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1968 A Study of the Channels of Communication Used by Spanish-Named Residents of San Antonio, Texas. James Edward Brennan Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College
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BRENNAN, James Edward, 1922- A STUDY OF THE CHANNELS OF COMMUNICA TION USED BY SPANISH-NAMED RESIDENTS OF SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS.
Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Ph.D., 1968 Speech
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan A STUDY OF THE CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION USED BY
SPANISH-NAMED RESIDENTS OF SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in
The Department of Speech
by James Edward Brennan M.A. U n iversity of Texas, 1958 August, 196 8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer wishes to express his gratitude to the
many individuals and organizations that contributed toward
this research.
Extensive financial support was received from the San
Antonio Neighborhood Youth Organization and from St. Mary's
University, San Antonio, Texas.
Several members of the staff of St. Mary's University
—offered much assistance: Dr Crane. Chairman of The Depart -
ment of Government, Dr. Broadhurst, Dean of The Graduate
School, Dr. Langlinais, Dean of The School of Arts and Sci
ences, Dr. Weaver, Assistant Professor of Business Adminis
tration, and Mr. Bernal, Assistant Professor of Education,
all acted as advisors and/or readers.
Valuable assistance in designing and testing the in
terviewing instrument came from many sources; but, Mr. Gregg
Hupp, an Account Executive with Marketing and Research Coun
selors, Dallas, Texas, Mr, Emilio Nicolas, Vice President
and General Manager of KWEX television, and Mr, Charles Kil
patrick, Vice President and Executive Editor of the Express
Publishing Company deserve special recognition for their
i i extensive assistance.
Special gratitude must also be accorded Dr. Joe
Cardenas, Director of Mexican-American Education for the
Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, Austin, Texas, for his assistance and guidance.
i i i TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... i i
LIST OFTA B L E S ...... v i i i
LIST OFILLUSTRATIONS ...... x i i i
ABSTRACT...... xiv
Chapter I. THE PROBLEM...... 1
Statement of the Problem ...... 1 The Nature of the Problem ...... 2 A h i s t oric a l - skatch of San An.toni.o., ______T e x a s ...... 3 Significant factors impeding the process of communication ...... 9 Significance of this s tu d y ...... 21 D efin itio n s of Terms ...... 2 3 Communication ...... 2 3 Channels of communication ...... 24 Spanish-named ...... 24 Contributory Studies ...... 25 Fred Tewell ...... 25 Gail M y e r s...... 26 August Lorenzini ...... 26 Distinctions between the present study and contributory studies ...... 26 Organization of the Dissertation ...... 27
I I. METHODS AND PROCEDURES...... 30
Designing and Testing the Instrument . . . 30 Selection and Training of Interviewers . . 37 Selection of Respondents ...... 38 Conducting the Interviews ...... 39 Type of Data C o l l e c t e d...... 44
iv Chapter Page
Data regarding the availability and relative utility of the several channels of communication...... 44 Data regarding demographic variables of respondents...... 45 Analysis of D a ta ...... 45 Data processing: equipment and methodology...... 45 Media analyses ...... 46 Presentation of statistical data .... 48
I I I . THE RELATIVE UTILITY OF THE SEVERAL CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION...... 49
IV. RADIO...... 62
A v a ila b ility and Usage o f Radio ...... 62 ComparativeUsage o£ Radio Sub-channels . . 6 3 The Preferred Radio Sub-channels: An Analysis of the Principal Character i s t i c s of Each S ta tio n and I ts L i s t e n e r s ...... 64 The principal characteristics of KCOR r a d i o ...... 64 Principal demographic variables of KCOR l i s t e n e r s ...... 66 Summary of the characteristics of KCOR and its listeners ...... 71 Principal characteristics of KONO radio . 72 Principal demographic variables of KONO l i s t e n e r s ...... 74 Summary of the characteristics of KONO radio and its listeners ...... 78 Chapter summary ...... 78
V. TELEVISION ...... 80
A v a ila b ility and Usage o f T elevisio n . . . 80 Comparative Usage of Television Sub channels ...... 80
v Chapter Page
The Preferred Television Stations: An Analysis of the Principal Characteris tics of Each Station and Its Viewers , . 81 Principal characteristics of KONO . . . 82 Demographic variables distinguishing KONO-TV viewers ...... 89 Summary of the characteristics of KONO television and its viewers ...... 95 The distinguishing characteristics of KWEX te le v isio n ...... 95 Demographic variables distinguishing KWEX v i e w e r s ...... 96 Summary of the characteristics of KWEX and its view ers ...... 102
VI. NEWSPAPERS...... 103
Avai 1 ab ility and Us age of Newspapers . . - 10 3 Relative Usage of Newspaper Sub-channels . 103 Characteristics Distinguishing Each News paper and Its Readers ...... 106 Characteristics of preferred n e w s p a p e rs...... 107 Characteristics distinguishing readers of The San Antonio L i g h t ...... I l l Characteristics distinguishing readers of The San Antonio Express...... 116 Chapter summary ...... 12 4
VII. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION ...... 126
The Comparative Usage of the Various Inter personal Channels of Communication . . . 126 An Analysis of the Characteristics of the Users of the Preferred Direct Media Channels of Communication ...... 12 8 Characteristics of respondents who used the preferred direct media sub channels ...... 129 Chapter summary ...... 134
V III. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 136
vi Chapter Page
The Preferred Channels of Communication . . 136 Distinguishing Characteristics of Each Preferred Sub-channel and Its Users . . . 137 Radio stations KCOR and KONO ...... 137 Television stations KWEX and KONO .... 138 N e w s p a p e r s...... 139 Interpersonal communication ...... 140 A Comparison of the Findings of this Study with Those of Contributory Studies . . . 141 Fred Tewell ...... 141 Gail M y e r s...... 142 August Lorenzini ...... 142 Recommendations for Improving Communication with the Subject G roup ...... 143 Selecting the channel of communication . 143 Wording the message ...... 145 Suggestions for Further Study ...... 148
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 150
APPENDIX A. THE INTERVIEWING INSTRUMENT ...... 156
B. LETTER INTRODUCING INTERVIEWER ...... 166
VITA ...... 16 8 LIST OF TABLES
Table Page 1. Average Percentage of Males and Females who Identified One or More Channels of Communi cation as the Source of Information for One or More of Nine News Item s ...... 51
2. Channels of Communication Ranked in Order of the Percentage of Respondents Receiving Information About the War in Viet Nam . . . 52
3. Channels of Communication Ranked in Order of Percentage of Respondents Receiving Informa tion About the War on Poverty ...... 53
4. Channels of Communication Ranked in Order of the Percentage of Respondents Receiving Information About NationalPolitics . . .. 5 4
5. Channels of Communication Ranked in Order of Percentage of Respondents Receiving Informa tio n About the V alley Farm S t r i k e ..... 55
6. Channels of Communication Ranked in Order of Percentage of Respondents Receiving Informa tion About State P o litic s ...... 56
7. Channels of Communication Ranked in Order of Percentage of Respondents Receiving Informa tio n About a Proposed State Income Tax . . . 57
8. Channels of Communication Ranked in Order of Percentage of Respondents Receiving Informa tion About Hemisfair ...... 5 8
9. Channels of Communication Ranked in Order of Percentage of Respondents Receiving Informa tio n About a Minimum Wage Law fo r San A n t o n i o ...... 59
v i i i Table Page 10. Channels of Communication Ranked in Order of Respondents Receiving Information About Local P olitics ...... 60
11. Local Radio Stations Ranked According to the Percentage of Respondents Reporting Regular Listening ...... 63
12. Age Distribution of Male and Female Listeners to KCOR R a d i o ...... 66
13. Educational Level of Male and Female Listeners to KCOR Radio ...... 6 8
14. Total Family Income D is trib u tio n of Male and Female Listeners to KCOR R adio ...... 69
IS . The R elative Usage o f Spanish -and English by------. Male and Female Listeners of KCOR Radio . . 70
16. Birthplaces of KCOR Listeners Tabulated by the Percentages of Male and Female Respondents . 71
17. Age Distribution of Male and Female Listeners to KONO Radio ...... 74
18. Educational Level of Male and Female Listeners to KONO Radio ...... 75
19. Total Family Income Distribution of Male and Female Listeners to KONO R a d io ...... 77
20. Local Television Stations Ranked According to the Percentage of Respondents Reporting Regular V iew ing ...... 82
21. Age Distribution of Male and Female Viewers of KONO Television ...... 89
22. Percentage o f Male and Female Respondents Within Each Educational Level Who Reported Regularly Viewing KONOTelevision ...... 90
ix Table Page 2 3. Percentage of Male and Female Respondents Within Each Income Group Who Reported Regularly Viewing KONO Television ..... 92
24. Birthplaces of Respondents Tabulated by the Percentage of Male and Female Viewers of the Two Preferred Television Stations . . . 93
25. The R elativ e Usage o f Spanish and E nglish as the Languages Spoken in the Homes of the Viewers of KWEX and KONO Television . . . 94
26. Percentage of Total Male and Female Viewers of KWEX Television Within Each Age Classification ...... 97
27. Percentage of Male and Female Respondents Within Each Educational Classification Who Reported Regularly Viewing KWEX T e l e v i s i o n ...... 98
2,8. Percentage of Male and Female Viewers of KWEX Television Within Each Income Classification ...... 99
29. Birthplaces of Viewers of KWEX-TV...... 101
30. The R elativ e Usage of Spanish and E nglish as the Language Spoken in the Homes of the Viewers of KWEX...... 101
31. Local Newspapers Ranked According to the Percentage of Respondents Reporting Regular Reading ...... 104
32. Percentage of Male and Female Respondents Reporting Regularly Reading Specific N e w s p a p e r s...... 105
33. Age Distribution of Readers of The San Antonio L ight ...... 112
x Table Page 34. Percentage of Male and Female Readers of The San Antonio Light Within Each Educational Level ...... 113
35. The Percentage of Male and Female Readers of The San Antonio Light Writh in Each Income Classification ...... 114
36. Age Distribution of Readers of The San Antonio Express ...... 116
37. Percentage of Male and Female Readers o f The San Antonio Express Within Each Educational Classification ...... 117
38. The Percentage of Male and Female Readers of The San Antonio Express W ithin Each Income ------Cl as s i f i-ca-t-i-on-— —,—.—.—.—.—.—.—.—.—. . _ 119
39. Age Distribution of Readers of The San Antonio N e w s ...... 120
40. Percentage of Male and Female Readers of The San Antonio News Within Each Educational Level ...... 121
41. The Percentage of Male and Female Readers of The San Antonio News W ithin Each Income Classification ...... 123
42. The Percentage of Male and Female Respondents Using Each Direct Media Sub-channel as a Source of Information for One or More of Nine S p e c ific News Items ...... 127
43. The Median Age of Male and Female Respondents Who Used the Preferred Direct Media Sub channels in Talking About Each News Item . . 129
44. The Median Educational Level of Male and Female Respondents Using the Preferred Direct Media Sub-channels to Discuss Each News Item, 131
xi Table Page 45. The Median Yearly Family Income of Male and Female Respondents Using the Preferred Direct Media Sub-channels to Discuss Each News I t e m ...... 132
46. The Average Percentage of Respondents Who Spolce Only Spanish in the Home and Who Used Direct Media Sub-channels to Discuss One or More of Nine News I t e m s ...... 134
x ii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1. Matrix Used in the Interview to Establish Relative Use of Mass M edia ...... 35
2. Matrix Used in the Interview to Establish Relative Use of Direct M edia ...... 36
x i i i ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research was: (1) to determine the comparative usage of several channels of communication by Spanish-named residents of San Antonio, Texas; (2) to dis cover the more widely used channels and sub-channels of com munication; and f3) to identify the principal characteris tics of each preferred sub-channel and specific demographic variables of its users.
The channels of communication which were studied were television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books or pamphlets, signs, mail or circulars, planned discussions or public speeches, and interpersonal relations.
The news items used in assessin g p re fe rre d channels were: (1) the war in Viet Nam, (2) the war on poverty, (3) national politics, (4) Hemisfair, a world's fair to be held
in this city in 1968, (5) local politics, (6) a proposed
xiv minimum wage law fo r San Antonio, (7) a proposed income tax for the State of Texas, (8) state politics, and (9) the strike by farm workers in the lower Texas valley.
The preferred channels of communication, those used for this purpose by more than ten percent of this sample, were radio, television, newspapers, and interpersonal rela tions. The preferred sub-channels, the specific source within each medium, and the percentage of respondents using them were: KCOR radio, 30.5 percent; KONO radio, 13.5 per cent; KWEX television, 12,5 percent; KONO television, 61 percent; The San Antonio Light, 61 percent, The San Antonio
News, 11 percent, The San Antonio Express, 15 percent; and conversations with relatives and friends or neighbors, 30 p e rc e n t. —
Of all respondents interviewed, 94.5 percent claimed that they regularly watched television; 75.5 percent claimed that they regularly listened to radio, and 71 percent report edly read a newspaper every day. An analysis of the sources from which information about specific news items had been ob tained revealed, however, that 49 percent had used newspapers,
48.5 percent had used television, 47.5 percent had used radio, and 30 percent had used interpersonal contacts. This
xv indicates that the preferred mass media channels were relied upon much more e x te n siv ely than the d ir e c t media channels; and, that there was very little difference in the percentage of respondents receiving information from radio, television, or newspapers.
Individuals using the Spanish-1anguage radio station,
KCOR, and the Spanish-1anguage television station, KWEX, were generally less acculturated, older, less educated, and had lower incomes than those using the English-language radio station, KONO, or the English-language television sta tio n , KONO.
Readers of The San Antonio Nexvs were generally younger and better educated than the respondents who read other news papers. No other demographic variables seemed to account for reader preference.
Males who talked with relatives or with friends or neighbors were better educated than most of the males who were interviewed. Of all respondents who spoke only Spanish in their homes, less than seven percent used any direct media other than relatives or friends or neighbors. No other char acteristics could be found to distinguish the users of these sub-channels from the total sample that was interviewed.
xvi CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
This chapter discusses (1) what was investigated,
(2) the nature of the problem, (3) the terms used in stating the problem, (4) the contributory studies, and (5) how the remainder of this dissertation \-/as organized.
I . Statementof the Problem
This research was concerned with studying the pat terns of communication used by Spanish-named residents of
San Antonio, Texas in securing information about nine spe c if ic news item s: (1) The V iet Nam war, (2) The war on pov erty, (3) National politics, (4) a proposed income tax for all Texas residents, (5) the farm strike in the lower Texas v a lle y , (6) s ta te p o l i t i c s , (7) lo cal p o l it i c s , (8) a p ro posed minimum wage to be paid all residents of San Antonio, and. (9) H em isfair, a 1968 world f a i r to be held in San
A ntonio.
The channels of communication which were studied were: (.1) newspapers, (2) magazines, (3) television, (4) radio, (5) mail or circulars, (6) signs, such as billboards, 2 posters, and bus cards, (7) books or pamphlets, (8) planned group discussions or public speeches, (9) conversations with relatives, (10) conversations with friends or neighbors, (11) talking with the boss at work, (12) talking with others at work, (13) conversations with a priest or minister, and (14) talking with other people not included in any of these cate gories .
The problem was basically four-fold: (1) to identify the channels of communication that were most relied upon, (2) •4 to discuss the more salient characteristics of each preferred channel and its audience, (3) to compare the findings of this study with those of contributory studies, and (4) to deter mine if specific recommendations could be formulated that would enable interested parties to communicate more effec tively with the subject group.
II. The Nature of the Problem
San Antonio was founded by Spaniards and was under
Spanish and/or Mexican rule for most of its history. The
Spanish-named have exerted a rather unique influence upon the history and the culture of the City. Even today, at least half of the residents are Spanish-named; and, San Antonio is 3 in many respects bi-cultural as well as bi-lingual.
A fuller appreciation of the nature of this problem may be obtained, therefore, by considering: (1) the role played by the Spanish-speaking in the development of San
Antonio, (2) significant factors currently impeding the process of communication between members of th is e th n ic group , and other residents, and (3) how this study may enable in terested parties to communicate more effectively with the subject group.
A historical sketch of San Antonio, Texas
On the 13th day of June in the year of 1691, a Span ish military expedition reached the Payaya Indian settlement of Yanaguana. That day was the fe a st day of Saint Anthony.
Consequently, the missionary priest who accompanied the ex p e d itio n gave the s ite the name of San Antonio.^
The Spaniards later returned, in 1718, to build a mission in San Antonio which they named San Antonio de Valero.
This was the mission that later gained world fame as the
^Bill Crane, "San Antonio: Pluralistic City and Monolithic Government," in Urban Politics in the Southwest, Leonard Goodall, ed. (Tempe, Ariz.: Arizona State University, Institute of Public Administration, 1967), p. 127. 4
Alamo. Mission San Jose Y San Miguel de Aguayo was founded
the following year; and, by 1731 three other Spanish mis
sions were moved to San Antonio from East Texas because of
French hostility to Spanish claims in that area. These missions, in addition to providing housing for Spanish sol
diers, also opened their doors to Indians in an effort to
teach them the Christian religion and to train them in use
ful crafts.
It was not long, however, before the people of the missions recognized the need for civilian settlers. In an
swer to their requests, the King of Spain supplied volunteers
to settle the area. They were fifteen families, comprised of
fifty-five Spaniards who had been living in the Canary Is
lands, who moved to San Antonio in 1731. These people formed
the villa of San Fernando, in honor of King Ferdinand of ? Spain, and established the first civil government in Texas,
As a result, for almost one hundred and fifty years,
San Antonio was comprised of Spaniards, Mexicans, and Indians.
The few Americans who entered Texas prior to 1820 were
^Sam Woolford, San Antonio: A H istory fo r Tomorrow (San Antonio: The Naylor Co., 1963), pp. 2-4. •z predominantly outlaws, explorers, or adventures.
One of the exceptions was an American p io n ee r, Moses
Austin, a native of Connecticut, who came to San Antonio in
1820 to secure perm ission to e s ta b lis h a colony; but he died before his dream could be realized.^
San Antonio then remained a Spanish military and mis sion stronghold u n til 1821 when Mexico gained i t s indepen dence from Spain. At that time, Texas was added to the Mex ican State of Coahuila.
While a part of Mexico, Americans were permitted to enter Texas only on condition that they become not only c iti zens of Mexico, but that they also become Catholics.
These provisions still existed when Stephen F. Austin the son of Moses Austin, brought the first organized colony of Americans to Texas in 1825. However, not long after that,
Mexico became suspicious of the increasing number of Ameri cans who were moving into Texas and tried to impose numerous
^Sam Woolford and Bess Woolford, The San Antonio Story (Austin: The Steck Co., 1950), p. 37.
^Ibid., p. 38.
5Lillie May Hagner, Alluring San Antonio (San Antonio The Naylor Co., 1940), p. 3. 6 restrictions. This precipitated the Texas Revolution which led to the establishment of the Republic of Texas in 1836.^
Despite this achievement, San Antonio did not witness any large growth in population during the ten-year period of the Republic. Americans still constituted a small segment of the population; battles with Mexico continued; and, the
Comanche Indians persistently raided the city.
Only when Texas entered the Union, in 1845, did
Americans begin to settle in any significant numbers. Ameri can troops continued to clash with Mexican forces over bound ary disputes until 1848 when Mexico signed the Treaty of
Guadalupe Hildago which ceded all of the territory north of the Rio Grande to the United States. The ceded area repre-. sented about half of all the land which comprised Mexico when it gained its independence from Spain in 1821.8 One signifi cant feature of that treaty was the provision that all Mexi can citizens who had failed to leave the ceded territory
6I b id .
^Crane, p. 12 8.
8James E. Vander Zanden, American Minority Relations (New York: The Ronald Press, 1966), p. 247. 7 within one year would become citizens of the United States of America. The vast majority of these people were of mixed
Spanish and Indian ancestry and were classified as Hispanos.
These Hispanos and the descendants of the Spanish colonizers constituted the Spanish-named population of San Antonio at th a t tim e.
But the Spanish-speaking population soon shifted in ratio. By 1848, all the land in the Southwest,, except for a strip later added by the Gadsden Purchase, had been acquired by the United States.9 The influx of English-speaking peo ple who flocked to this land during this later part of the
Nineteenth Century caused the Spanish-speaking people to be come a minority of the population. Thus, the first City Di rectory of San Antonio, published in 1879 shortly after the railroad came to town, listed 3,450 residents of Spanish or
Mexican descent, 2,178 who were Negro, and 15,410 who were 10 American or European.
9Ralph Yarborough, "Two Proposals for a Better Way of Life for Mexican Americans of the Southwest," Congressional Record--Senate, January 17, 1967, p. S 352.
■^Edward Heusinger, A Chronology of Events in San Antonio [San Antonio: Standard Printing Co., 1951), p. 23. 8
And so it was that the Mexican-American, the dominant
Spanish-named group in San Antonio today, did not account
1 1 for any significant part of the population until after 1900; and most of them came after 1924.12 This was largely due to the fact that the restrictive immigration laws of 1921 and
1924 did not apply to M exicans.13
Nevertheless, another drastic shift in the ratio of ethnic groups was created by this Twentieth Century Mexican immigration. By 1960, the Spanish-named residents of San
Antonio accounted for 37 percent of the population and numer ous studies conducted since that time indicate that the next official census (1970) will reveal that the percentage will constitute more than half of the total population.
It seems apparent that if San Antonio is to grow and prosper in proportion to its past history, it will be impera tive to strive to remove any barriers preventing effective communication with this ethnic group.
Hyander Zanden, p. 247 .
12Heusmger, p. 10. 1 ^ Constantine Panuncio, Hoiv Mexicans Earn and Live (Berkley: University of California Press, 1933), p. 2. 9
Significant factors impeding the process of communication
The health department, police department, welfare de partment, school districts, and other city agencies readily recognize the need to improve communication with the subject group because of the unusually high incidence of tuberculosis, school drop-outs, and juvenile delinquency attributed to this population. These propensities lend some credence to Carey
McWilliams statement that "These people constitute the social problem of San A n to n io ."14
Rut communication with this group cannot be improved unless the barriers to effective communication are removed.
Some of the more obvious barriers are found in the facts that most of the Spanish-named residents reside in a common area, have had an inadequate education, lack sufficient language skills, and are in an exceedingly low income bracket.
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the vast major ity of these people are either immigrants or are descendants of immigrants who came here from Mexico during this Century.
They must be d istin g u ish e d from o th er eth n ic groups th a t mi grated to this country. Celia Heller explained this distinction
■^Carey McWilliams, Brothers Under the Skin (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1943), p. 124. 10
by saying that
The Atlantic crossing was o£ the utmost psychological and sociological importance; it was a severance, a cross ing, an abrupt transition. But Mexican immigrants have seldom ventured beyond the fan of Spanish influence. . . In southwestern towns and cities with any sizable Mexi can American population there are residential ghettos of Mexican Americans.-^
Over three-fourths of the Spanish-named residents of San
Antonio live in these residential "ghettos". More than
forty percent live in abject poverty; and, most of them re
side in some 46,000 slum units, many of which have no plumb ing. The 1960 Census data revealed that over 44 percent of all Spanish surname homes had more than one occupant per room; and, th a t more than 37 p ercen t of those homes were either deteriorated or dilapidated,^
As Shibutani and Kwan have pointed out, once such a system of ethnic stratification has become established, it tends to be self-sustaining.
■^Celia Heller, Mexican American Youth (New York: Random House, Inc., 1966), p. 20.
•^Crane, p. 128.
-^United States Census of Population: 1960, Final Reports PHC (1) Series, United States Census of Housing: 1960, Final Reports HC (1) S e ries. 11
Residence in a common area restricts the possibility of establishing friendly contact \vith outsiders. . . . In many cases barriers are erected against the upward mobil ity of talented persons of subordinate status. They are often restricted to menial occupations and are not given ready access to technical knowledge. This practice facil itates the formation of a common outlook, for people who are limited to given occupations tend to develop a dis tinctive world view around their peculiar interests. Furthermore, when ambitious individuals realize that they will not be advanced no matter what they may achieve, they are forced to identify with those with whom they share a common fa te ,^
Education poses another problem area. In the median number of years of schooling completed by the adult popula tion, the Spanish-named rank as low as, or below, any other ethnic group identified and tabulated by the census reports except the American Indian women.In 1960, more than 44 percent of those adults over twenty-five years of age had lejs than four years of formal schooling; and, only 13 per cent had finished high school.20 Bogardus mirrors the prob lem by claiming that these uneducated adults "are opposed to education for their children or are unappreciative of its
■^Tamotsu Shibutani and Kian M. Kwan, Ethnic S trati fication (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1965), p. 209.
l°Ralph Yarborough, "Mexican-Americans of the South west," Congressional Record-Senate, March 14, 1966, p. 5398.
20United States Census of Population: 1960, Final Reports PHC (1) Series, PC (l)--UC and PC (1)--45C.
i 12 merits."21 That claim was also supported by the findings
of a recent study in which Spanish-named, Anglo, and Negro parents were asked how much education they would like their
children to have. Only 2 5 percent of the Spanish-named, in contrast to 50 percent of the Negro and 67 percent of the
Anglo parentsj mentioned college.22 Madsen feels that this indifference to education is largely due to the feeling that job opportunities for the Spanish-named are limited no mat ter how much education they a c h i e v e . 2 ^
The rigid preservation of the Spanish language and the lack of skill in speaking English also pose many problems of communication for this group. A survey conducted in San
Antonio in 1965 revealed that at least 71 percent of the hus bands and wives spoke exclusively Spanish to each other.2^
Calitri accounted for this by maintaining that:
21Emory Bogardus, The Mexican in the United States CLos Angeles: University of Southern California Press, 1934), p . 69.
22Heller, p. 40.
23william Madsen, The Mexican-Americans of South Texas (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964).
2^"The Spanish-Speaking Home," Congressional Record- Senate, January 17, 1967, p. 352, 13
Wherever there is a congregation of people isolated for one reason or another from the main culture, language seems to become a weapon and a wall, a bulwark for the preservation of dignity and self. . . . And when there are many men living in the same time and place, who by their living together are forced to share burdens, to witness experiences in concert, to react to outer dangers as a group, language becomes the means of survival. . . ,25
Preservation of the Spanish language might not have posed such problems of communication had the Spanish-named become sufficiently bilingual. Unfortunately, however, this group has accounted for nine-tenths of the illiterates in th is c i t y .26 As Saunders has stated,
Inability to speak English, or to feel at ease with it, is a powerful factor in the tendency of many Spanish speaking people to avoid any but the most necessary con tacts with A n g l o s . 27
This lack of language skill has had pronounced effect upon the Spanish-speaking children whose introduction to the Eng lish language often came when they first entered school.
Little children, many of whom enter school knowing no English and speaking only Spanish are denied the use of
Charles Calitri, "Languate and the Dignity of Youth," Saturday Review, July 20, 1963..
^ Vital Statistics in San Antonio: 1956-1965 , (San Antonio: Public Health Department, 1966), pp. 2-24.
2 7Lyle Saunders, Cultural Differences and Medical Care (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1954), p. 111. 14
their language. Spanish is forbidden to them and they are required to struggle along as best they can in Eng lish, a language understood dimly by most and not at all by many. Thus the Mexican-American child is wrongly led to believe from his first day of school that there is something wrong with him, because of his language. This misbelief soon spreads to the image he has of his culture, of the history of his people, and of his people them selves . 2 8
Communication has been further hampered by the abil
ity of the Spanish-named to speak a language that most Anglos
do not understand.
The use of a different language, quite apart from any ef fect it may have on intergroup communication, is of itself something of a barrier to the establishment of good rela tions . . . . Many Anglos are annoyed and sometimes be come suspicious or angry when, in their presence, Span ish-speaking people begin to 'jabber' in their own lan guage . 29
The exceedingly low income of most of this group may
also contribute to problems of communication. The 1960 census
listed slightly more than 42 percent of the Spanish-named
families of San Antonio as having annual incomes below $3,000.
Almost one-fourth of those people earned less than $2,000.39
2 8 Two Proposals for a Better Way of Life for Mexican- Americans of the Southwest," Congressional Record-Senate, January 17, 1967, p. 352. 2 9 Saunders, p. 112.
^ United States Census of Population: 1960, Subject Report; Persons of Spanish Surname, Final Report PC (2)-IB, Tables 13 and 14. 15
This was perhaps due to the wages g e n erally paid to members of this group and to their very high unemployment rate. The reported unemployment rate in the United States for the year
1966 was 3.7 p e rc en t. For the San Antonio m etrop olitan area it was 4.2 percent. In the slum areas, where most of these
Spanish-named residents live it was 8.0 percent.Further more, a recent study by the United States Department of
Labor revealed that, "... the subemployment rate in that area--which takes account of all the 'negative' employment factors in a measurement of serious job problems--is a startling, sobering 47.4 p e rc e n t."
The economic problems of many of the Spanish-named residents of this city are perhaps best exemplified by a feature story which appeared in a recent issue of the Wall
Street Journal.
San Antonio, Texas. Manuel Vasques shoos aside a stray dog and relaxes on the steps of his tarpaper-covered shanty here. 'If I work two days a week, I am lucky. Sometimes my children go to bed hungry. My wife is sick. I wonder,' he asks bitterly, 'who cares?'
5^-Sub-Employment in the Slums of San Antonio (Washing ton, D.C.: United States Department of Labor, November, 1965), pp. 1-2.
32Ibid. 16
Mr. Vasquez, a slight mustached man of 34, has known only hard times since arriving in this country from Mex ico with his parents in 1937. He gave up on schooling after spending two years trying to pass the fourth grade. Last year as a $l-an hour 'pick and shovel man' and oc casional farm laborer, the father of five earned less than $1,500. Mr. Vasquez's plight isn't unusual. . . .33
Residence in a common area, inadequate education, lack of language skills, and low income are, it seems, sig nificant factors impeding the process of communication.
Another barrier, of equal if not greater significance, to effective communication is the fact that many of the in tended communicators have been ignorant of the cultural heri tage of this ethnic group. Communicating with the Spanish- named usually involves ritual and respect patterns that are alien to Anglos.3^- Teachers, welfare workers, missionaries, health department representatives and many others who desire to communicate with this population have often visited the homes of these people. As H e lle r claim s, these v i s i t s were seldom welcomed because the intended communicator usually was ignorant of the cultural patterns and often violated 35 every rule of Latin etiquette.
33"Overlooked Minority," The Wall Street Journal, E astern E d itio n , May 3, 1966, p. 1, column 1.
3^Madsen, p. 21. 33Ib id ., p. 107. 17
It is the contention of this researcher that sound recommendations for improving communication with this group cannot be formulated without understanding the principal con
cepts which define the ethos of their culture. Although a complete discussion of the cultural concepts considered in this study cannot be presented here, a brief discussion of some of the more salient characteristics is mentioned to il lustrate the validity of this contention.
Attempts at communication may fail if the communi cator offends the principle of machismo. Machismo, the con cept of ideal manliness, requires the adult male to demon strate virility, strength, courage, independence, and aggres siveness. It is one of the most pervasive values of the cul ture in that it defines a man's obligations, privileges, so cial demeanor, honor, and even the work that he should accept,
"En mi casa yo mando" (In my house, I command) is the byword of the Mexican-American husband no matter who gives the or- *7 £ ders outside h is home. Madsen has expressed th a t " Id e a lly , the Latin male acknowledges only the authority of his father and God. In case of conflict between these two sources of
36lbid.f p. 48. a u th o rity , he should side with h is f a t h e r ."37 Machismo also
requires the adult male head to avoid being proved wrong.
To take a stand on something and then to retreat from that
stand is regarded as d e g r a d i n g . 38 Being in debt or seeking help from welfare or charitable institutions reflects upon
the m ale's machismo. Not only does he become hu m iliated but
the integrity of his family is threatened. That is primar
ily the reason loan sharks who provide complete anonymity to the borrower have such a thriving business with this popu
la tio n .
The failure to recognize fatalism as a principal
characteristic of this culture may also impede effective com munication. Fatalism is manifested by a concern for the present, an acceptance of things as they exist, and a belief that happiness cannot exist without suffering, "Mexican Amer
icans regard the future as both vague and unpredictable.
Planning for the future, so characteristic of American culture,
is not th ere fo re t h e i r way of l i f e . "39 Madsen contends th a t
this fatalistic acceptance and appreciation of things as they exist constitutes the primary value of the culture because,
^Ibid., p. 18. 38Ibid. ^{-leller, p. 20. 19
God, rather than man is viewed as controlling events. . . . Many Mexican Americans would consider it presump tive to try to plan for the future. The Latin lives for today instead of creating a blueprint for the future. He is dedicated to living the moment to its fullest in the roles assigned to him by G o d .40
Life, according to this philosophy, is a balance of oppo sites. God "does not give life without death nor pleasure w ithout p a i n .
Another culture characteristic of the Mexican-Ameri- can is that these people identify themselves with pride as members of La Raza (the R ace). They u n ite them selves by bonds of blood and custom. They are proud of their culture and of their Spanish names.
This is often manifested in the applicable claim that many Mexican Americans vote only for candidates with Spanish surnames and leave other positions on the ballot untouched.
In 1962 , John Goode-, a prominent Anglo lawyer, ran for Con gress against Henry Gonzales. Mr. Goode's supporters provided free beer and tamales at a political rally designed to lure the votes of the Mexican Americans. The effect of that rally was summed up by the slogan, "Drink Goode's beer and eat
^Madsen, p. 17. ^Ihid. , P* 16. <3
20
Goode's tamales. Go to the polls and vote for Gonzales."
Communication may be unsuccessful also when others fail to recognize the structural aspects of Spanish-named families. One of these is the nuclear family. It is the most treasured of all institutions in this culture.4^ The adult male head of the household represents the family to all the world outside; and, the conduct of each member re flects directly upon him. The old command the young and the males command the f e m a l e s .4^ The father is often seen as being the human image--of God. "He is aloof, absolute, ----- and forceful in administering justice.1,44 The adult female- head provides love, understanding, and charity; and is often compared with the Virgin of G u a d a l u p e .4^ She is expected, hoitfever, to acknowledge the authority and superiority of her husband and to place his needs well before her o w n . 46
Another structural part of the Spanish-named family is the extended family. It is comprised of grandparents and
Compadres. "Because the family name and affiliation are traced through the father, the paternal grandparents are
42Ibid., p. 17. 45Ibid. 44Ibid. 45Ibid. 21 g en erally of more importance than the m other’s p a r e n ts ."47
Although the nuclear family usually preserves its own sepa rate household, each household in the extended family is generally located in the same a r e a . 48 Compadres are indi viduals who "assume carefully defined roles in relation to the other participants in a religious ceremony establishing ritual kinship."4^
Significance of this study
Representatives of local governmental agencies and local communications media have recognized the need to im- prove communication with the Spanish-named residents and have requested th a t they be furnished %vith a summary of the f in d ings of this research. Such a summary, together with spe cific recommendations for improving the process of communica tion, will be made available to these people. They will also be given information concerning the way they may secure a complete copy of this dissertation.
It was not assumed that this project would solve all the problems involved in communicating with this ethnic group
It seems reasonable, however, that (1) an identification of
47Ibid. 48Ibid. 49Ibid> 22 preferred channels of communication, (2) analyses of the principal characteristics of each preferred channel and its users, (3) a comparison of the findings of this study with those of contributory works, and (4) suggestions for improv ing communication with the subject group, should enable in terested parties to communicate more effectively with the
Spanish-named residents of this city.
It seemed apparent that an intelligent interpreta tion of the data which had been collected should be predi- cate'd upon 'a full understanding of the multiple problems dis--_ cussed in this chapter. Otherwise the danger existed of suggesting solutions that were incapable of being put into effect. It might be easy to suggest that education is the answer to the problem. That was what United States Senator
Ralph Yarborough implied when he declared that "Education will produce stronger leadership and lead to an end of the exploitation of the Mexican American,Anyone fa m ilia r with the culture of this ethnic group would have immediately recognized that what was posed by the Senator was not a
50"Education: Solution to Mexican American Problem," The Rattler, San Antonio, Texas: St. Mary’s University, Tuesday, October 24, 1967, p. 1, column 5. 23 solution but another problem: How can the importance of education be communicated to individuals who see such little value in it?
III. D efin itio n s o f Terms
"Communication11
Most definitions of "communication" seemed to have considered only the basic process of how what was transmitted to whom and with what effect. Such explanations were not completely satisfactory for the purposes of this study be cause they neglected the element of communication as a dis criminatory response made by the receiver of a message. That concept of discriminatory response was vital to the present study because the primary problem for investigation was why respondent "X" had selected Channel "Y" to receive informa tion "Z" when he could have selected from many other channels.
The basic concept of communication was therefore modified to include not only the process of how what was transmitted to whom but also the factors influencing the discriminatory re sponse made by the receivers of messages in the selection of transmission channels. 24
"Channels of communication"
The term "channel of communication" as used in this
research referred to the message source. Both mass media
channels and direct media channels were included for analysis
and study. The mass media channels investigated were radio,
television, newspapers, magazines, books and pamphlets, b ill
boards and posters, circulars and direct mail. Direct media
channels observed were various forms of interpersonal con
tact. The mass media "sub-channels" were the particular
radio stations, television stations, newspapers, etc. The
direct media "sub-channels" were conversations with friends
or neighbors, relatives, boss at work, others at work, priest
or minister, and other people. Planned discussion groups
and public speeches were also included as direct media "sub
channels ."
"Spanish-named"
The United States Census of Population: 1950 included
a special volume containing data on Persons of Spanish Surname.
That was the first time that such distinctive data had been
gathered by the Census. In 1960, a greatly expanded report with the same title was issued. In both publications, data were presented only for Arizona, California, Colorado, New 25
Mexico, and Texas. Furthermore, much demographic informa tion was presented in terms of specific census tracts in in dividual cities. San Antonio was one of those which fur nished an abundance of information about her Spanish-named r e s id e n ts .
It was decided to use the same classification in this study in order to provide consistency in using data based upon census reports and to be able to determine how representative the chosen sample was of the total popula tion of Spanish-named residents of San Antonio, Texas.
Virtually all of the Spanish-named residents of this city had Mexican ancestors. Consequently, some \^riters have used terms such as "Mexican American," "Latin," or
"Latin-American" in referring to that population. These terms were sometimes used interchangeable with the term
"Spanish-named" in this study, especially when quoting from sources that had used such terms.
IV. Contributory Studies
A review of the literature uncovered three doctoral dissertations which were directly related to this project.
Fred Tewell.--The research primarily responsible for 26
this study was a doctoral dissertation completed at Louisiana
State University in 1956 by Fred Tewell. He conducted "A
Study of the Channels of Communication Used by One Hundred
Negroes in Baton Rouge, Louisiana." Dr. Waldo W. Braden,
Chairman of the Department of Speech at Louisiana State Uni versity, suggested to this writer that a similar study con ducted with another ethnic group might provide areas of com parison and contrast that could contribute to a better under standing of minority group behavior and possibly generate ad ditional research.
Gail Myers.--Tewell*s influence was also felt by
Gail Myers who completed his dissertation at the University of Denver in 19 59. Myers undertook "A Study of the Channels of Communication Used by One Hundred Spanish-named Residents of Denver, Colorado."
August Lorenzini.--August Lorenzini acknowledged the influence of Tewell and Myers when he conducted "A Study of the Patterns of Communication Used by Fifty Negro and Fifty
Spanish-named Residents of Phoenix, Arizona." That- disserta tion was submitted to the University of Denver in 1962,
Distinctions between the present study and contribu tory studies.--Although the present study used the basic 27 methodology of the contributory studies, it was unique in that Cl) a larger sample was obtained, (2) more information was gathered, (3) a more random method of selecting respon dents was employed, (4) information was programmed for a computer so that multiple correlations could be studied,
(5) interviewers xvere members of the subject group who were familiar with the language and the culture of the respon dents, and (6) emphasis was placed upon the societal and cultural aspects of communication,
V. Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter One contains a four-fold statement of the problem that was studied, discusses the general nature of the problem, identifies contributory studies, defines terms used in stating the problem and clarifies how the disserta tion is arranged into separate chapters.
Chapter Two contains a detailed explanation of the methodology employed in the study. Items included in this section are: explanations of how the instrument was de signed and tested, how respondents were selected, how inter viewers were selected and trained, how interviews were con ducted, the type of data gathered, and how the data were 28
analyzed.
Chapter Three discusses the relative utility of the
fourteen channels of communication which were studied and
ranks each channel both by the average percentage of male
and female respondents using each channel for all news items
and by the percentage o f male and female respondents using
each channel for each news item. This Chapter also explains
the rationale for identifying the preferred channels of com
munication which are treated in subsequent chapters.
Radio is discussed in Chapter Four, Television in
Chapter Five, Newspapers in Chapter Six, apd Interpersonal
relations in Chapter Seven. Each of these chapters discusses
the particular channel in such a manner as to illustrate (1)
its availability to and utility by the entire sample, (2)
the relative utility of the various sub-channels within that particular medium of communication, (3) the demographic vari
ables which seemed to influence the selection of the more widely used sub-channels, (4) the characteristics distinguish
ing th e more p re fe rre d sub-channels from competing sub-chan nels within that medium, and (5) possible relationships be
tween the distinguishing characteristics of each preferred
sub-channel and the demographic variables of the respondents 29 using that channel.
Chapter Eight contains a summary of the findings of this study and compares them with those of contributory studies. Suggestions are offered for further study and rec ommendations are made for improving communication with the subject group. CHAPTER II
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
The material in this chapter represents an effort to discuss the methodology employed in this research in suffi cient detail so that the study may be replicated by another researcher. Explanations are included which describe: (1) how the instrument was designed and tested, (2) how inter viewers were selected and trained, (3) how respondents were selected, (4) how the interviews were conducted, (5) the type of data gathered, and (6) how the data were analyzed and presented.
I. Designing and Testing the Instrument
The interview was the method by which data were gathered. An instrument, based upon those used in the con tributory studies, was designed during the Summer of 1966.
A pilot study conducted in November of that year indicated that many changes would have to be made. For example, it was decided that questions about demographic information should be asked toward the close of the interview rather than at the start. Asking questions about age, income,
30 31 educational level and other personal matters before securing the respondent's cooperation and interest had proved to be completely unsatisfactory.
The first two or three questions often have a dual func tion. On the one hand they are included to obtain in formation of specific research objectives, but they also help to educate and motivate the respondent .51
That pilot study also revealed that many questions still had to be simplified. As Cannell and Kahn have written, "The language of the questionnaire must approximate the language of the respondent."52
An additional period of six months was spent rede signing and retesting the instrument. For at that time it was realized that:
If our questions are not-properlyput--i.e., if our ob servations are not suitably made--in the first place, no amount of interpretative ingenuity at a later stage, will enable us to reach our research objectives.53
It was that realization that caused the researcher to seek
^Charles Cannell and Robert Kahn, "The Collection of Data by Interviewing," in Research Methods in the Behavioral Sciences, edited by Leon Festinger and Daniel Katz (New York: The Dryden Press, 1953), pp. 328ff.
52Ibid. , p. 349.
S^Leon Festinger and Daniel Katz, eds, Research Meth ods in the Behavioral Sciences (New York: The Dryden Press, 1953) , p . 2 . 32 professional advice regarding the instrument and the meth odology.
The interview form and a personal letter explaining the problem and the methodology were sent to executives of four professional research firms, twenty of the local radio stations, five local television stations, and three local newspapers. Replies were received from two of the research firm s,^ six radio stations,66 two newspapers,^6 and all five television stations,67 All of those who replied ex pressed interest in the project and offered some form of as sistance. Charles 0. Kilpatrick, Vice-President and Execu tive Editor of the Express Publishing Company, publishers of the San Antonio Express and the San Antonio News, greatly in fluenced the portions of the interview that were concerned with newspapers. Mr. Emilio Nicolas, Vice-President and
General Manager of KWEX-TV, a local Spanish-language telev i sion station, and Mr. Gregg Hupp, an account executive with
^Marketing and Research Counselors, Inc., 4225 Of fice Parkway, Dallas, Texas, 75204; and, Nielsen Survey, 2101 Howard S tre e t, Chicago, I l l i n o i s 60645. 5SKITE: KONO: WOAI: KBAT: KBER: KMFM-FM. (All are local stations) 56san Antonio Express and San Antonio News.
57KWEX: WOAI: KENS: KLRN: KONO. 33
Marketing and Research Counselors, Inc., of Dallas, Texas, were extremely influential in deciding the final form of the interviewing instrument.
As a further step, the researcher reviewed many works regarding minority group behavior. Those found to be of great value in designing the instrument were the writings of William Madsen,58 Celia Heller,59 Beatrice G riffity,60
Robert Maclver,^1 Edward McDonogh and Eugene R i c h a r d s ,
Carey M c W i l l i a m s3 Tamotsu Shibutani and Kian K w a n ,^ 4 George
Simpson and J. Milton Y inger,65 and George Vander Zanden.66
58Will iam Madsen, The Mexican-Americans of South Texas (New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1964). ^C elia Heller, Mexican American Youth (New York: Random House, Inc., 1966). ^Beatrice Griffith, American Me. (New York: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1958), 61-Robert Maclver, The More P e rfec t Union (New York: Macmillan Co., 1948), 62Edward McDonogh and Eugene Richards, Ethnic R ela tions in the United States (New York: Appleton-Century - C rofts, Inc., 1953). f\ % Carey McWilliams, Brothers Under the Skin (Boston: Little Brown and Co., 1943). ^Tamotsu Shibutani and Kian Kwan, Ethnic S tratifi cation (New York: Macmillan Co., 1965). 65George Eaton Simpson and J. Milton Yinger, Racial and Cultural Minorities (New York: Harper and Bros., 195 3).
^James Vander Zanden, American Minority Relations (New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1966). 34
As a result of the literature read and the comments
received from the letters requesting evaluation of the in
terviewing instrument, another interview form was designed.
A pilot study, conducted in June of 1967, revealed satisfac
tory results with, one noticeable exception. The interviews
were averaging 50 to 60 minutes each.
In consultation with Mr. Tom Tarillion of the St.
Mary's University Computer and Data Processing Center, it
was decided to place 117 questions in the form of a matrix.
Interviewers had been asking respondents 13 questions about
each of the 9 news items being investigated. The war on
Viet Nam, for example, was one of the news items. Inter
viewers had been asking: "Have you heard anything on radio
about Viet Nam?" "Have you seen anything on television about
Viet Nam?" and so on for each of the 13 possible channels of
communication. It was decided to explain the mass media
channels being studied and to hand the respondents a list of
those channels. Then the interviewer would take one news
item at a time, i.e., Viet Nam, and ask "From which of these have you received information?" to insure that the interviewee
clearly understood what was being asked, the interviewer would
give examples of each news item. The interviewer then checked the appropriate spaces in the matrix (See Fig. 1.)
o co co CO l—l w Pi P i E-i CO 2 Pi < o w 1—1 O 21 21 CO o > ISt D CO co a: w i—i w < 21 U 2 ; 12 (2 w 2 c m Pi o o s P h o HEMISFAIR VIET NAM VALLEY FARM STRIKE LOCAL POLITICS NATIONAL POLITICS STATE POLITICS MINIMUM WAGE FOR SAN ANTONIO STATE INCOME TAX PROPOSAL Fig. 1.--Matrix used in the interview to establish r e la tiv e use of mass media. Prior to this portion of the interview, questions had been asked regarding who had used which of these channels in order to secure news. This procedure was used to check the previous information and the type of news received from each channel. 36 The same procedure was used to gather information about the direct media channels of communication. The inter viewer would hand the respondent the list of the direct media channels and would explain them so that he felt sure the respondent understood what was being asked. (See Fig. 2.) P i X co O CO o i O X p i o P i M U > CO o w Q CO W i—i co ft f t ft H H W W W H ft o X ft CO CO X x ft f t f t C w & w u W t-1 z u w co W f t >-3 X 1—1 f t X < CO j CO ' X o H H Pi W P i l-H f t f t P i o H ft K O < f t 2: f t s P. ft o ft O ft WAR ON POVERTY HEMISFAIR VIET NAM VALLEY FARM STRIKE LOCAL POLITICS NATIONAL POLITICS MINIMUM WAGE FOR SAN ANTONIO STATE INCOME TAX PROPOSAL STATE POLITICS Fig. 2.--Matrix used in the interview to establish relative use of direct media. 37 These revisions were then tested in a pilot study conducted in July of 196 7. Interviews averaged only twenty minutes and results seemed highly satisfactory. II. Selection and Training of Interviewers Mr. Emilio Nicolas, of KWEX-TV who was mentioned earlier in this chapter as having contributed to the design of the instrument, was adamant in stating that interviewers for this project should be thoroughly familiar with the lan guage and the culture of the subject group. Having had several similar studies conducted for his firm, he was of the opinion that valid data could be obtained in no other way. That view was further explained by Wilbur Schramm when he discussed research showing that strangers calling upon the Spanish American Community were met w ith h o s t i l i t y and su sp icio n . Almost without exception they would represent trouble. That is, they would include police, the truant officer . . . a representative of the juvenile court . . . a government inspector, tax assessor or collector, a building inspector, and so forth--all of them being po tential threats to the poor people of the settlement. A major problem for community workers . . . would there fore be to establish their role as friend and helper; and to know that would take some study and a consider able knowledge of the c u l t u r e . 67 ^ W ilb u r Schramm, Mass Media and N ational Development (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1964), p. 103. 38 Financial assistance was received through the office of Mr. Jose Lucero, local director of the Economic Opportuni ties Development Corporation, whereby twenty competent in terviewers could be obtained for this project. The inter viewers were selected by Mr. Belvin Stuart of the San Antonio Neighborhood Youth Organization. The group was sent to St. Mary's University for a special orientation and training program which lasted for three days. Upon completion of that program, the group was narrowed to fourteen xvho expressed enthusiasm concerning the project and who had demonstrated competence and reliability. III. Selection of Respondents The selection of respondents posed a problem. The effort to select Spanish-named residents by using a table of random numbers and the C ity D irectory of San Antonio proved disastrous.^8 The method finally employed was to divide the city into four geographical quadrants and to select seven census tracts completely at random from each of the quadrants. 680ne thousand names were drawn in this manner and one thousand letters with return stamped postcards were pre pared. Out of the first 300 letters, four possible respon dents were obtained. 39 Interviewers were then taken into each census tract and were instructed to conduct interviews at every fifth house on every fifth street. Over 500 interviews were conducted. Only 300 of the respondents were Spanish-named. This procedure was followed because it not only guaranteed random selection but it also furnished comparative material that the researcher could utilize in later research. Of the 300 interviews obtained from Spanish-named respondents, 44 were discarded because of insufficient or unreliable data. The attempt was made to insure that the percentage of respondents obtained from each geographical quadrant would be relatively equal to the distribution of the entire population of Spanish-named residents. About 70 percent of the interviews were conducted in the western quadrant, about 20 percent in the southern, about five percent in the eastern, and about five percent in the northern. Interviews were con ducted only with the adult male or adult female head of the household. IV. Conducting the Interview s There was no paucity of literature concerning either 40 the general nature of intervie\*ing or the specific problems involved in interviewing this ethnic group. The writings which influenced the conduct of the interviews were those of Ruth T u c lc , 69 Pauline Young,7^ Alfred Lee,71 Albert Blanken ship,^^ Wilbur Schramm,73 and a volume edited by Leon Fest- inger and Daniel Katz.74 The Katz and Festinger volume was, perhaps, the most influential, especially the chapter on the "The C ollection of Data by In terv iew in g ," which was w ritte n by Charles Cannell and Robert Kahn. Each interviewer was furnished with a personal letter of introduction typed on St. Mary's University stationery. 7 r The letter was written in both English and Spanish. This ^9Ruth Tuck, Not With the First ( N e w York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1946). 76pauline Young, Scientific Social Surveys and Re search (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1943). 71Alfred Lee, "Sociological Theory in Public Opinion and Attitude Studies," American Sociological Review, XII (1947), 318. 7^Albert Blankenship, Consumer and Opinion Research (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1943). 7 3 Wilbur Schramm, Mass Media and N ational Development (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1964), pp. 193ff. 74Festinger and Katz. 75A copy of this letter has been included in Appen dix B. I - 41 was done because of the anticipated suspicion; and, because, as Cannell and Kahn stated: Access is often gained because the interviewer is per ceived as being an individual who is to be respected be cause of his affiliation with a well-known research or ganization, a university, or a governmental a g e n c y .^6 The interviewer would greet the prospective respondent, state his name and that he was from St. Mary's University, hand the letter to the person, xvait for him to read it, and then ask if he could ask the person a few questions. Once respondents were assured that the interviewer was not selling anything, that he did represent St. Mary's University, and that the in terview would only take 15 or 20 minutes, cooperation was generally assured. The attempt was made to interest the respondent at the start of the interview by relating the project, to his goals. For example, he was asked what his favorite television or radio programs were and which of those he would like to see or hear more extensively. The introduction followed the ad vice of Cannell and Kahn who stated that the four purposes of the introduction to the interview were to: 1. Explain the purpose and objectives of the research. ^Festinger and Katz, pp. 52 8 ff. 42 2. Describe the method by which the respondent was se le c te d . 3. Identify the sponsor or the agency conducting the re s e a rc h . 4. State the anonymous or confidential nature of the interview.77 When the interview progressed to the point regarding the mass media channels of communication that had been used to secure information about each of the nine news items which were being investigated, it was necessary to hand the respon dent a list of those mass media channels and to expl.ain them so that the respondent understood what information was being sought. For example, it was necessary to explain "signs" by giving as examples, posters, billboards, bus cards, car stickers or other signs. The terms "mail or circulars" also had to be clarified by examples. Then, taking one news item at a time, the interviewer would ask from which of the listed sources the interviewee had received news about that item. Items such as local, state, or national politics, the war on poverty and valley farm worker's strike had to be clarified by examples. The same procedure was follow ed in ob tain in g data 77Ibid., p. 354. 43 about the direct media channels. The interviewer handed the respondent that list, took back the list of mass media chan nels, ascertained that the respondent understood, and pro ceeded in the same manner. When the time came to gather the demographic data, the interviewer stated that he was almost through, thanked the person for his cooperation and told him that all that was needed were a few questions about him. The individual was again assured that no names would be used in this study and that no one aside from the interviewer and researcher would ever know how he had answered. Upon completion of the interview, the interviewer again warmly thanked the respondent and told him how much Pro fessor Brennan and St. Mary's University appreciated his as sistance. He then offered to answer any questions the re spondent had about the project. When he left the premises, the interviewer marked his impression as to whether the respondent had been cooperative, very cooperative, or uncooperative, the time the interview took, the address of the home, and whether the interview had taken place in English, Spanish, or in both languages. Only fourteen interviews were marked uncooperative. These were 44 omitted from the study. The address of the respondent enabled this researcher to select five percent of the interviews for verification. He personally went to those addresses, asked the person if he recalled being interviewed, assured him that he wanted to know if the right information had been obtained, and rechecked the data. No significant discrepancies were uncovered. V. Type o f Data C ollected TTvo distiTrct--t-ype-s- -of--data were gathered in th e i n t e r view situation. The first concerned the availability and relative utility of the several channels of communication; the second related to the demographic variables of the re spondents . Data regarding the availability and relative utility of the several channels of communication. This study was concerned not only with the channels of communication actually used by the subject group but also with those which were available for usage. The data included not only who used what channels for what information but also what channels could have been used had the respondent so de sired. Asking what television station was preferred would 45 not have meant much unless all of the local channels were available. For example, KWEX-TV, the Spanish-language sta tion, is an Ultra High Frequency station. If the respondents were able to receive this channel and did not, then that finding might have been significant. If, however, their television sets could receive only Very High Frequency sta tion, the resulting information would have to be viewed dif ferently. Questions of a similar nature included such things as: Do you have an FM radio? Do you subscribe to newspapers? Do you read magazines? Data regarding demographic variables of respondents The demographic data concerned the respondent's sex, age, race, educational level, marital status, occupation, in come, place of birth, his father’s place of birth, length of residence, in San Antonio, his census tract of residence, the number of other people living in his home and their age, sex, and relationship to the respondent, the amount spent for food each week, and the amount spent for rent or house payment each month. VI. Analysis of Data Data processing: equipment and methodology 46 All data obtained in the interviews were transferred onto I.B.M. key punch forms and were verified by three dif ferent individuals. The I.B.M. cards were further verified by an I.B.M. 548 A lp h a -in te rp re te r. S ta ff members of the St. Mary's University Data Processing Center, Mr. Tom Taril- lion and Mr. Larry Ridder, designed the computer program and built the data record into a random access file (I.B.M. 1311 disc unit). Data were analyzed by the program written in I.B.M. 1401 assembler language (autocoder). Data were ob tained in readable form through the process of an I.B.M. 1403 high-speed printer. This allowed the writer to obtain for every channel of communication how the users of that channel had answered every question on the interview form. Cross- tabulations were then run to determine (1) how the demographic variables of the users of one channel differed from the demo graphic variables of the users of another channel, and (2) how the patterns of communication (interpersonal contacts, newspaper, magazine, radio, or television usage) of individ uals using a given channel differed from those of respondents using another channel. Media analyses Because of the complexity of interpersonal relations, 47 it was virtually impossible to analyze the specific charac teristics which distinguished one interpersonal sub-channel from another. For example, although one might generalize about the characteristics of a relative, a priest, a boss at work, a friend or neighbor, or other people, there are so many variables that any assessment would be highly subjec tiv e . The mass media channels of radio, television, and newspapers x\rere subjected to a rigorous analyses. Three processes were utilized: (1) an analyses of form and con tent was conducted by the researcher, (2) lengthy interviews were conducted with top-level personnel of all sub-channels, and (3) assistance was sought from professional advertising men, p u b lic re la tio n s men, and jo u r n a lis ts . Although the second and third method substantiated the writers own judg ment, they also afforded many characteristics which would have been overlooked. In the interviews with representatives of the mass media channels, each individual was asked (1) to id e n tify the characteristics distinguishing that channel from its competitors, (2) to rank each competing sub-channel according to its probable popularity \\rith various segments of the 48 subject group, (3) to explain the basis for that ranking, and (4) to estimate the demographic variables of the Spanish- named residents using the various sub-channels. Surprisingly, there was marked agreement, even among the strongest competi tors. Furthermore, the interviews which were conducted with others active in the professions substantiated the informa tion that had already been gathered. Presentation of statistical data In order to determine whether the sex of a respondent influenced the pattern of communication, statistical data were presented in tabular form for the percentages of males and females in each classification. Medians were extracted from the raw data. Medians were presented rather than means because many tables contained a small percentage of respondents at the extreme end of a scale. Statisticians generally agree that the median presents a more reliable picture of the total group when these few ex treme cases exist. ^Henry E. Garrett, Statistics in Psychology and Edu cation (New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1961), p. 38; J. G. Peatman, Introduction to Applied Statistics (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), p. 42, and J. P. Guilford, Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Co., 1965), p. 62. CHAPTER III THE RELATIVE UTILITY OF THE SEVERAL CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION The channels of communication that were studied in this project were: (1) television, (2) radio, (3.) newspapers, (4) magazines, (5) signs, (6) direct mail and circulars, (7) books or pamphlets, (8) planned group discussions or public speeches, (9) r e l a ti v e s , (10) frie n d s or neig hbors, (11) boss at work, (12) other people at work, (13) priest or minister, and (14) other people. The nine specific news items used to assess the rela tive utility of each channel were: (1) the war in Viet Nam, (2) the war on poverty, (3) national politics, (4) the farm strike in the lowrer Texas valley, (5) a proposed income tax for the State of Texas, (6) state politics, (7) Hemisfair, a world fair to be held in this city in 1968, (8) a proposed minimum wage ordinance for San Antonio, and (9) local politics. Two distinct procedures were involved in the assess ment of the relative utility of the various channels of com munication . 49 50 The first procedure involved computing, for each channel, the percentage of respondents receiving information on each o f the nine news item s. By summing these percentages and then dividing by the number of news items, an arithmetic mean p ercen t was e s ta b lis h e d fo r each channel of communica tion. Channels were then ranked in terms of these arithmetic means, (see Table 1) . The second procedure was to rank each channel of com munication in terms of its relative utility for each of the nine news items (see Tables 2 through 10). This was done as a check of the previous method in order to determine if pos sible cases of extreme percentages might have biased the rank order of channels shown in Table 1. Tables one through ten illustrate that the same five channels of communication were most relied upon for all nine news items. Radio, television, relatives, newspapers, and friends or relatives always ranked in the top five with all male and female respondents alike. These Tables also show a drastic decrease in relative utility between the channel ranked number five and the channel ranked number six. To emphasize t h i s , ta b le s two through ten show a broken lin e between the channel ranked number five and the channel ranked 51 TABLE 1 AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF MALES AND FEMALES WHO IDENTIFIED ONE OR MORE CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION AS THE SOURCE OF INFORMATION FOR ONE OR MORE OF NINE NEWS ITEMS Male Respondents Female Respondents Rank Channel % Rank Channel % 1. Newspaper 52 1 . T elevision 48 2 . Radio 50 2. Newspaper 46 3. T elevision 49 3. Radio 45 4. R elatives 36 4. Relatives 38 5. Friends/neighbors 34 5. Friends/neighbors 32 6. People at work 14 6. Other people 8 7. Boss at work 10 7. Signs 7 8. Signs 10 8. Magazines 7 9. Other people 9 9. Mail/circulars 7 10. Mail/circulars 8 10. People at work 5 11. Magazines 7 11. Priest/minister 5 12 . Priest/minister 5 12. Boolc/pamphlet 3 13. Book/pamphlet 4 13. Boss at work 2 14. Discussion/speech 3 14. Discussion/speech 2 52 TABLE 2 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION RANKED IN ORDER OF THE PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS RECEIVING INFORMATION ABOUT THE WAR IN VIET NAM Male Respondents Female Respondents Rank Channel 'a Rank Channel 3 1. Newspaper 73 1. T elevision 72 2 . Radio 73 2 . Radio 68 3. T elevision 73 3. R elatives 68 4. R elatives 63 4. Newspaper 66 5. Friends/neighbors 57 5 . Friends/neighbors 59 6 . People a t work 28 6. Magaz ines 14 7. Boss at work 18 7. Other people 10 8. Magazine 17 8. M a il/c irc u la r 10 9. Signs 14 9 . Signs 9 10. Other people 14 10. People 9 11. Mail/circular 14 11. Priest/minister 8 12 . Priest/minister 10 12 . Book/pamphlet 5 13. Book/pamphlet 7 13. Boss at work 3 14. Discussion/speech 3 14. Discuss ion/speech 2 53 TABLE 3 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION RANKED IN ORDER OF PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS RECEIVING INFORMATION ABOUT THE WAR ON POVERTY Male Respondents Female Respondents Rank Channel % Rank Channel % 1 . Newspaper 63 1 . Newspaper 54 2. Radio 57 2 . T elevision 51 3. Television 51 3. Radio 49 4. Relatives 38 4. Relatives 38 “ 5. Friends/neighbors 37 5 . Friends/neighbors 28 6. People at work 11 6 . Other people 12 7. O ther people 11 7. Magaz ine 10 8 . Magazine 11 8. Mail/circular 10 9. Mail/circular 10 9. People at work 8 10. Signs 9 10. Priest/minister 7 11. Boss at work 9 11. Signs 5 12. Priest/minister 7 12. Book/pamphlet 4 13. Book/pamphlet 6 13. Boss at work 3 14. Discussion/speech 6 14. Discussion/speech 3 54 TABLE 4 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION RANKED IN ORDER OF THE PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS RECEIVING INFORMATION ABOUT NATIONAL POLITICS Male Respondents Female Respondents a, Rank Channel ti Rank Channel % 1 . Newspaper 33 1 . T elevision 53 2 . T elevision 33 9t, 4 Newspaper 31 3. Radio 31 3. Radio 27 4. Friends/neighbors 20 4. R elatives 18 5 . R elativ es 19 5 . Friends/neighbors 17 6. Magazines 7 6 . Mail/circulars 5 7. People at work 7 7. Signs 4 8. Boss at work 5 8. Magazines 4 9. Mail/circulars 5 9. Priest/minister 4 10. Signs 4 10 . .Other people 3 11. Priest/minister 4 11. Book/pamphlet 3 12. Other people 3 12. People at work 2 13. Book/pamphlet 3 13. Boss at work 0 14. Dis cussion/speech 1 14. Discuss ion/speech 0 55 TABLE 5 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION RANKED IN ORDER OF PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS RECEIVING INFORMATION ABOUT THE VALLEY FARM STRIKE Male Respondents Female Respondents Rank Channel % Rank Channel % 1 . Newspaper 57 1 . Radio 53 2. Radio 56 2 . Television 15 3. Television 54 3. Newspaper 49 4. Relatives 37 4. Relatives 43 5. Friends/neighbors 37 5 . Friends/neighbors 34 6. People at work 16 6 . Other people 10 7. Other people 10 7. People at work 6 8. Signs 7 8. Mail/circulars 6 9. Boss a t work 7 9. Magazine 5 10. Mail/circulars 7 10. Signs 5 11. Magazine 6 11. Priest/minister 5 12 . Priest/minister 6 12 . Book/pamphlet 3 13. Book/pamphlet 4 13. Discussion/speech 3 14. Discussion/speech 4 14. Boss at work 2 56 TABLE 6 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION RANKED IN ORDER OF PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS RECEIVING INFORMATION ABOUT STATE POLITICS Male Respondents Female Respondents Rank Channel % Rank Channel % 1. Newspaper 32 1. Television 31 2. T elevision 28 2. Newspaper 27 3. Radio 28 3. Radio 23 4. Friends/neighbors 18 4. R elatives 19 5. R elativ es 17 5 . Friends/neighbors 14 6 . People at work 7 6. Other people 4 7. Mail/circular 7 7. Priest/minister 4 8. Signs 4 8. Mail/circular 4 9. Magaz ine 4 9. Signs 3 10 . Priest/minister 4 10. Magaz ine 3 11. Other people 3 11. People at work 2 12. Boss at work 3 12. Book/pamphlet 2 13. Book/pamphlet 2 13. Boss at work 0 14. Discussion/speech 2 14. Discussion/speech 0 57 TABLE 7 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION RANKED IN ORDER OF PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS RECEIVING INFORMATION ABOUT A PROPOSED STATE INCOME TAX Male Respondents Female Respondents Rank Channel % Rank Channel % 1 . Newspaper 29 1 . Newspaper 24 2. Radio 21 2. Relatives 24 3. T elevision 15 3. Radio 21 4. R elatives 12 4. Television 19 5. Friends/neighbors 12 5 . Friends/neighbors 14 6. Boss at work 4 6 . Priest/minister 4 7. People at work 2 7. Other people 3 8. Mail/circulars 2 8. Magazines 2 9. Magazines 2 9. Book/pamphlet 2 10. Priest/minister 2 10. People at work 1 11. Other people 2 11.' Boss at work 1 12 . Signs 1 12 . Mail/circulars 1 13. Discussion/speech 1 13. Discussion/speech 0 14. Book/pamphlet 0 14. Signs 0 S 8 TABLE 8 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION RANKED IN ORDER OF PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS RECEIVING INFORMATION ABOUT HEMISFAIR Male Respondents Female Respondents Rank Channel & Rank Channel % 1. Radio 78 1 . Television 75 2. T elevision 75 2. Radio 69 3. Newspaper 71 3. Newspaper 65 4 . Relatives 65 4. R elatives 58 5 . Friends/neighbors 64 5. Friends/neighbors 52 6. Signs 33 6 . Signs 21 7. People at work 27 7. Mail/circulars 16 8. Boss at work 18 8. Other people 12 9. Other people 18 9. Magazines 11 10 . Mail/circulars 18 10. People at work 6 11. Magazines 13 11. Book/pamphlet 6 12. Book/pamphlet 8 12. Priest/minister 5 13. Priest/minister 5 13. Boss at work 3 14. Discussion/speech 2 14. Discussion/speech 3 59 TABLE 9 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION RANKED IN ORDER OF PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS RECEIVING INFORMATION ABOUT A MINIMUM WAGE LAW ]FOR SAN ANTONIO Male Respondents Female Respondents Rank Channel % Rank Channel 1 1 . Radio 64 1 . Radio 64 2. Newspaper 63 2 . Television 58 3. T elevision 55 3. Newspaper 56 4. Relatives 46 4. R elatives S2 5. Friends/neighbors 38 5, Friends/neighbors 42 6 . People at work 19 6 . Other people 10 7. Boss at work 14 7. Signs 8 8. Other people 13 8. People at work 7 9 . Signs 10 9. Mail/circulars 6 10. Mail/circulars 7 10. Priest/minister 5 11. Priest/minister S ' 11. Boss at work 5 12. Discussion/speech 4 12. Magazine 4 13. Magazine 2 13. Discussion/speech 3 14. Book/pamphlet 2 14. Book/pamphlet 2 60 TABLE 10 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION RANKED IN ORDER OF RESPONDENTS RECEIVING INFORMATION ABOUT LOCAL POLITICS Male Respondents Female Respondents Rank Channel % Rank Channel % 1 . Television 51 1. T elevision 44 2. Newspaper 49 2. Newspaper 39 3. Radio 46 3. Radio 36 4. Relatives 24 4. R elatives 24 5. Friends/neighbors 24 5 . Friends/neighbors 20 6. People at work 10 6 . Other people 6 7. Mail/circulars 10 7. Mail/circulars 5 8. Signs 7 8. P rie s t/m in is te r 5 9 . Other people 6 9. People at work 4 10. Priest/minister 5 10 Signs 3 11. Magazine 4 11. Magazine 3 12 . Boss at work 3 12 . Boss at work 1 13. Discussion/speech 3 13. Discussion/speech 1 14. Book/pamphlet 1 14. Book/pamphlet 0 61 number six. It will be observed from looking at both sides of this line that in every table the relative utility bet\veen the fifth and sixth ranked channels diminished by fifty per cent or more. Because of this tremendous decrease in u til ity, the preferred channels of communication were considered as being newspapers, radio, television, relatives, and friends or neighbors. These channels are treated in detail in following chapters. CHAPTER IV RADIO This chapter will consider: (1) the availability and usage of radio as a channel of communication, (2) the comparative usage of the several radio sub-channels, and (3) the principal characteristics of each preferred sub-channel and the demographic variables of its users. I. Availability and Usage of Radio Data obtained from the interviews indicated that 81 percent of all respondents had one or more radio receivers; and, 40 percent had one or more sets able to receive fre quency modulation broadcasts. San Antonio has 13 AM radio stations, three of which broadcast in Spanish. There are 9 FM stations, one of which broadcasts in Spanish. Regular radio listening, at least two hours a day, was reported by 73 percent of the male sample and by 78 per cent of the female sample. 62 I I . Comparative Usage o f Radio Sub-channels The percentage of respondents who claimed that they re g u la rly lis te n e d to a s p e c ific radio s ta tio n is shown in Table 11. In this and in subsequent tables, a Spanish-lan- guage station is denoted by an asterisk. TABLE 11 LOCAL RADIO STATIONS RANKED ACCORDING TO THE PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS REPORTING REGULAR LISTENING Station Total % Male % Female % KCOR* 30.5 33 28 KONO 13.5 14 13 KTSA 8,5 7 10 KUKA* 6.0 5 7 KEDA* 5.5 3 8 KITE 3.0 3 3 KBAT 2.0 2 2 KBER 1.5 2 1 KAPE 1.5 0 3 KBUC 1.0 0 2 KMAC .5 1 0 WOAI .5 1 0 KDRY 0.0 0 0 KITE-FM .5 0 1 KMFM-FM . 5 1 0 KEEZ-FM .5 1 0 KSYM-FM 0 0 0 KITY-FM 0 0 0 KISS-FM 0 0 0 KBER-FM 0 0 0 KBUC-FM 0 0 0 Total 75.5 73 78 64 It may be seen from Table 11 that only two radio stations were regularly listened to by more than ten percent of all respondents. Information about respondents using other radio stations xvould have to be predicated upon data involving very small percentages of this sample. Therefore, the preferred radio stations that will be subjected to analy ses are KCOR and KONG. Ill. The Preferred Radio Sub-channels: An Analysis of the Principal Characteristics of Each Station and Its Listeners The Principal characteristics of KCOR radio KCOR is one of three Spanish-language stations. It differs from the others in that it: (1) broadcasts 24 hours a day, (2) uses a high quality of Spanish, (3) offers a wider variety of traditional Mexican music, (4) broadcasts dramatic presentations, and (5) presents a more balanced news c ast . Although KCOR broadcasts 2 4 hours every day, the other Spanish-language stations are on the air only from sun rise to sunset. The management of KCOR claims that its announcers use a. high quality of Spanish (the type spoken in Mexico City) 65 and that the other Spanish-language stations lean more toward the "Tex-Mex" variety. KCOR offers a wide variety of traditional Mexican music and presents many current recordings from Mexico. The other Spanish-language stations concentrate upon the Mexican version of the polka. The term "polka" is used not so much to refer to the type of music as it is to the manner in which the music is played. Polkas are generally played by a three to six piece band comprised of one or more guitars, accordi- ans, and horns. —The tempo is that o f the Europe an polka, KCOR is also noted for its dramatic presentations called "novelas." The novela is the Mexican equivalent of what the American calls the "soap opera" or dramatic serial. A complete story is usually presented in several episodes over a period of 60 to 90 days. Fifteen percent of all males and forty percent of all females who were interviewed claimed that they regularly listened to these novelas. Mr. Safir, the general manager of KCOR radio, accounted for this prefer ence by claiming that the Spanish-speaking, and especially the women, like to have someone read to them, Safir stated that it has long been a custom in Spain, Cuba, and other Spanish-speaking countries to have someone read a Spanish 66 novel to the women while they worked in factories. KCOR presents thirty newscasts each day. While the other Spanish-language stations concentrate upon local news, especially violence such as accidents, crimes, and fires, KCOR claims to present a wider variety of local, state, and n a tio n a l ne\\rs . Principal demographic variables of KCOR listeners KCOR listeners were generally older, less educated and had lower incomes than the listeners of other radio sta tions. KCOR also had the highest percentage of listeners who were born in Mexico and who spoke only Spanish in their homes. "The—percentage of male and females listeners in each are group is detailed in Table 12. TABLE 12 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF MALE AND FEMALE LISTENERS TO KCOR RADIO Age Groups Male % Female % Total % Under 21 0 0 0 21-30 18 18 18 31-40 12 36 24 41-50 34 32 33 TABLE 12 - -Continued Age Groups Male % Female % T otal % 51-60 15 11 13 61-70 15 3 9 Over 70 6 0 3 Total Percentage of KCOR listeners 100 100 100 Percentage of the total sample 3 3 ...... - ... —-...... 2 8.... 30.5 Median age of KCOR lis te n e r s 46 39 Median age of all radio listeners 40 37 Median age of all people interviewed 42 36 In terms of years of formal schooling completed, KCOR listeners were generally less educated than the listeners of other radio stations (see Table 13). 68 TABLE 13 EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF MALE AND FEMALE LISTENERS TO KCOR RADIO Years of Formal Schooling______Male % Female % Total 0-4 years 34 29 31.5 5-8 years 21 50 35.5 9-11 years 24 4 14,0 High school graduate 12 17 14.5 1-2 years of college 3.0 3 years of college 0- 0 College graduate 1.5 Total percentage of KCOR listeners 100 100 100 Percentage of the total sample 33 28 30 .5 Median educational level of KCOR lis te n e r s 7.6 6.2 Median educational level of all radio listeners 9.9 7.8 Median educational level of all people interviewed 9 . 8 7.8 From Table 14 it can be seen that KCOR listeners were generally below other radio listeners in terms of total family income. TABLE 14 TOTAL FAMILY INCOME DISTRIBUTION OF MALE AND FEMALE LISTENERS TO KCOR RADIO Yearly Income Male % Female % T otal % Un de r $2,000 19 29 24.0 2,000-2,999 24 25 24.5 3,000-3,999 30 25 27.5 4,000-4,999 18 18 - 18.0 5,000-7,999 6 3 4.5 8,000-9,999 0 0 0. 10,000-11,999 0 0 0 . 12 ,000-13,999 3 0 1.5 Over $14,000 0 0 0. Total percentage of KCOR listeners 100 100 100 . Percentage of the total sample 33 28 30,5 Median income of KCOR listeners $3,2 50 $2 ,850 70 TABLE 14--Continued Yearly Income Male % Female % Total % Median income of a l l radio lis te n e r s 43,62 5 $3,277 Median income of all people interviewed $3,666 $3,347 Language usage was obviously a factor influencing a respondent in his selection of HCCOR radio .From Table 15 it may be seen that more than half of KCOR listeners spoke only Spanish in their homes. TABLE 15 THE RELATIVE USAGE OF SPANISH AND ENGLISH BY MALE AND FEMALE LISTENERS OF KCOR RADIO Language Spoken in the Home Male % Female % T otal % Spanish only 43 60 51 Mainly Spanish 9 0 5 English and Spanish evenly 42 36 39 English only 6 4 5 Mainly English 0 0 0 Total percentage 100 100 100 71 KCOR also had a large percentage of its audience who were born in Mexico and other towns in Texas. Less than one- fourth of its listeners were natives of San Antonio (see Table 16). TABLE 16 BIRTHPLACES OF KCOR LISTENERS TABULATED BY THE PERCENTAGES OF MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS 0, Place of Birth Male % Female 'O Total % San Antonio 18 25 21.5 Other towns in Texas 33 42 37.5 Other states 0 3 1.5 Mexico 49 30 39.5 Other 0 0 0. Total percentage 100 100 100 Summary of the characteristics of KCOR and i t s lis te n e r s With less than 2 5 percent being native bom and wit! more than 50 percent speaking only Spanish in the home, KCOR listeners.were generally older, less educated, and had less income than the total sample which was interviewed. 72 It is perhaps natural that the principal character istics of KCOR radio: broadcasting in Spanish, on the air 24 hours a day, offering a wide variety of traditional Mexi can music, presenting dramatic programs, and presenting fre quent news b ro ad c asts, would appeal more to th is segment of the sample that was generally less acculturated. The other Spanish-language stations emphasized the type of program and music that was popular with the younger and more acculturated Mexican-American. Mr, Lopez, program director of KEDA one of the other Spanish-1anguage stations, predicted that KCOR would be most popular with the older and less acculturated Mexican-American primarily because of their novelas. Mr. Coe, owner and man ager of KUKA another Spanish-language station, also consid ered KCOR as an adult station that was first because of its novelas. The management of both KEDA and-KUKA admitted, with pride that they programmed "the country and western music of Mexico," that they stressed violence in their newscasts, and that they appealed to the younger and more acculturated Mexi can -American . Principal characteristics of KONO radio KONO radio is one of the few local stations that 73 broadcasts 24 hours a day. It has been broadcasting since 1927. KONO news director, Larry Webb, distinguished his station from its principal competitors by its presentation of news and music, its long reputation, and its affiliation with KONO television. As will be discussed in the chapter dealing with television, KONO-TV is by far the most popular television station with Mexican-Arnericans. Webb believed that having the same call letters and having access to the KONO-TV news f a c i l i t i e s was a decided advantage. KONO is considered to be a top 40 station. This means that they stress popular music of the more traditional hind and avoid the hard rock and roll. Webb's feeling was that the hard rock and roll music, which he attributed to one of ICONO's competitors, appealed more to the younger seg ment of this sample. KONO presents regularly scheduled news broadcasts five minutes before each hour and they frequently interrupt programs for news bulletins. ’ This station has long had the reputation for vividly reporting acts of violence. Webb agreed with this observation and took pride in it. He claimed that San Antonio is "a violent news town" and that 74 KONO only gives the public what it really wants to hear. Principal demographic variables of KONO listeners In terms of all respondents interviewed, KONO listen ers were considerably younger, better educated, and had much higher incomes. The age distribution of KONO listeners is presented in Table 17. TABLE 17 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF MALE AND FEMALE LISTENERS TO KONO RADIO Age Groups Male % Female % T otal % Under 21 14 30 22.0 21-30 21 24 22.5 31-40 51 31 41.0 41-50 7 15 11 .0 51-60 7 0 3.5 61-70 0 0 0. Over 70 0 0 0. Total percentage of KONO listeners 100 100 100 . Percentage of the total sample 14 13 13.5 75 TABLE 17 - -Continued Age Groups Male % Female % T otal % Median age of KONO listeners 35 29 Median age of a ll radio lis te n e r s 40 37 Median age of all people interviewed 42 36 In terms of education as measured by years of forma] schooling, KONO listeners were considerably above the averaj; of this sample (see Table 18). TABLE 18 EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF MALE AND FEMALE LISTENERS TO KONO RADIO Years of formal schooling Male % Female % T otal % 0-4 years 0 7 3.5 5-8 years 21 31 26.0 9-11 years 21 31 26.0 High school graduate 44 31 37.5 1-2 years of college 14 0 7.0 76 TABLE 18 - -Continued Years of Formal Schooling Male % Female % Total % 3 years of college 0 0 0 . College graduate 0 0 0 . Total percentage o f KONO lis te n e r s 100 100 100 Percentage of the total sample 14 13 13.5 Median educational level of KONO lis te n e r s 11.7 9.6 Median educational level of all radio listeners 9.9 7.8 Median educational level of all people intervie\\red 9.8 7.8 In general, KONO listeners had higher incomes than the listeners of any other radio station. From Table 19 it can be seen that although the median income of both male and female listeners was higher than the median income of the total sample, male listeners had a substantially higher median income. 77 TABLE 19 TOTAL FAMILY INCOME DISTRIBUTION OF MALE AND FEMALE LISTENERS TO KONO RADIO Yearly Income Male % Female % Total % Under $2,000 0 8 4.0 2,000-2 ,999 8 15 11.5 3,000-3,999 14 30 22 .0 4,000-4,999 21 24 22.5 5 ,000-7,999 29 15 22.0 8,000-9,999 20 8 14.0 10,000-11,999 8 0 4.0 12 ,000-13,999 0 0 0. Over $14,000 0 o 0. Total percentage of KONO listeners 100 100 100 Percentage of the total sample 14 13 13.5 Median income of KONO listeners $5 ,700 $3,900 Median income of a l l radio lis te n e r s $3,625 $3 ,277 Median income of all people interviewed $3,666 $3,347 78 Summary of the characteristics of KONO radio and its listen ers From the data presented it seems obvious that the main characteristics of KONO radio: broadcasting exclusively in English, on the air 24 hours a day, being a top 40 station, and stressing immediacy, accuracy, and violence in its news, would appeal more to the acculturated Mexican-American with an income and educational level considerably higher than the average of this sample. Chapter summary The only two radio stations that were regularly lis tened to by ten percent or more of this sample were KCOR, a Spanish-language station, and KONO, an English-language sta tio n . KCOR was listened to by 30.5 percent of the total sample. Its listeners were generally older, less educated, and had lower incomes than the average of all people who were intervieived. Its popularity with this segment of the sample may be attributed to the facts that: (1) it is the only Spanish-language station that broadcasts 24 hours a day, (2) it offers a wide variety of traditional Mexican music compar able to what one would hear from a quality radio station in 79 Mexico City, and (3) it offers dramatic presentations that are popular with the older Mexican-American, especially the women. KONO radio was listened to by 13.5 percent of this sample. Its listeners were generally quite younger, better educated, and had higher incomes than the average of all people \tfho were interviewed. Its popularity with this seg ment of the sample may be attributed to its: (1) broadcast ing exclusively in English, (2) being on the air 24 hours a day, (3) being a top 40 station, and (4) stressing immediacy and accuracy in news p re s e n ta tio n s . CHAPTER V TELEVISION This chapter will consider: (1) the availability and usage of television as a channel of communication, (2) the comparative usage of the various television sub-channels, and (3) the principal characteristics of each preferred sub channel and the demographic variables of its’users. I. Availability and Usage of Television Of a l l homes in which interview s were conducted (256), 97 percent of the respondents had at least one televi sion set in good working order. Television sets able to re ceive ultra high frequency stations were available to 77 per cent of the total sample. Of all respondents interviewed, 93 percent of the males and 96 percent of the females reported viewing televi sion at le a s t two hours a day. II. Comparative Usage of Television Sub-channels San Antonio has five television stations. WOAI, channel 4, is a National Broadcasting Company affiliate; 80 81 KENS, channel 5, is a Columbia Broadcasting Company a ffili ate; KONO, channel 12, is an American Broadcasting Company affiliate; KWEX, channel 41, is an ultra high frequency sta tion affiliated with the Spanish International Network and broadcasts in Spanish; KLEN, channel 9, is an educational station that is affiliated with the Texas Educational Network. KWEX, channel 41, is available only to those who have television sets able to receive ultra high frequency trans missions (77 percent of this sample). All other stations claim to broadcast on frequencies available to owners of all television sets. It is of interest to note that only one television station, an English-language station was an overwhelming fa vorite with this subject group (see Table 20). In the follow ing tables, KWEX, the Spanish-language station is denoted by an asterisk. Ill. The Preferred Television Stations: An Analysis of the Principal Characteristics of each Station and Its Viewers From Table 20, it may be noted that only two stations were regularly viewed by more than ten percent of the total sample. A discussion of the demographic variables of the 82 TABLE 20 LOCAL TELEVISION STATIONS RANKED ACCORDING TO THE PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS REPORTING REGULAR VIEWING Channel T otal % Male % Female % 12 KONO 61 58 64 41 KWEX* 12.5 11 14 5 KENS 8.5 6 11 4 WOAI 2.5 3 2 9 KLRN 0. 0 0 No favorite 10.0 15 5 Total viewers 94.5 93 96 viewers of other stations would be of little import because it would be based upon data dealing with a very small per centage of viewers. The preferred television stations will therefore be considered to be KONO and KWEX. Principal characteristics of KONO The assessment of the characteristics distinguishing local television stations was made not only by comparing per sonalities, form, and content but also by conducting lengthy interviews with responsible representatives of all five 83 stations. In these interviews, each representative was asked: (1) to distinguish between all five stations, (2) to rank each station as to its probable popularity with the subject group, and (3) to explain his reasons for that rank ing. Surprisingly, there was marked agreement that KONO would be by far the more popular with the Spanish-named viewer. The reasons given for that popularity were: (1) KONO news b ro a d c a sts, e s p e c ia lly the la te evening news, (2) a more consistent emphasis upon showing full-length motion pictures, and (3) a more frequent presentation of programs dealing with crime, violence, suspense, or what the people in the trade called "action programs." The qualities which distinguish KONO news broadcasts from those of competitors can be better understood by dis cussing: (1) the views of respresentatives of rival stations, (2) the views of the KONO news staff, and (3) personal obser v atio n s made by the w rite r. Representatives of rival television stations were very free with their comments but asked that they not be quoted. The particular source of any of the following state ments will, therefore, not be identified. "KONO uses yellow journalism; but it is skillfully done." "Their staff has 84 much more skill than ours.” "KONO news is the blood and thunder approach. This is popular with Mexican Americans because they have so much violence in their backgrounds." "We can't compete with KONO news because of their budget, staff, and reputation." "KONO news has quality," "KONO news uses what we in the trade call 'blood and guts' news. Half of their viewers are Mexican Americans. They like this." "KONO got their first with the best. It will take us a long time to catch up." The news staff of KONO attribute their popularity to skill in technology, emphasis upon human interest stories, a fast pacing of the news, the personality of the newscaster, and h a b i t . Skill in technology is evident not only from the claim of KONO newsmen but also from the admission o f com peti tors and from the personal observation of this researcher. A liberal budget and an unusually large news staff, twice that of any other local station, seem to be factors helping to account for the technical skill, KONO newsmen have orders to get the complete story. Frequently they shoot as much as 300 feet of film when only twenty is necessary. This poses an e a s ie r task fo r the news e d ito r , at l e a s t from th e stand- 85 point of selecting quality pictures. KONO also uses more "cut-away" film shots--films showing not only the subject of the news item but also the reactions of others present at the scene. KONO newscaster, Tom Ellis, gave three reasons for the frequent use of this technique: (1) the people who were there like to see themselves on television, (2) viewers expect continuity; if a person is giving a speech, the audi ence expects to see the reactions of his listeners, and (3) this technique allows the frequent use of suggestion. Ellis claims that it is this use of suggestion that causes people to think that KONO uses much more of the "blood-and-guts" type of sensationalism than they actually use. To emphasize this point, he explains that he would rather show the facial expression of a fireman giving artificial respiration to a c h ild than to show the face of the c h ild . Ellis also believes that KONO takes care to see that every news story has an introduction, a body, and a conclu sion that is complete on film so that his script can be mainly an adjunct to the film. He claims that KONO has received letters stating that many viewers who are deaf watch KONO news fo r th is reason. The KONO newsmen re se n t the term "yellow journalism " 86 that has been applied to them by competitors,. They agree, however, that they do emphasize sensationalism. Their jus tification for this is that television is an entertainment medium and th a t news should be e n te rta in in g as w ell as i n formative. According to their view, news should be of hu man interest; and, human interest centers around items con cerning violence, sex, children, and animals. A rapid pacing of the net^s may be another factor that accounts for the popularity of the late evening news on KONO. The program opens with the theme song "Purple Pageant," a stirring martial piece. Local news involving murders, ac cidents, fires, etc., are presented in a rapid manner with films of each story averaging about 50 seconds. Then, fol lowing a commercial, the local news usually continues with milder items such as ground breakings, exhibits, visiting dignitaries, etc. The last item preceding weather, sports, and world-wide news, is usually a rather unique feature story that is not so much of a news item as a human interest story such as the rescue of a dog stuck in a drain pipe. The late-evening newscaster for KONO, Tom Ellis, is a very warm and personable young man. His pronunciation of Spanish names is flawless; and KONO sees this as a very 87 important factor. They believe that the subject group has come to identify with Ellis; and, that turning to another chan nel would be like inviting a stranger into their living rooms. This, they claim, is true because Ellis has been the regular newscaster for nine consecutive years while other stations have undergone a considerable turnover in personnel. KONO started using moving film in its news programs in 1957. WOAI had been using a radio simulcast and other stations had no late evening news. For ten years KONO has consistently presented local news at 10:00 p.m. When other stations finally decided to compete, their programs often varied from the 10:00 p.m. hour and they were not presented every night of the week. People apparently have gotten into the habit of watching KONO for late evening news. Only two other stations can be considered as possible competitors for late evening news listeners. They are WOAI and KENS. KLRN and KWEX make no effort to compete. When the representatives of all stations were asked to assess WOAI news, they made such remarks as "They have difficulty separating the dignified from the stuffy." "They are fine people but they spend too much time on news items that are perhaps worthy but not interesting." "They seem to be condescending; they talk 88 down to most people and fail to identify with their viewers.” KENS was viewed as making progress but lacking the staff of competent news writers and editors. It was also thought that the frequent turnover in personnel had hurt KENS. KONO shows many more full-length motion pictures than any other local station. An analysis of motion pictures pre sented during a typical week--a week selected completely at random--reveals that during this time WOAI presented nine mo tion pictures, KENS presented twelve, and KONO presented eighteen. Mr. James Brown, station manager of KONO, agrees that his station emphasizes movies more than other stations. He believes that motion pictures are popular television fare; and, that they are especially popular with the Mexican-Amer ican. As evidence for that belief, he offers several televi sion surveys which have been conducted regarding viewing pref erences of local residents of different ethnic classification. Brown has no specific evidence as to why movies are so popu lar with the subject group. The only theory that he offers is that perhaps many Mexican-Americans lack the financial re sources with which to attend motion picture theaters; and, consequently, they may look upon the motion picture presented on television as more of a novelty or treat. 89 Mr. Brora also agrees that KONO puts more emphasis upon action programs --programs such as "Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea," "The F.B.I.," "Rat Patrol," "Combat," "The In vaders," "Batman," "The Green Hornet," "Time Tunnel," etc.,-- than other local stations. Demographic variables distinguishing KQNO-TV viewers KONO viewers were younger, had higher educational levels, and had higher incomes than the average respondent. Most of the KONO audience were native born and spoke English and Spanish evenly. The percentage of KONO viewers in each age group is shoxm in Table 21. TABLE 21 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF MALE AND FEMALE VIEWERS OF KONO TELEVISION Age Group Male % Female % T otal % Under 21 5 9 7 21-30 25 33 29 31-40 23 22 22.5 41-50 23 27 25 51-60 15 7 11 90 TABLE 21 - -Continued Age Group Male % Female % Total % 61-70 8 1 4.5 Over 70 1 1 1 Percentage of KONO viewers 100 100 100 Percentage of the total sample 58 64 61 Median age of KONO viewers 39.2 34.1 Median age of a ll te le v is io n viewers 42.6 35 .0 Median age of a ll people interviewed 42.2 35.9 It may be noted from Table 22 that KONO viewers were s lig h tly more educated th a t the average respondent • TABLE :22 PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS WITHIN EACH EDUCATIONAL LEVEL WHO REPORTED REGULARLY VIEWING KONO TELEVISION Years o f Schooling Male % Female % Total % 0-4 years 17 20 18.5 5-8 years 19 34 26.5 91 TABLE 22 - -Continued Years of Schooling Male % Female % Total % 9-11 years 19 20 19.5 High School graduate 36 23 29 .5 1-2 years of college 4 2 3.0 3 years of college 0 1 .5 College graduate 5 0 2.5 Percentage of KONO viewers 100 100 100 Percentage of the total sample 58 64 61 Median educational level of KONO viewers 10.7 8.1 Median educational level of all television viewers 9.8 7.8 Median educational level of all people interviewed 9.8 7.8 The median annual income of females viewing KONO was only four percent higher than the median annual income of the 92 total female sample. Male viewers, however, had a median income twenty-two percent higher than the total male sample (see Table 23). TABLE 2 3 PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS WITHIN EACH INCOME GROUP WHO REPORTED REGULARLY VIEWING KONO TELEVISION Annual Income Male % Female % T otal % Under $2,00 0 7 20 13.5 2 ,000-2 ,999 17 19 18.0 3,000-3,999 25 23 24.0 4,000-4,999 21 23 22 .0 5,000-7,999 14 9 11.5 8,000-9 ,999 10 5 7.5 10,000-11,999 5 1 3.0 12,000-13,999 1 0 .5 Over $14,000 0 0 0. Percentage of KONO viewers 100 100 100 Percentage of the total sample 58 64 61 Median income of KONO viewers $4,476 $3,478 Median income of all television viewers $3,575 $3,410 Median income of all people interviewed $3,666 $3,347 93 It is of interest to note from Table 24 that of the two preferred television stations, KONO had a considerably higher percentage of viewers who were native born while KWEX, the other preferred station, had a substantially higher per centage who had been born in Mexico. TABLE 2 4 BIRTHPLACES OF RESPONDENTS TABULATED BY THE PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE VIEWERS OF THE TWO PREFERRED TELEVISION STATIONS Birthplace KWEX* KONO M. F. T. M. F. T. San Antonio 10 14 12 40 52 46 Other towns in Texas 45 36 40.5 30 30 30 Other States 0 0 0 4 5 4.5 Mexico 45 50 47.5 26 13 19.5 Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 T otal 100 100 100 100 100 100 This lends credence to the statement that KONO viewers were generally more acculturated than viewers of KWEX. Further justification for this view may be found in Table 25 which illustrates the relative use of Spanish or English as the 94 language spoken in the homes of the view ers o f each s ta tio n . TABLE 25 THE RELATIVE USAGE OF SPANISH AND ENGLISH AS THE LANGUAGES SPOKEN IN THE HOMES OF THE VIEWERS OF KWEX AND KONO TELEVISION B irth p lace KWEX* KONO M.% F.% T.% M.% F.% T.% Spanish only 55 50 52 .5 19 33 26 Mainly Spanish 9 14 11.5 7 2 4.! Spanish and English evenly 18 29 23.5 50 48 49.. Mainly English 0 0 0. 2 3 2 .! English only 18 7 12 .5 22 14 18. T otal 100 100 100 100 100 100 Percentage of total sample 11 14 12 .5 58 64 61 From this table it may be noted that KWEX had twice as many viewers who spoke only Spanish in their homes while KONO had twice as many who spoke Spanish and English evenly. Since facility with the English language is one of the signs of acculturation, it seems valid to state that KONO listeners generally were more acculturated than the viewers of KWEX. 95 Summary of the characteristics of KONO television and its viewers The characteristics distinguishing KONO television are i t s news b ro a d c a sts, e s p e c ia lly the 10:00 p.m. news which stresses sensationalism, its emphasis upon full-length motion pictures and its frequent presentation of action pro grams such as those dealing with adventure, war, crime, vio lence, etc. KONO viewers were generally younger, had higher edu cational levels, and had higher incomes than other respon dents who regularly viewed television. The distinguishing characteristics of KWEX television. KWEX is a Spanish-1 anguage station that broadcasts on ultra high frequency. KWEX is on the air Monday through Friday from 4:00 p.m. until 11:30 p.m. On Saturday and Sun day the station operates from 11:30 a.m. until 11:30 p.m. KWEX is noted for its presentations of novelas which are the 70 Mexican version of the "soap opera” or dramatic serial. ^For further information regarding the novela and its popularity see Chapter IV section III, "The principal characteristics of KCOR radio." 96 Many of this stations programs originate in Mexico; and, among the more popular of these are the bullfights. It was the view of Mr. Emilio Nicolas, Vice President and General Manager of KWEX, that this station presents high- class television programs that one might expect from a qual ity station in Mexico City. KWEX presents two regularly scheduled newscasts. At the time of this writing, the station has discontinued its wire service and is taking news items from the local papers. Nicolas attributed this more to a low budget than to lack of interest. Claiming that other stations tend to depict only unfavorable aspects of the Mexican-American--participation in crimes, dope addiction, e tc -N ico las believes that KWEX em phasizes the more positive factors concerning this group. Representatives of other local television stations see KWEX as presenting dull, repetitious programs direct from Mexico that appeal to the less acculturated Mexican-American. Demographic variables distinguishing KWEX viewers In contrast to KONO television, KWEX generally had a much higher percentage of viewers who: (1) were considerably older, (2) had less education, (3) had lower incomes, (4) were bom in Mexico, and (5) spoke only Spanish in their homes. 97 The age distribution of KWEX viewers is presented in Table 26. TABLE 26 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL MALE AND FEMALE VIEWERS OF KWEX TELEVISION WITHIN EACH AGE CLASSIFICATION Age Group Male % Female % T otal % Under 21 0 7 3.5 21-30 9 7 8.0 31-40 18 30 24.0 41-50 28 30 29 .0 51-60 18 19 18.5 61-70 9 7 8 .0 0 ve r 70 18 0 9.0 Total percentage of KWEX viewers 100 100 100. Percentage of the total sample 11 14 12.5 Median age of KCOR viewers 4 8.7 42.5 Median age o f a ll television viewers 42.6 35.9 Median age of all people interviewed 42 .2 35 .9 98 Table 2 7 shows th a t the median edu catio n al level o f KWEX viewers was considerably below that of viewers o f o th er s t a t i o n s . TABLE 27 PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS WITHIN EACH EDUCATIONAL CLASSIFICATION WHO.REPORTED REGULARLY VIEWING KWEX TELEVISION Years of Schooling Male % Female % Total % 0-4 years 27 43 35.0 5-8 years 37 36 36.5 9-11 years 18 7 12 .5 High school graduate 18 14 16 .0 1-2 years of college 0 0 0. 3 years of college 0 0 0. College graduate 0 0 0. Total percentage viewing KWEX 100 100 100 Percentage of the total sample 11 14 12.5 Median educational level of KWEX viewers 7.0 5.3 Median educational level of all te le v is io n viewers 9 . 8 7.8 Median educational level of all people interviewed 9.8 7.8 99 Table 2 8 shows the percentage of male and female viewers of KWEX in each income classification. TABLE 2 8 PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE VIEWERS OF KWEX TELEVISION WITHIN EACH INCOME CLASSIFICATION Annual Income Male % Female T otal o\o Under $2,00 0. 19 21 20.0 2.000-2,999 27 44 35.5 3.000-3,999 27 21 24.0 4.000-4,999 27 14 20.5 5.000-7,999 0 0 0. 8.000-9,999 0 0 0. 10.000-11,999 0 0 0. 12.000-13,999 0 0 0 . Over $14,000 0 0 0. Total percentage vieT^ing KWEX 100 100 100 Percentage of the total sample 11 14 12.5 Median income of KWEX viewers $3,150 $ 2,6 66" Median income of all television viewers $3,575 $3,410 Median income of all people inter viewed $3,666 $3,347 100 From Table 2 8 it may be noted that the median family income of male viewers of KWEX was $516.00 per year less than the median income of the total male sample. The median family income of female viewers was $681.00 less than the median family income of the total female sample. Although these figures may not seem significant, they become more meaningful when one considers that the median income for the total sam ple was only $3,666.00 for males and only $3,347.00 for fe m ales. On the basis of the data presented, it seems safe to state that KWEX viewers are generally older, have less edu cation, have lower incomes, and are generally less accultur- ated than the listeners of KONO. Almost half of the KWEX viewers were born in Mexico, and, only 12 percent were born in San Antonio (see Table 29). Further evidence of the lack of acculturation of KWEX viewers is seen from the fact that most speak only Spanish in their homes and only about one third seem to have any real proficiency with the English language (see Table 30). 101 TABLE 29 BIRTHPLACES OF VIEWERS OF KWEX-TV B irthplace Male % Female % T otal % San Antonio 10 14 12 Other towns in Texas 45 36 40 .5 Other States 0 0 0 Mexico 45 50 47.5 Other 0 0 0 Total 100 100 ...... 100 TABLE 30 THE RELATIVE USAGE OF SPANISH AND ENGLISH AS THE LANGUAGE SPOKEN IN THE HOMES OF THE VIEWERS OF KWEX Languate spoken in the Home Male % Female % Total % Spanish only 55 50 52 .5 Mainly Spanish 9 14 11.5 Spanish and English Evenly 18 29 23.5 Mainly English 0 0 0. English only 18 7 12.5 Total 100 100 100 Percentage of the total sample 11 14 12.5 102 Summary of the characteristics of KWEX and its viewers KWEX is an ultra high frequency station that broad casts exclusively in Spanish. It is also distinguished by its presentation of dramatic serials and many programs which originate in Mexico. In comparison with the viewers of other stations, those watching KWEX generally are older, have lower incomes, and have less education. About half of these viewers were born in Mexico and still speak only Spanish in their homes. t CHAPTER VI NEWSPAPERS This chapter will consider: (1) the availability and usage of newspapers as a channel of communication, (2) the comparative usage of the several newspaper sub-channels, and (3) the principal characteristics"of each preferred sub channel and the demographic variables of its users. I . Availability and Usage of Newspapers Three daily newspapers are published in San Antonio: The San Antonio L ig h t, an afternoon paper; The San Antonio News„ an afternoon paper; and The San Antonio Express, a morning paper. The San Antonio Light is published by the H earst e n te rp ris e s and The San Antonio Express and The San Antonio News are both published by the Express Publishing Comp any, Regular newspaper reading was reported by 75 percent of the male sample and by 6 7 percent of the female sample. I I . Relative Usage of Newspaper Sub-channels One newspaper, The San Antonio Light was an overwhelm- 103 104 ing favorite ivith this subject group. The San Antonio Light had four times the number of readers as the next competing newspaper; and, was reportedly read by 61 percent of all males and by 54 percent of all females (see Table 31). TABLE 31 LOCAL NEWSPAPERS RANKED ACCORDING TO THE PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS REPORTING REGULAR READING Newspaper Male % Female % T otal % 1. The San Antonio Light 61 54 57.5 2. The San Antonio Express 15 13 14.0 3. The San Antonio News 11 10 10.5 The percentage of newspaper readers shown in Table 31 is higher than the number of respondents who reported that they regularly read newspapers because it includes those individ uals who regularly read more than one newspaper (12 percent of all males and 10 percent of all females). Table 32 shows not only the percentage of respondents reading one particular newspaper but also the percentage reading the various combina- 105 tions of specific papers. TABLE 32 PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS REPORTING REGULARLY READING SPECIFIC NEWSPAPERS Newspapers Male % Female % T otal The San Antonio Light only 54 50 52 The San Antonio Light and The San Antonio Express 4 2 3 The San Antonio Light and The San Antonio News 1 1 1 The San Antonio L ight, The San Antonio Express, and The San Antonio News 2 1 1.5 T otal The San Antonio Light readers 61 54 57.5 The San Antonio Express only 6 5 5.5 The San Antonio Express and The San Antonio Light 4 2 3 The San Antonio Express and The San Antonio News 3 5 4 The San Antonio E x p ress, The San Antonio News, and The San Antonio Light 2 1 1.5 T otal The San Antonio Express readers 15 13 14. The San Antonio News only 5 3 4 The San Antonio News and The San Antonio Light 1 1 1 The San Antonio News and The San Antonio Express 3 5 4 The San Antonio News, The San Antonio Express, and The San Antonio Light 2 1 1.5 Total The San Antonio News readers 11 10 10 .5 106 III. Characteristics Distinguishing Each Newspaper and Its Readers In an effort to determine specific characteristics that distinguished one newspaper from another, an analysis of form and content was conducted on each paper fo r each day of the week over a period of seven weeks. Comparisons were made regarding basic format, vocabulary level, the rela tiv e p o sitio n in g and treatm ent of the same news item s, and the general clarity and impressiveness of the reportial style. The few differences that were uncovered in this manner did not seem sufficient to account for the popularity of a given newspaper with any particular segment of this sample. Conse quently, separate interviews were arranged with the managing editor, city editor, and circulation manager of each newspaper. In these interviews, each person was asked to distinguish be tween the three newspapers, to rank each according to what he thought its popularity might be with the subject group, and to explain his reasons for that ranking. The distinguishing characteristics discovered in this manner were of such a nature that their presentation in this chapter requires deviating from the previous pattern of con sidering each sub-channel separately. Radio and television 107 are primarily entertainment media. The particular stations within each medium have content differences that permit an alyzing each apart from the others. Newspapers, however, cannot be so classified. They are not primarily geared to entertainment; they have basically the same content; and, the slight differences in format -are not sufficient to explain their relative popularity. Consequently, the characteristics which distinguish one local newspaper from another will be considered in one section of this chapter by the method of comparison and contrast. Characteristics of preferred newspapers The San Antonio Light is an afternoon newspaper in its 88th year of publication and is affiliated with the Hearst newspaper chain. The San Antonio Express is a morning news paper in its 102nd year of publication. The San Antonio News is an afternoon newspaper in its 50th year of publication. Both The San Antonio Express and The San Antonio News are p ublished by the Express J ’u b lish in g Company. The editors of all three newspapers agreed that the distinguishing characteristics of The San Antonio Light that account for its popularity with the subject group are its comic strips, its consistency in format and management, and 108 its more aggressive effort at obtaining subscriptions in the area where most of this sample reside. All editors agreed that San Antonio has a much higher percentage of comic strip readers than most cities of compar able size. They were all quick to point out that about fif teen years ago, The San Antonio Express and The San Antonio News balked at the terms of a new contract offered by The Chicago Tribune for publication rights to comic strips such as "Dick Tracy," "Steve Canyon," "Little Orphan Annie," and other leading comics of the time. The San Antonio Light, they reported, grabbed the contract; and, Audit Bureau of Circulation graphs subsequently showed The San Antonio Light experiencing a meteoric rise in circulation while the other papers dropped markedly. Mr. Kilpatrick, executive editor of both The San Antonio Express and The San Antonio News, believe that, in addition to the comic strips factor, The San Antonio Light has remained consistent in format and in its management while The San An - tonio Express and The San Antonio News have undergone two severe shakeups in both areas. Kilpatrick claimed that "con sistency sells papers." Kilpatrick also stated that The San Antonio News is especially geared to the younger segment of 109 the population. As evidence of this he mentioned the regu- lary weekly supplement, called "NAMUS" which contains several pages of articles about happenings in local high schools and colleges, items about disc jockeys, top-selling records, and many more items designed to appeal to younger readers. Mr. Bellamy, managing editor of The San Antonio Light, agreed with the observations of Kilpatrick. He further dis tinguished The San Antonio Light by stating that it strives to appeal to all ethnic groups and to people of all ages, ed ucational level, or economic status. Whereas The San Antonio News contains a section where some articles are printed in Spanish, Bellamy claims th a t The San Antonio Light makes no deliberate concession in its form or content in order to woo the Spanish-named reader. Mr. Charles Kenworthy, a professional journalist who is currently Director of Public Relations for St. Mary's Uni versity in San Antonio, agreed that The San Antonio Light would be distinguished by its comic strips and by its consis tency in format and management. He also observed that during the 1940's and early 1950's, The San Antonio Express and The San Antonio News tried to extend their circulations to in clude other areas of South Texas while The San Antonio Light 110 was content to concentrate upon local news. Kenworthy as sessed the characteristics distinguishing the three news papers by saying that although The San Antonio Light is no better than The San Antonio Express or The San Antonio News, ’’they stole a key bundle of comics, stayed at home and pro moted themselves locally and got people into The San Antonio Light h a b i t . ” He believ ed th a t The San Antonio E xpress, by being a morning newspaper, appeals more to the middle and up per-class resident who has time to read a morning newspaper. If Kenworthyfs hypothesis that most Spanish-named residents either do not have the time or do not take the time to read a morning newspaper has validity one could account for the subject group preferring The San Antonio Light over The San Antonio Express. The question would remain, however, as to why one evening newspaper, The San Antonio Light would be so much more popular than the o th er evening newspaper, The San Antonio News? Some answers have already been given in the discussion of the comics contract, the consistency of The San Antonio Light as opposed to e ith e r The San Antonio News or The San Antonio Express, and the persistent effort of The San Antonio Light to promote itself locally. Two additional factors may be pertinent: fl) The San Antonio Light is in I l l its 88th year of publication while The San Antonio News is in its 50th. (2) The San Antonio Light, by admission of representatives of all papers, makes a much more vigorous ef fort to obtain subscriptions in the area where most of this subject group reside. Characteristics distinguishing readers of The San Antonio Light In terms of medians, male readers of The San Antonio Light were 2.5 years older than male readers of The San An tonio Express and 3.5 years older than male readers of The San Antonio News. Female readers o f The San Antonio Light were 3 years younger than female readers of The San Antonio Express but 5.7 years older than female readers of The San Antonio News. The percentage of The San Antonio Light read ers in each age group is shown in Table 33, Male readers of The San Antonio Light had a median educational level that was 1.6 years less than males reading The San Antonio News but 1.3 years more than those reading The San Antonio Express. Female readers of The San Antonio Light, had a median educational level 1.4 years lower than those reading The San Antonio Express, and 3.2 years lower than those reading The San Antonio News. The percentage of 112 TABLE 33 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF READERS OF THE SAN ANTONIO LIGHT Age Group Male % Female % T otal % Under 21 3 n 7.0 21-30 23 22 22.5 31-40 21 30 25 .5 41-50 29 26 27.5 51-60 15 7 11.0 61-70 7 2 4.5 Over 70 2 2 2.0 T otal 100 100 100 . Percentage of total sample 61 54 57.5 Median age of The San Antonio Light readers 41 .5 36.2 Median age of all newspaper readers 40 .7 36 .4 Median age of all people interviewed 42 .2 35 .9 The San Antonio Light readers in each educational level is 113 shown in Table 34. TABLE 34 PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE READERS OF THE SAN ANTONIO LIGHT WITHIN EACH EDUCATIONAL LEVEL Years of Formal Schooling Male % Female % Total % 0-4 years 8 15 11.5 5-8 years 28 42 35.0 9-11 years 23 19 21,0 High School 33 22 27.5 1-2 years of college 5 1 3.0 3 years of college 0 1 .5 College graduate 3 0 1.5 Total percentage 100 100 100 Percentage of the total sample 61 54 57.5 Median educational le v e l o f The San An tonio Light readers 10.3 7.8 Median educational level of all news paper readers 10.7 8.4 Median educational level of all people interviewed 9.8 7.8 114 There was no great difference in the median incomes of male readers of any of the three newspapers. Female read ers of The San Antonio Light, however, had median incomes $1,160.00 higher than those reading The San Antonio Express and $900.00 higher than those reading The San Antonio News. The percentage of The San Antonio Light readers within each income group is shoivn in Table 35. TABLE 35 THE PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE READERS OF THE SAN ANTONIO LIGHT WITHIN EACH INCOME CLASSIFICATION Annual Income Male % Female % T otal % Under $2,000.00 11 11 11 2 ,000-2 ,999. 16 24 20 3,000-3,999. 22 17 19.5 4,000-4,999. 27 30 28.5 5 ,000-7,999 . 11 9 10 8,000-9,999. 8 7 7.5 10,000-11,999. 5 2 3.5 12 ,000-13,999. 0 0 0 Over $14,000 0 0 0 Total percentage 100 100 100 115 TABLE 35--Continued Annual Income Male % Female % T otal % Percentage of the total sample 61 54 57.5 Median income of readers of The San Antonio Light $4,100 $3,900 Median income of all newspaper readers $4,020 $3,640 Median income of all people inter viewed $3,666 $3,347 Fifteen and one half percent of all newspaper readers reported that they spoke only Spanish in their homes: 13.5 percent read The San Antonio Light, 1.5 percent read The San Antonio Express, and .5 percent read The San Antonio News. This shows that of all newspaper readers speaking only Spanish in their homes, 87 percent read The San Antonio Light. Twelve percent of all newspaper readers were born in Mexico: 9 percent read The San Antonio Light, 1.5 percent read The San Antonio Express, and 1.5 percent read The San Antonio News. This indicates that 75 percent of all newspaper readers who were born in Mexico favored The San Antonio Light. 116 Characteristics distinguishing readers of The San Antonio Express Males reading The San Antonio Express had a median age that was 3.2 years younger than the median age of the total male sample. Female readers, however, had a median age that was 3.3 years older than the total female sample (see Table 36). TABLE 36 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF READERS OF THE SAN ANTONIO EXPRESS Age Group Male % Female % Total % Under 21 0 0 0 21-30 27 23 25 31-40 27 31 29 41-50 13 38 25 .5 51-60 27 8 17.5 61-70 6 0 3 Over 70 0 0 0 T otal 100 100 100 Percentage of total sample 15 13 14 117 TABLE 36--Continued Age Group Male % Female % T otal % Median age of The San Antonio Express readers 39 39.2 Median age of all newspaper readers 40.7 36 .4 Median age of all people intervietved 42 .2 35 .9 Male and female readers of The San Antonio Express had a median educational level of 9.2 years of formal school ing (see Table 37) TABLE 37 PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE READERS OF THE SAN ANTONIO EXPRESS WITHIN EACH EDUCATIONAL CLASSIFICATION Years of Formal Schooling Male % Female % Total % 0-4 years 20 8 14 5-8 years 2 7 38 32.5 9-11 years 13 16 14.5 High school graduate 33 38 35 .5 118 TABLE 37--Continued Years of Formal Schooling Male % Female % Total % 1-2 years of college 1 0 3.5 3 years of college 0 0 0 College graduate 0 0 0 Total 100 100 100 Percentage of the total sample 15 13 14 Median educational le v e l of The San Antonio Express readers 9.2 9.2 Median educational level of all news paper readers 10. 7 8.4 Median educational level of all people interviewed 9 . 8 7.8 Although male readers o f The San Antonio Express had median incomes of $534.00 a year more than the total male sample, the median income of female readers was $607.00 a year less than that of the total female sample (see Table 38). 119 TABLE 38 THE PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE READERS OF THE SAN ANTONIO EXPRESS WITHIN EACH INCOME CLASSIFICATION Annual Income Male % Female % Total % Under $2,000. 7 . 30 18.5 2,000-2,999. 13 38 25.5 3,000-3,999. 26 8 17.0 4,000-4,999. 13 8 10.5 5,000-7,999. 20 16 18.0 8,000-9,999. 7 0 3.5 10,000-11,999. 7 0 3.5 12,000-13,999. 7 0 3.5 Over $14,000 0 0 0 Total 100 100 100 Percentage of the to ta l sample 15 13 14 Median income of readers of The San Antonio Express $4,300. $2,740. Median income of all newspaper readers $4,020. $3,640. Median income of all people inter viewed $3,666. $3,347. 120 Characteristics distinguishing readers of The San Antonio News Male and female readers of The San Antonio News had a median age considerable younger than that of their respec tive samples (see Table 39). TABLE 39 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF READERS OF THE SAN ANTONIO NEWS Age Group Male % Female % Total % Under 21 0 10 5 21-30 45 40 42 .5 31-40 10 20 15. 41-50 18 30 24 51-60 2 7. 0 13.5 61-70- 0 0 0 Over 70 0 0 0 Percentage total 100 100 100 Percentage of to ta l sample 11 10 10.5 Median age of The San Antonio News readers 35.5 30.5 121 TABLE 39--Continued Age Group Male % Female % Total % Median age of all newspaper readers 40.7 36.4 Median age of all people interviewed 42.2 35.9 Readers of The San Antonio News had a higher median educational level than readers of any other newspaper. There were no readers with less than five years of formal school ing; and, 43.5 percent of all readers had a high school edu cation (see Table 40), TABLE 40 PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE READERS OF THE SAN ANTONIO NEWS WITHIN EACH EDUCATIONAL LEVEL - - Years of Formal Schooling Male % Female % Total % 0-4 years 0 0 0 5-8 years 27 30 28.5 9-11 years 27 20 23.5 High school graduate 37 50 43.5 122 TABLE 40--Continued Years of Formal Schooling Male % Female % Total % 1-2 years of college 0 0 0 3 years of college 0 0 0 College graduate 9 0 4.5 Total 100 100 100 Percentage of the to ta l sample 11 10 10 .5 Median educational level of The San Antonio News readers 11.9 11.0 Median educational level of all news paper readers 10 .7 8.4 Median educational level of all people interviewed 9.8 7.8 The female readers of The San Antonio News had a median income that was $640.00 below that of all females who read newspapers. The median income of male readers was $137,00 a year less than that of all males who read newspapers (see Table 41) . 123 TABLE 41 THE PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE READERS OF THE SAN ANTONIO NEWS WITHIN EACH INCOME CLASSIFICATION Annual Income Male % Female % Total % Under $2,000. 0 30 15 2,000-2,999. 18 20 19 3,000-3,999. 37 20 28.5 4,000-4,999. 27 20 23.5 5,000-7,999. 0 10 5 8,000-9,999. 9 0 4,5 10,000-11,999. 9 0 4.5 12,000-13,999. 0 0 0 Over 14,000 0 0 0 Total 100 100 100 Percentage of the to ta l sample 11 10 10 .5 Median income of readers of The San Antonio News $3,863. $3,000. Median income of all newspaper readers $4,020. $3,640. Median income of all people inter viewed $3,666. $3,347,, 124 Chapter summary Of all respondents interviewed, 75 percent of the males and 6 7 percent of the females claimed that they regu larly read a daily newspaper. The San Antonio Light was by far the more popular newspaper and was reportedly read by 61 percent of the total sample. An analysis of form and content of the three local newspapers revealed no principal characteristics that could account for the popularity of any newspaper with any particu lar segment of this sample. Interviews with the management of each newspaper revealed that the distinguishing character istics were more noticeable in the past that they are at present. All representatives accounted for the popularity of The San Antonio Light by stating that: (1) The San Antonio Light gained its circulation edge when it signed a contract with The Chicago Tribune in the early 1950's for publication rights to the more popular comics of the time; (2) The San Antonio Light has remained consistent in its management and in its format while the other t w o newspapers have undergone considerable change in both areas; (3) The San Antonio Light has made a more consistent effort to promote itself locally 125 while the other two newspapers tried to extend their cover age to other areas of the State; and (4) The San Antonio Light makes a more concentrated effort to gain subscriptions in the area where most of this subject group reside. The only significant demographic variables distin guishing the readers of any ne\tfspaper were: (1) readers of The San Antonio Nexvs were considerably younger and better educated than readers of any other newspaper; (2) of all news paper readers who spoke only Spanish in th e ir homes, 87 p e r cent read The San Antonio Light; and (3) female readers of The San Antonio Express and The San Antonio News had yearly incomes considerably lower than females reading The San Antonio L ight. CHAPTER VII INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION Mass media sub-channels such as particular radio sta tions, television stations, or newspapers were so limited in number as to have specific distinguishing c h arac teristics. Direct media sub-channels, however, were not so limited. The 256 respondents who were interviewed had thousands of rela tives, friends, neighbors, etc. Although it was feasible to analyze the characteristics of mass media sub-channels of communication, it was impractical to attempt such an analy sis of the direct media sub-channels. Consequently, this chapter will consider: (1) the comparative utility of each direct media sub-channel, and (2) the principal characteristics of the users of each preferred sub-channel. I , The Comparative Usage of the Various Interpersonal Channels of Communication The seven interpersonal channels of communication which were investigated are ranked in Table 42 according to the average percentage of respondents who received informa tion from each source about one or more of the nine news 126 127 items that were studied. TABLE 42 THE PERCENTAGE OF MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS USING EACH DIRECT MEDIA SUB-CHANNEL AS A SOURCE OF INFORMATION FOR ONE OR MORE OF NINE SPECIFIC NEWS ITEMS Total % Male % Female % Relatives 37 36 38 Friends or neighbors 33 34 32 People at work 9.5 14 5 Other people 8.5 9 8 Boss at work 6 10 2 Priest or minister 6 10 2 Discussion or speech 2.5 3 2 It may be seen from Table 42 that only two of the direct media sub-channels were used by any more than 10 percent of all respondents. The tabulation of demographic variables for males and females using any of the other channels would in volve working with percentages so small as to make the infor mation misleading and meaningless; therefore, the preferred direct media sub-channels will be considered to be relatives 128 and friends or neighbors. II. An Analysis of the Characteristics of the Users of the Preferred Direct Media Channels of Communication The analysis of the characteristics of the respon dents who talked with relatives and friends or neighbors necessitated a different approach than the analysis of the characteristics of individuals who used the mass media sub channels. Although it was feasible to ask a respondent which television station, radio station, or newspaper he regularly used, it \vas not practical to ask him if he usually talked to people. Consequently, it was necessary to determine which direct media sub-channels had been used to secure information on each news items. This, in turn, required tabulating for each sub-channel the median age, educational level, income, etc., of respondents using that source for each news item. By adding those totals and then dividing by 9 (the number of news items), it was possible to compute an average age, edu cational level, etc., for individuals using each of the di rec t media sub-channels. 129 Characteristics of respondents who used the preferred direct media sub-channels Table 43 shows the median age of male and female r e spondents who used the preferred sub-channels in discussing each of the nine news items. TABLE 43 THE MEDIAN AGE OF MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS WHO USED THE PREFERRED DIRECT MEDIA SUB-CHANNELS IN TALKING ABOUT EACH NEWS ITEM Relatives Friends or Neighbors News Item Males Females Males Female State Income Tax 50.5 34.0 53.8 36.5 National Politics 46.8 40.5 40.5 52.7 Valley Farm Strike 41.5 35.0 39. 8 35.5 State Politics 48.8 39.3 45.5 38.0 Hemisfair 39.5 34.6 40.5 34. 3 Minimum Wage Law 37.8 35 .5 36.9 33.2 Local Politics 43.0 36 .2 39.1 35 .5 War on Poverty 41.7 35 .0 45.0 36.1 Viet Nam War 42 .6 35.5 40.1 35 .8 Total 392 .8 325 .6 381.2 32 7.6 Average 43.6 36.2 42 .4 36.4 Median age of the sample 42.2 35 .9 42 ,2 35.9 130 It may be seen from Table 43 that the median age of those individuals who used the preferred direct media sub channels did not d iffe r sig n ific an tly from the median age of the total sample. Furthermore, age did not generally in fluence the selection of one sub-channel over the other. The only obvious effect was upon males; and, it was more in respect to the topic that was to be discussed than it was upon the channel that was to be used. One possible exception to the previous statement may be found in the difference in the median age of males talking to relatives about national politics (46.8) and the median age of males talking to friends or neighbors about the same subject (40.5). The educational level of a respondent also seemed to have a more pronounced effect upon males using these sub channels than upon females. Males using either of the two' preferred sub-channels to discuss any topic had a median edu cational level above that of the to ta l male sample. The edu cational level of females using these sub-channels to discuss any topic did not deviate by more than one year from the edu cational level of all females who were interviewed (see Table 44) . 131 TABLE 44 THE MEDIAN EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS USING THE PREFERRED DIRECT MEDIA SUB-CHANNELS TO DISCUSS EACH NEWS ITEM Relatives Friends or Neighbors News Item Males Females Males Females State Income Tax 11.9" 7.6 11.5 6.9 National Politics 11.8 7.7 11.7 8.0 Valley Farm Strike 10 .5 7.9 10.4 7.5 State Politics 11. 8 8.2 11.8 7.5 Hemisfair 10 .0 8.0 10 .4 ...... 7 ,9 ...... -.. Minimum Wage Law 11.3 8.3 10 .8 8.1 Local Politics 11.8 7.6 11.8 8.5 War on Poverty 10.6 8.2 10.3 7.3 Viet Nam War 9.9 7.8 10.4 7.9 Total 99.6 71.3 99.1 69.6 Average 11.1 7.9 11.0 7.7 Median educational level of the entire sample 9.8 7.8 9.8 7.8 It may be concluded that educational level exerted no appreciable influence upon females using the preferred direct media sources. Males, however, were generally above 132 the average o£ the to ta l male sample that was interviewed. The median yearly income of males and females using these sub-channels is shown in Table 45. TABLE 45 THE MEDIAN YEARLY FAMILY INCOME OF MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS USING THE PREFERRED DIRECT MEDIA SUB-CHANNELS TO DISCUSS EACH NEWS ITEM Relatives Friends or Neighbors News Item Males Females Males Females State Income Tax $3,500 . $3,300 . $ 3,400 . $ 3,600. National Politics $3,800. $3,800 . $ 4,000. $ 3,900. Valley Farm Strike $3,900. $3,400 $ 3,800 . $ 3,600. State P olitics $3, 800 . $3,600 . $ 4,000 . $ 3,800. Hemisfair $3,700. $3,600. $ 3,600. $ 3, 700 . Minimum Wage Law $3,800. $3,500 $ 3,700. $ 3,400. Local Politics $4,300. $3 ,500 . $ 3,800. $ 3,700. War on Poverty $4,000. $3,600 $ 3,800. $ 3,700. Viet Nam War $3,600. $3,400. $ 3,600 . $ 3,400 . Total $34,400. $31,700. $ 34,700. $32,700. Average $3, 822 . $3,522. $ 3,856. $ 3,633, Median income of the entire sample $3,666. $3,347. $ 3,666. $ 3,347. 133 Males who talked with relatives about local politics had median family incomes of $500.00 a year more than the males who talked with friends or neighbors about that sub je c t. Females who talked with friends or neighbors about the proposed income tax for the State of Texas had median in comes of $300.00 a year more than females who talked with relatives about the same item. A comparison of the median income of males, or of females, using each sub-channel for all other news items reveals differences of not more than $200.00 a year. The difference in median income of respondents using either sub-channel was only $34.00 a year for males, and $111.00 a year for females. The difference in median income of respondents using either direct media sub-channel and the median income of all respondents is less than $300.00 a year. These differences are minor and no evidence exists to show that income appreciably influenced the selection of one direct media sub-channel more than it influenced another. The exclusive use of Spanish as the language spoken in the home seemed to have a pronounced effect upon the selec tion of direct media sub-channels. Of all respondents who 134 spoke only Spanish in the home, not more than seven percent used any direct media sub-channel other than relatives or friends or neighbors as a source of information about the news items which were investigated (see Table 46), TABLE 46 THE AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS WHO SPOKE ONLY SPANISH IN THE HOME AND WHO USED DIRECT MEDIA SUB-CHANNELS TO DISCUSS ONE OR MORE OF NINE NEWS ITEMS Total % Male % Female % Relatives 29 30 28 Friends or neighbors 22 24 20 Boss at work 3 4 2 Others at work 6 8 4 Priest or minister 3 3 3 Other people not listed 6.5 Discussion or speech 0 0 0 Chapter summary Relatives and friends or neighbors were the only d i rect media sub-channels used by more than ten percent of the to ta l sample to secure information about the news items which 135 were studied. Males talking to relatives and friends or neighbors consistently had a median educational level higher than that of the to ta l male sample regardless of the news item that was discussed. Less than seven percent of all respondents who spoke only Spanish in their homes used any direct media sources other than relatives or friends or neighbors. There were no other ch aracteristics to distinguish the users of these sub-channels from the total population. Demographic variables such as age, education, and income seemed to be more instrumental in influencing the topic that was to be discussed than they were in determining the selection of one preferred sub-channel over another. CHAPTER VIII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This chapter (1) identifies the preferred channels of communication, (2) discusses the distinguishing character istics of each preferred channel and its users, (3) compares the findings of this study with those of contributory stud ies, (4) offers recommendations for improving communication with the subject group: and (5) concludes with suggestions for further study. I . The Preferred Channels of Communication The preferred channels of communication, those used by more than 10 percent of the total sample, were radio, television, newspapers, and interpersonal relations. There was a marked discrepancy between the percentage of respondents who claimed that they regularly used a given channel of communication and the percentage who could recall having received specific information from those channels. For example, 94.5 percent of a ll respondents reportedly viewed television at least two hours every day; 75.5 percent claimed that they regularly listened to radio at least two 136 137 hours every day; and 71 percent reportedly read a newspaper every day. An analysis of the sources from which informa tion had been obtained about nine specific news items re vealed, however, that there was no noticeable difference in the percentage of respondents who received information from radio, television, or newspapers; but that these channels were relied upon much more than the direct media channels. It was discovered that 49 percent of the sample had received information from television; 47.5 percent had received infor mation from radio; and 30 percent had received information from interpersonal communication. The preferred sub-channels, the particular source within each medium of communication, were KONO radio, KCOR radio, KONO television, KWEX television, conversations with relatives and friends or neighbors, and three newspapers: The San Antonio L ight, The San Antonio Express, and The San Antonio News. II. Distinguishing Characteristics of Each Preferred Sub-channel and Its Users Radio stations KCOR and KONO Age, educational level, yearly income, place of b irth , and the language spoken in the home were the principal 138 characteristics influencing the selection of these radio s ta tio n s . KCOR is a Spanish-language station that features a variety of Mexican music comparable to what one would expect to hear from a quality radio station in Mexico City. KCOR also presents dramatic serials which are broadcast in Spanish and which the Spanish-speaking call "novelas." KCOR l i s t e n ers were generally less acculturated than KONO listeners: most had been born in Mexico, spoke only Spanish in th e ir homes, were older, less educated, and had lower incomes than those listening to KONO. Television stations KWEX and KONO Age, educational level, yearly income, place of birth, and the language spoken in the home also influenced the se lection of these television stations. KWEX is an ultra high frequency station that broad casts exclusively in Spanish. It presents many programs di rect from Mexico and takes special pride in its presentations of dramatic serials called "novelas". KWEX viewers were gen e ra lly less acculturated than KONO viewers; most were bom in Mexico, spoke only Spanish in the home, and were consider ably older, less educated, and had lower incomes than those 139 viewing KONO. KONO television is distinguished mainly by being an English-language station a ffilia te d with The American Broad casting Company; by its frequent presentations of full-length motion pictures; by its vivid portrayal of sound-on - film news items of a sensational nature; and by its emphasis upon "ac tion programs" such as "Combat," "The and others dealing with suspense or violence. Newspapers Newspaper readers were generally younger, b e tte r edu cated, and had higher incomes than those respondents who did not read newspapers. Readers of The San Antonio News were generally b e tte r educated and considerably younger than readers of any other newspaper. The executive editor of The San Antonio News stated that it is their policy to concentrate upon this seg ment of the population. The only evidence that was found to support his statement was in the Sunday editions which, con tained a special section consisting of several pages of arti cles about happenings in local schools, items about local disc jockeys and top recording artists, and other stories designed to appeal to the younger segment of the population. 140 The San Antonio News is an afternoon newspaper. The San Antonio Light is also an afternoon newspaper. The San Antonio Express is a morning paper. There were no other distinguishing characteristics that could account for reader preference; and, there were no other demographic variables that 'could distinguish the read ers of one newspaper from those of another. Representatives of all three newspapers agree with these observations and state that the differences that did exist are to be found in the past more than in the present. They attribute the im mense popularity of The San Antonio Light to: (1) its having secured a comic s trip contract with The Chicago Tribune in the early 1950's; its consistency in format and in manage ment while the other two newspapers underwent severe shakeups in both areas; (3) its persistent concentration upon the lo cal market while the other papers tried to extend their cir culations to other areas of the State; and (4) its more ag gressive effort to obtain subscriptions in the area where most of this subject group reside. Interpersonal communication Males who talked to relatives or to friends or neigh bors about any of the nine news items had a median educational 141 level higher than the total male sample. Of all respondents who spoke only Spanish in their homes, less than seven percent used any direct media sub channels other than relatives or friends or neighbors. There were no other characteristics to distinguish the users of these direct media sub-channels from the users of any other channel of communication. I l l . A Comparison of the Findings of this Study With Those of Contributory Studies Fred Tewell The in it i a l study which motivated the present re- on search was a .doctoral dissertation conducted by Fred Tewell? He studied the channels of communication used by Negro resi dents of Baton Rouge, Louisiana. His finding that the Negro relied heavily upon his priest or minister for information caused this w riter to include that channel of communication as one to be investigated in the present study. Only six percent- of this sample reported using that source to secure ®^Fred Tewell, "A Study of the Channels of Communica tion Used by 100 Negro Residents of Baton Rouge, Louisiana," Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 1956. 142 any information about the news items which were investigated. Gail Myers Gail Myers 8^ conducted a study of the channels of communication used by Spanish-named residents of Denver, Colorado. His conclusion that newspapers were the primary source of nex^s is somewhat closer to the findings of this re search. The present study indicates, however, that there is little difference in the percentage of respondents receiving nex\rs from radio, telev isio n , or nexvspapers . Myers also found that age, education, and income af fected the choice of channels of communication. His conclu sion that the respondent’s place of birth was not a factor is highly inconsistent with this research. August Lorenzini August Lorenzini82 investigated the patterns of com munication used by Negro and Spanish-named residents of Ol Gail Myers, "A Study of the Channels of Communication Used by One Hundred Spanish-named Residents of Denver, Colo rado,” Unpublished dissertation, The University of Denver, Denver, Colorado, 1959, ^August Lorenzini, "A Study of the Patterns of Commun ication Used by Fifty Negro and Fifty Spanish-named Residents of Phoenix, Arizona,” Unpublished dissertation, The University of Denver, Denver, Colorado, 1962. 143 Phoenix, Arizona. His conclusion that the Spanish-named used television for most national news items and direct media for other items cannot be supported by the present s tudy. Lorenzini concluded that age, occupation, education, and income, affected the selection of a channel of communica tion. His finding that the respondent’s place of birth was not a factor influencing his selection of channels is incon sistent with the results of this study. IV. Recommendations for Improving Communication with the Subject Group The only hypotheses for improving communication with this subject group that can be offered as a result of the present investigation concern the selection of the channel of communication and the wording of the message. Suggestions regarding channel selection are based upon data gathered in the interviews; suggestions regarding the wording of the mes sage are derived from a review of the literature. Selecting the channel of communication Although this study found little difference in the percentage of respondents who had received information from radio, television or newspapers about the nine news items 144 which were investigated i t is of in te rest to note that 94.5 percent of all respondents claimed that they watched televi sion at least two hours a day. Prime viewing time was from 7:00 to 10:30 p.m. when 61 percent reportedly watched K0N0- TV and 12,5 percent reportedly watched KWEX-TV. On the basis of this information, it would seem that KONO television would be a valuable source to one who wished to communicate with this population. KWEX viewers were generally less accultur ated. Many were bom in Mexico and spoke only Spanish in th e ir homes. Therefore, i f one wished to communicate with that segment of the population, KWEX television would be a likely source. Although 75 percent of all respondents reportedly listened to radio at least two hours a day, no single radio station accounted for as much as one-third of all possible listeners, KCOR radio was the most used station and report edly xvas listened to by 30 percent of all respondents. Prime listening time for radio was 6:00 to 8:00 a.m. If one wished to use newspapers to communicate with this population, the most probable source would be The San Antonio Light which was reportedly read regularly by 61 per cent of all respondents. The San Antonio Express was reportedly 145 read by 15 percent of this sample. The San Antonio News was reported as being read by 10 percent. The other channels of communication which were inves tigated were magazines, signs, mail or circu lars, books or pamphlets, planned group discussions or public speeches, and interpersonal contacts with a priest or minister, boss at work, others at work, friends or neighbors, or other people. Conversations with relatives and friends or neighbors were reported as being a source of information about the items studied for 50 percent of the respondents. No other channel of communication was used for this purpose by more than 10 percent of all people interviewed. Wording the message A thorough review of the literature which contributed to this dissertation revealed that one main reason why at tempts to communicate with the subject group have failed is that messages have often been perceived as th reats to such cultural concepts as machismo, honor, and individual dignity (see Chapter II). Any message which reflects upon the u lti mate authority, self-reliance, or capabilities of the adult male head of the home is apt to be greeted with hostility. Communications directed to this population should generally 146 be designed so as to enhance the machismo concept rather than to detract from it; and should be directed to or through the adult male head of the household. Honor, politeness, and individual dignity are but a few of what Madsen has c a lle d the ’’r itu a l and resp ect p a t terns that are alien to the Anglo. The entire process of communication is a ritual to this population; and, it embodies both prescribed and proscribed behavior patterns. The honor and the dignity of all parties to the communicative act must be preserved. "Polite social distance preceding direct in volvement in the affairs of others is mandatory. "84 The Anglo concept of "let's-get-down-to-business" is antithetical to the cultural concepts of the Mexican American, Direct criticism, or the questioning of another's motives is offen sive and inexcusable. The Spanish maxim, "Cada cabeza es un mundo," (each head is a world of its own), specifies that an individual is entitled to his own opinion until he tries to impose i t upon someone e l s e . 1^ These concepts, and others mentioned in Chapter II, are important to anyone wishing to communicate effectively 8^Madsen, p. 21. 84Ibid. 88 Ibid. 147 with the subject g-roup. As George and Louise Spindler have s ta te d : . .. T'7well-meaning people--teachers, public officials, medical personnel, even social workers --frequently mis understand the Mexican-American and unwittingly insult him and casually violate his ethics as well as his eti q u ette .8® Another factor to be considered in wording a message to be sent to this population is that the desired response should be phrased so as to be conceived as being within the realm of aspiration and ability. The concept of fatalism-- "que era, sera," (what will be will be)--has been discussed in the section of this study that dealt with the cultural heritage of the subject group (Chapter II). It is mentioned again to illustrate that an intended message must be perceived as being within the person's abilities. Perhaps the strongest way to accomplish this end is to identify the message with the basic desires of the nuclear family. The worst sin a Mexican American can conceive is to violate his obligations to his parents or his siblings.87 If, however, the action desired by the communicator is perceived as being above the ability of the receiver of the message, the desired response 86Ibid., p. viii. 87I b id ., p. 17. 148 may not be obtained. As Heller has pointed out: Mexican Americans, generally would rather not try to reach a goal barred by serious obstacles than pursue a goal at the risk of failure. Not to try does not re flect negatively on their manliness and honor but to try and fail does. Thus Mexican American culture pro vides the rationalization for staying out of the ’fail ure region.1^8 V. Suggestions for Further Study This study may have been of more value if all local ethnic groups had been represented and if a null hypothesis of no significant difference had been adopted. It would be interesting to know if ethnic classification is as signifi cant, or of more significance, than specific demographic variables. Are the channels of communication that were used by this subject group really any different than those used by most of the total population? Do specific channels appeal to people within certain age groups, educational levels, or in come classifications regardless of a person’s race? The present research concentrated upon identifying the more widely used channels and sub-channels of communica tion and then considering the characteristics of each channel and its users. It is suggested that a more limited study 881-ielier, p. 17. 149 dealing with fewer channels but investigating the casual re lationships between the characteristics of the channels and their users could be of significant value to warrant writing a dissertation. A study could be conducted on any single channel of communication in order to determine what specific aspects of its content appeal to what type of people. For example, knowing what newspaper is more widely read is an important factor in this area of communication research; but can it be assumed that most people read the entire newspaper? It would be of interest to know something about the characteristics of people who read comics, editorials, classified advertise ments, e tc . This same reasoning ap p lies to o th er mass media channels of communication. What type of music or other radio programs appeal to what people and why? What television pro-' grams are most popular with what people and why? BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Public Documents "Mexican-Americans of the Southwest." Congressional Record-- Senate, March 14, 1966, p. 5398. "The Spanish-Speaking Home." C ongressional Record- - S en ate, January 17, 1967, p. 352. Sub-Employment in the Slums of San Antonio. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Labor, 1965, "Two Proposals for a Better Way of Life for Mexican-Americans of the Southwest." Congressional Record--Senate, January 17, 196 7. United States Census of Housing: 1960. Final Reports HC (1) Series. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Of fic e . United States Census of Population: I960. Final Reports, HC (1) Series, PC (1) -B Series, PC (2) - IB Series, and PHC (1) Series, and Subject Reports, Persons of Spanish Surname. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. V ita l S t a t i s t i c s in San Antonio: 1956-1965. San Antonio: Public Health Department, 1966, Books Arons, Leon and May, Mark. Television and Human Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1963. Blankenship, Albert. Consumer and Opinion Research. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1943. Bogardus, Emory. The Mexican in the United States. Los Angeles: University of Southern California Press, 1934. 151 152 Burma, John. Spanish-Speaking Groups in the United States. Durham: Duke U n iv ersity P re ss, 1954. -Cannell, Charles and Kahn, Robert. "The Collection of Data by Interviewing," in Research Methods in the Behav ioral Sciences. Edited by Leon Festinger and Daniel Katz. New York: The Dryden Press, 1963, pp. 328ff. Crane, Bill. "San Antonio: Pluralistic City and Monolithic Government," in Urban Politics in the Southwest, edited by Leonard Goodall. Tempe, Ariz.: Arizona State University, Institute of Public Administration, 1963, pp. 127 f f . Festinger, Leon and Katz, Daniel, eds. Research Methods in the Behavioral Sciences. New York: The Dryden Press, 1953. Griffith, Beatrice. American Me. New York: Houghton Mif f l i n Co., 195 8. Guzman, Ralph. "The Search for Meaning: A Bibliographical Essay," in Mexican-American Study Project, Advance Report 3. Los Angeles: University of California, Graduate School of Business Administration, May, 1967, pp. viii-ix. Hagner, Lillie May. Alluring San Antonio. San Antonio: The Naylor Co., 1940. Heusinger, Edward. A Chronology of Events in San Antonio. San Antonio: Standard Printing Co., 1951. Katz, Elihu and Lazarsfeld, Paul. Personal Influence: The P art Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communica tions . New York: The Free Press, 1955. Kibbe, Pauline. Latin Americans in Texas. Albuquerque: The University of New Mexico Press, 1946. Maclver, Robert. The More Perfect Union. New York: Macmil lan Co . , 1948. 15 3 Madsen, William. The Mexican-Americans of South Texas. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1964. McDonough, Edward, and R ichards, Eugene. E thnic R elations in the United States. New York: Appleton-Century- C ro fts , In c . , 195 3. McLanahan, Samuel. Our People of Foreign Speech. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1904. McLuhan, M arshall. The Gutenberg G alaxy. Toronto: U niver sity of Toronto Press, 1962. ______. TJnderstanding Media: The Extensions of Man. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964. McWilliams, Carey. Brothers Under the Skin. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1943. Panuncio, Constantine. How Mexicans Earn and Live. Berkley: University of California Press, 1933. Peterson, Theodore and Jensen, Jay, and Rivers, William. The Mass Media and Modem Society. New York: Holt, Rine hart and Winston, Inc., 1965. Saunders, Lyle. Cultural Differences and Medical Care; The Case of the Spanish-Speaking People of the Southwest. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1954. Schramm, W ilbur. The Science of Human Communication: New D i rections and New Findings in Communication Research. New York: Basic Books, 1963. ______. Process and Effects of Mass Communication. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1954. ______. Mass Media and National Development. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1964. Shibutani, Tamotsu and Kwan, Kian. Ethnic Stratification. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1965. Simpson, George and Yinger Milton. Racial and Cultural Minorities. New York: Harper and Brothers, 195 3. Tuck, Ruth, Not With the Fist. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1946. Vander Zanden, James. American Minority Relations. New York: The Ronald Press, 1966. Woolford, Sam, and Woolford, Bess. The San Antonio Story. Austin: The Steck Co., 1950. ______. San Antonio: A History for Tomorrow. San.Antonio: The Naylor Co., 1963. Young, Pauline. Scientific Social Surveys and Research. New York: Harper and Brothers, 194 3. Articles and Periodicals Calitri, Charles. "Language and the Dignity of Youth." Satur day Review, July 20, 1963. "Education: Solution to Mexican-American Problems." The Rattler, San Antonio: St. Mary's University, Tuesday, October 24, 1967, p. 1. G.utierrez, Jose. "Establishment in Texas Controlled by Gringos." The Rattler. San Antonio: St. Mary's University, Tuesday, November 21, 1967, p. 2. Lee, Alfred. "Sociological Theory in Public Opinion and At titude Studies," American Sociological Review, XII (1947) , 318. "Overlooked Minority." The Wall Street Journal, Eastern Edi tio n , May 3, 1966, p. 1. 155 Unpublished Material a Lorenzini, August. ,rA Study of the Patterns of Communica tion Used By Fifty Negro and Fifty Spanish-Named Residents of Phoenix, Arizona." Unpublished disserta tion, Denver, Colorado: The University of Denver, 1962 . Myers, Gail. "A Study of the Channels of Communication Used By One Hundred Spanish-Named Residents of Den ver, Colorado." Unpublished dissertation, Denver, Colorado: The University of Denver, 1959. Tewell, Fred. "A Study of the Channels of Communication Used by One Hundred Negroes in Baton Rouge, Louisiana." Unpublished dissertation, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1956. APPENDIX A THE INTERVIEWING INSTRUMENT THE INTERVIEWING INSTRUMENT Introduction: 1. Who is being interviewed? Adult male head______Adult female_head______ 2. Do you usually watch television? Adult males______Adult females______ 3. How many TV s e ts are in your home______ 4. How.many can receive UHF KWEX-41______ 5. Do you have a color TV ______(insert number) 6. Who in the home usually watches TV news: (most days) 7. In the morning? Who watches Station 8. At noon or e arly afternoon? Who watches Station 9. Early evening news? Who watches Station 10. Late evening news? Who watches Station 157 158 11. What is the favorite station? ______S tatio n 12. What are your favorite television programs? (List titles or type for each class interviewed) (If more than one, go by adults or head of house) 13. Do you regularly listen to radio: at home______, at work ______, o r in a c a r______( I f no, skip to 22) 14. How many radios are in your home______. 15. Do you have any FM radios ______. 16. In the morning: ______Who Listens Station 17. Noon or afternoon: ______Who Listens Station 18. Early evening:______Who Listens Station 19. Late evening news on r a d io : ______Who Listens Station 20. What is your favorite radio station? ______(If more than 1, identify who prefers T^hich) 21. What are your favorite radio programs or favorite radio music? (List for each class interviewed) 159 22. Does anyone in the family regularly (most days) read the newspaper? (If no, skip to 37) 23. What newspapers are usually read? (List paper and ivho reads i t ) 24. Do you regularly read-- National or international news in the paper ______Who 25. State of Texas news ______Who 26. Editorial page ______Who 27. Local neivs ______~~~ ~ ;------Who 28. Frant Page______Who 29. Sports Pages______Who 30. Wromen ’ s Section ______Who 31. P o litic a l Columns______Who 32 . Comics______Who 33. Entertainment columns (movies, plays, etc., 34. Television information 35. Radio information 160 36. Advertisements about sales 37. Does anyone in the family regularly read magazines? ( I f no one, skip to 46) 38. What magazines are regularly read? (List titles for each class interviewed) 39. Do you usually read Business news:______Who reads 40. Educational news______IVIio ' reads 41. Political news______.______itfho reads 42 . Health news______Who reads 43. National or international n e w s ______Who reads 44. State news______Who reads 45. Local news in magazines______Who reads In the last three months have you received any information concerning Interviewer: be sure to ! B ill - in s e rt in each column an J boards Attended Newspapers swered, the number of None Radio TV Maga- Mail or P osters Books Planned adult male and female, zines Circulars Buscards Pam- Discus - heads of the house Car p h le ts sion or S tick ers Speech 46. The war on poverty 47. H em isfair 48. V iet Nam 49. Valley farm workers strike 50 . Local politics: city council or county com m issioners 51. ■* National Congress House or Senate 52 . State Legislature 53. Minimum wage for San Antonio 54. S tate income tax i Hand respondent list of people talked to and ask: Who on this list have you talked to in the last three months concerning: Interviewer: None Relatives Boss Others Friends Students Teachers Priest Others Be sure to a t or at at or insert who in work neighbors school school m in iste r each column checked 55. H em isfair V iet Nam______57. Valley Farm s trik e ______58. Local poli 162 t i c s : Mayor City Council County Com- m issioners_____ 59. N ational Con gress House or Senate______60. State Legisla ture ______61. Minimum Age 62. State Income Tax 63. War on Poverty Thank respondents and tell them all you need is a little in formation about them: 64. Where were you born? ______Adult Male Head Adult Female Head 65. Where was your father born? ______Adult Male Head Adult Female Head 66. How long have you lived in San Antonio? Adult Male Head Adult Female Head 67. About how old are you: ______Adult Male Head Adult Female Head 68. What was the last grade of school you completed: Adult Male Head Adult Female Head 69. What languages are spoken in your home: (List Spanish only: English only: Mostly Spanish: Mostly English: English and Spanish evenly: for each) Adult Male Head Adult Female Head 70. What is your occupation: Adult Male Head Adult Female Head 71. About how much money did you earn last year: Adult Male Head Adult Female Head 72. Total family income for home from all sources______ 73. How many people live in the home: ______Adults Children Under 10 Children 10-16 164 74. About how much does it cost your family for food each week ______ 75. About how much does it cost your family for rent (or house payments)______ 76. Are you married, widowed, single, separated or divorced: Adult Male Head Adult Female Head To be filled in by interviewer immediately following the inter view upon leaving premises . 77. Can you speak Spanish______ 78. Interviewer's identification number ______ 79. Interviewer's sex______.______ 80. In te rv ie w e r's rac e ______ 81. Interviewer's age______ 82. Respondent family identification number ______ 83. Geographic identification number______ 84. Racial classification or respondents ______(Latin American, Other White, Negro, or Other Non White) 85. Adult male head of house seemed:______very cooperative uncooperative cooperative 86. Adult female head of house seemed:______very cooperative uncooperative cooperative 165 87. The address of this home is ______ 88. The interview started at ______and finished at 89. The interview was conducted in Spanish______ E nglish______APPENDIX B LETTER INTRODUCING INTERVIEWER ST. MARY'S UNIVERSITY 2 700 Cincinnati Avenue San Antonio, Texas 78228 This will introduce Miss Martha Guerrero who is as sisting Professor James Brennan with a research project. Will you be so kind as to allow her to ask you some questions about how you have received information concerning items that have appeared in the national, state or local news recently? We would greatly appreciate your co-operation. We do not need to know your name and you may be assured that any information given to Miss Guerrero will remain completely confidential. Thank you for your kindness. S in c ere ly , James Brennan Assistant Professor of Speech Con esta carta le presentamos Srt. Martha Guerrero que esta ayudando al Professor James Brennan en un projecto de investigacion. Seria usted tan amable de permitirle que le haga a usted algunas preguntas acera del modo como ha recibido usted informacion acera de noticias locales del estado o nacionales? Le vamos a agradecer much su co-operacion. No es necessario que nos de su nombre, y puede estar seguro que cualquier informacion que usted le de a Srt. Guerrero va a se r completamente c o n fid e n c ia l. Muchas g racias por su amabilidad. Sinceramente, James Brennan Profesor Asistente de R etotico 167 VITA James Edward Brennan was born in Manchester, Connecticut on November 18, 1922, the son of Gertrude McLeary Brennan and Thomas Brennan, He enlisted in the Connecticut National Guard in 1940 and was inducted into the United States Army in February of 1941. He received a medical discharge in July of 1942, In 1950 he entered San Antonio College, After completing two years at that institution he received the de gree of Associate of Arts. In 1952 he married Irene Meuth and continued his education at Southwest Texas State College. He entered the University of Texas in the spring of 1953 and received the degree of Bachelor of Arts in the spring of 1954. He entered the Graduate School of The University of Texas in 1954, In September of that year he began his teach ing career at Roy Miller High School in Corpus Christi, Texas. In September of 1956 he accepted the position of Instructor in Speech at Texas Technological College in Lubbock, Texas. In September of 1959 he accepted employment as Assistant Pro fessor of Speech at St. Mary's University in San Antonio, Texas. Permanent address: 209 Vine Street San Antonio, Texas EXAMINATION AND THESIS REPOET Candidate: James Edward Brennan Major Field: Speech Title of Thesis: A Study of the Channels of Communication Used b y Spanish-Named Residents of San Antonio,Texas Approved: Major Professor andC lja ii -& € a n of the Graduate School EXAMINING COMMITTEE: Date of Examination: July 16. 1968