveillance du renseignement étranger en termes de théories éthiques traditionnelles couramment utilisées pour discuter de ces changements, à savoir l‘utilitarianisme et les théories de contractualisme. Cette étude combine à la fois des éléments théoriques, par son utilisation de la philosophie analytique, et les méthodes de recherche qualitative, à travers son utilisation de la législation, la jurisprudence, les médias et les recherches au sujet de la surveillance du renseignement étranger. Utilisant comme exemples la U.S.A. PATRIOT Act, la Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) et le Programme de surveillance des terroristes, l'auteur élabore et applique un cadre d` éthique normative fondé sur un test de proportionnalité, un cadre que l‘on peut appliquer à d‘autres cas impliquant la surveillance du renseignement étranger. Le test de proportionnalité développé dans cette recherche, qui est basé sur une version modifiée du célèbre Oakes test de la Cour suprême du Canada, cherche à contrebalancer les préoccupations légitimes concernant la sécurité collective et les droits individuels. Comme synthèse des principes utilitairistes et contractualistes, le test de proportionnalité énoncé dans la présente thèse a un potentiel d'application au-delà de la surveillance du renseignement étranger aux États-Unis. Il pourrait servir de guide pour des recherches dans d'autres domaines appliqués 5 où il y a une tension évidente entre les libertés individuelles et le bien collectif de la société. Des problèmes tels que le contrôle des passagers, le profilage racial et ethnique, l'exploration de données, et l'accès à l'information pourrait être examiné en utilisant le cadre élaboré dans cette étude. 6 Acknowledgements I would like to take this opportunity to thank my supervisor, Dr. Andrew Large for his continued support and guidance throughout this project. It has been an honour and a pleasure to work with him. In addition, I would like to thank the members of my Advisory Committee: Professor Philip Buckley (Department of Philosophy), Professor Peter McNally (School of Information Studies), and Professor Mary Maguire (Department of Integrated Studies in Education) for all their insightful and helpful comments and suggestions. I would also like to thank my colleagues at Carleton University (past and present) who have supported me throughout this journey. A special thank you to: Martin Foss, Margaret Haines, Elizabeth Knight, and Frances Montgomery of the MacOdrum Library, and Professor Peter Swan and Professor David Elliott of the Law Department. And last but not least, a thank you to my family and my lovely Elizabeth. 7 Abbreviations ACLU = American Civil Liberties Union AG = Attorney General AUMF = Authorization for Use of Military Force CAPPS = Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System DNI = Director of National Intelligence DOD = Department of Defense DOJ = Department of Justice ECPA = Electronic Communications Privacy Act EFF = Electronic Frontier Foundation FAA = FISA Amendments Act of 2008 FCRA = Fair Credit Reporting Act FERPA = Family Education Rights and Privacy Act FISA = Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 FISC = Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court ISP = Internet Service Provider NSL = National Security Letter NSA = National Security Agency PAA = Protect America Act of 2007 Patriot Act = U.S.A. PATRIOT Act of 2001 Patriot Reauthorization Act = U.S.A. PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005 PSP = President‘s Surveillance Program 8 RFPA = Right to Financial Privacy Act TSA = Transportation Security Administration TSP = Terrorist Surveillance Program 9 Glossary of Terms Analytic Philosophy: the broad philosophical tradition dominant in various regions, most notably Great Britain and the United States, since the early twentieth century,1 characterized by close argument aimed at achieving clarity, and respect for the natural sciences. Applied Ethics: the application of ethical
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