Tropical Natural History 13(2): 107-129, October 2013 2013 by Chulalongkorn University

Evaluating the Impact of Human Activities during the Maha– Kumbh 2010 Fair on Elephants in the Shivalik Elephant Reserve

RITESH JOSHI*

Conservation & Survey Division, Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi, 110 003, * Corresponding Author: [email protected] Received: 17 May 2013; Accepted: 10 September 2013

Abstract.– Drastic ecological changes in the Shivalik Elephant Reserve and the rapid rate of developmental and anthropogenic activities are expected to lead to a severe threat and unusual behavioural changes in elephants. This notion was assessed during the Maha–Kumbh 2010 (the greatest fair on earth), which had a wide impact on the elephant populations in the lesser Himalayan zone, north–west India. To evaluate the effects of tourist pressure, developmental and anthropogenic activities on the elephant populations, 87 surveys were performed in different wildlife corridors spread across the and forest division and on the roads that dissect across this crucial elephant habitat, during January 2010 to April 2010. Ground surveys were used from September 2009 to January 2010 in different locations where developmental work was ongoing in Haridwar city and its adjoining areas to identify the potential impact of these developmental projects and human activities before the commencement of the event. Developmental projects accounted for highest impact on the elephants as this included renovation of roads and temporary constructions in between the protected habitats. Tourist influx into the shrines situated within this area has also hindered the frequent movement of elephants to a great extent. The vehicle traffic on the roads running between the elephant habitats has also restricted the frequent movement of the elephants to and from the River Ganges. Some unusual behavioural responses of elephants were observed, and these may cause extreme changes in their distribution and movements. In addition, encroachment into the protected areas by humans (tourists and locals) has caused erratic patterns in the seasonal movements of various animals, including elephants. Therefore, understanding how elephant populations react to such vast events is essential for addressing future challenges in elephant management and conservation.

KEY WORDS: Maha–Kumbh 2010, Asian elephant, impact, motor roads, Shivalik Elephant Reserve, Rajaji National Park

movement of elephants. The intense INTRODUCTION pressure imposed by the shear number of

people, vehicle traffic and developmental Haridwar city is entirely surrounded with activities in and around the city and between forests that form part of the Shivalik some crucial wildlife corridors placed a Elephant Reserve (SER) in the lesser significant stress on the elephant Himalayan zone and upper Gangetic plains populations. Behavioural studies of (Fig. 1). On the east side of the City is the individual animals in the appropriate social Chilla forest of the Rajaji National Park contexts are necessary for, and integral to, (RNP) and the Shyampur forest of the the development of effective management Haridwar Forest Division (HFD), whereas plans for any species (Singh and Kaumanns, on the Southwest border of the City is the 2005). Previous studies have shown that Haridwar and Motichur forests of the RNP anthropogenic disturbance and (Fig. 2). In 2010, the holy Maha-Kumbh developmental activities can reduce the use event was held in Haridwar City, which of wildlife habitats by limiting the animal’s adversely affected the traditional seasonal movement (Johnsingh and Williams, 1999; 108 TROPICAL NATURAL HISTORY 13(2), OCTOBER 2013

FIGURE 1. (A) A portion of the Kumbh area (Har–ki–Padi), surrounded by the protected habitats of the Rajaji National Park (RNP) and Haridwar forest division (HFD), and (B) an overview of the Haridwar-Kharkhari by-pass running across the RNP.

Burson et al., 2000; Singh and Sharma, This study assessed the impact of 2001; Pelletier, 2006; Joshi and Singh, developmental and other anthropogenic 2007). In addition, the movement of animals activities on the elephants of the RNP and is potentially restricted in places where HFD during the Maha-Kumbh 2010 festival, roads and trails are present. However, as including the behavioral responses of most of the roads dissect across potential elephants in respect of these drastic changes. habitats of the elephants, then elephants use There is very little scientific data available these roads and jungle trails on a routine on the effect of such dramatic impacts upon basis. elephants even though such reports are of paramount importance in evaluating and JOSHI — EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ELEPHANTS 109 successfully implementing elephant world record for the largest congregation of conservation management and in reducing human beings at a single place and time. detrimental elephant-human conflicts, or in There were three royal bathe viz. 12th understanding the failure of such programs. February (Maha Shivratri), 15th March An adaptive management approach will be (Somvati Aamavashya) and 14th April crucial, including the provision of suitable (Baisakhi, the biggest bathe), while midway connective corridors between habitats, during the fair, the 30th March religious which is likely to be of paramount bathe (Chaitra Purnima) was also given the importance. Since, we are only just royal bathe status by Akhada Parishad, beginning to learn the response of elephants which is the national governing body of all to such derisive impacts, the results of this thirteen Akhadas (representative outfits of a study could be considered as important particular saint community). The magnitude because currently no other published data of this event could also be seen from the fact exists that explores the impact of such a that more than 60 million pilgrims/tourists large event on the wild fauna, especially in were present in various ghats of Ganga in north India. Haridwar. More than 22,000 security police personnel (‘Mela-Police’) were specifically The Maha-Kumbh 2010 stationed in this area for this mega fair, Maha-Kumbh 2010 fair was held in the while a special ‘Mela–Administration’ was Haridwar city of State and was formed to oversee the fair works and the first Kumbh fair of this century. preparations. Spanning across 130 km2 and covering the districts of Haridwar, , Tehri and MATERIALS AND METHODS , the fair was the biggest Kumbh organized to date. Maha-Kumbh has a Study Area.– The RNP (Fig. 2), located in religious significance in Hindu Mythology, north–west India at 29º15'-30º31' N 77º 52'- with this event being held every twelfth 78º 22' E, elevation 250-1100 m above mean year, while the Ardh-Kumbh fair (shorter sea level (amsl), is in the lesser Himalayan version of Maha-Kumbh) gets held every zone and the upper Gangetic plains. The six years. In India, four cities organize the total geographical area of RNP is 820 km2, Maha-Kumbh fair alternately, of which the and it is part of the SER that was established Haridwar Kumbh is the longest, with that in 1983 with the aim of maintaining a viable for 2010 lasting for four months (January 1st Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) to April 28th, 2010). Allahabad (Uttar population. Accordingly it is designated a Pradesh), Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh) and reserved area for ‘Project Elephant’ by the Nasik () are the other cities that Ministry of Environment and Forests, also host this fair. Government of India. The dominant The magnitude of Maha-Kumbh fair can vegetation of the area is comprised of Sal be gauged by the fact that on April 13th and Shorea robusta, Rohini Mallotus 14th – the day of ‘Shahi Snan’ (royal bathe)– phillipinensis, Khair Acacia catechu, Haldu Baisakhi, approximately 16.3 million people Adina cordifolia, Bahera Terminalia were present in the Haridwar Kumbh fair bellirica, Bar Ficus bengalensis and area. This record was based on satellite Shisham Dalbergia sissoo. Prime fauna of images and administrative records, and is a 110 TROPICAL NATURAL HISTORY 13(2), OCTOBER 2013

FIGURE 2. Map of Rajaji National Park (RNP) showing the location of Haridwar city and Maha–Kumbh 2010 festival. the park consists of tiger Panthera tigris, and the Corbett National Park (CNP), and so leopard Panthera pardus, sloth bear maintains a good population size of Melursus ursinus, Hyaena Hyaena hyaena, elephants in the country without complete barking deer Muntiacus muntjak, goral fragmentation. This study was conducted in Nemorhaedus goral, spotted deer Axis axis, the Chilla, Gohri, Haridwar and Motichur sambar Cervous unicolor, wild boar Sus forests of the RNP and Shyampur and scrofa and among reptilian fauna the Chiriapur forests of the HFD. However, mugger crocodile Crocodylus palustris and only the outer/buffer zones were used for king cobra Ophiophagus hannah represents field-work as most of the roads dissect Rajaji’s faunal diverseness. across these sites. As most of the HFD is located at 29°54.602’ North construction activities were ongoing in or adjoining to the protected areas, Latitude, 78°11.982’ East Longitude, at observations were made on the temporary 271.2 m amsl and is well connected with the construction work, which was carried out RNP and Lansdowne forest division (LFD) before the commencement of the event. All and holds a healthy population of wild of these protected habitats are tropical moist animals, which the Rajaji carries. All these deciduous forests and consist of unique protected areas together make a long chain topographical features, which also include of natural habitats, allowing movement of part of the Shivalik foothills/landscape. the elephant populations between the RNP JOSHI — EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ELEPHANTS 111

Methods.– To evaluate the effects of the RESULTS developmental and anthropogenic activities,

87 surveys along the roads/national Human alteration of the global highways (No. 72 & 74) and in the environment has triggered the sixth known adjoining forests were conducted between mass extinction event in the history of life and 1st January 2010 and 30th April 2010, caused widespread changes in the global inclusive. The transect distance was distribution of organisms (Chapin III et al., finalized based on the field conditions and 2000). Understanding the effects of humans preferences were given to the sites where on wildlife and its populations, as well as the movement of elephants was frequent. devising strategies to ameliorate these effects, Since elephants are known to predominantly is an increasingly difficult but equally emerge from the forest during the evening important challenge for resource managers hours, most observations were made (Steidl and Powell, 2006). With the increase in between 15:00 hours and 19:00 hours, but human populations across elephant ranges, the observations were also made during the demand for land and consequential changes in early morning hours (06:00 hours to 10:00 the land use pattern (biotic pressure) has hours) since elephants move between forests increased drastically, which has then in turn during these hours by crossing the roads. affected the surviving/viable populations of The data collected formed part of the animal the flora and fauna including elephants. monitoring activities where the daily record Moreover, human encroachment into the was based on direct sightings and indirect forest areas has put this elephants at further evidence, such as fresh signs of recent risk and promoted the human – elephant feeding, footprint impressions and fresh conflict in this area. Currently, in some ranges, dung piles. In addition, discussions were the situation is of serious concern with the made with local villagers, Gujjars (where elephants seemingly struggling for existence. available), staff of the forest department and To try to mitigate this conflict the Government the workers of various non-government has taken several initiatives, which have organizations to gather further information included the rehabilitation of communities and views on the aspect. from protected habitats and restoration of To assess the vehicular traffic pressure, ecological corridors, and ensuring community the number of vehicles during three one- participation, amongst others. hour periods (early morning, mid-day and Human activities are widely considered as evening hours) was counted during specific a threat to the natural activities of all animals occasions and royal bathe days (special and their extinction, including elephants. bathe days). Special emphasis was also Changes in the animals’ activity budget, given to weekends (Saturday and Sunday), displacement from their preferred habitat, as the tourist rush was higher on these two interrupted and irregular traditional seasonal days. Field binocular (Nikon Action series, movement, and energetic stresses are some of 10X50 CF) and Nikon Coolpix 8700 the more common effects associated with Camera was used for field observations and human and developmental activities. The to document photographic evidences. impact of development and biotic pressure on Garmin GPS was used to denote elephant’s natural activities has been geographical coordinates. summarized in Table 1.

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Impact on Wildlife Corridors prefer to feed upon some riparian grass Elephants’ Movement in the Motichur– species available across the Ganges. Kansrao–Barkot Wildlife Corridor:- From Notably, elephants were observed diverting observations made over the last decade and their movements towards the Shyampur those documented prior to that, the frequent (HFD) and Gohri forests (RNP), where movement of elephants in the Motichur – other sources of water were present. The Barkot wildlife corridor was only recently movement of elephants was found to observed for the first time and has continued increase about two-fold in these forests at since. Between March 2009 and November this period. However, biotic pressure is 2009 inclusive groups of elephants and higher in these forests as compared to other solitary bulls were found moving from the ranges because of the presence of Gujjars. Motichur forest to Barkot forest by crossing In addition, the elephants’ movement was the River Song and Haridwar–Dehradun found to increase near to Laxman Jhula national highway near to Chidderwala south forest (Kumbhi chaur) and near to the village. During the same period the riparian corridor of the Ganges, which is movement of elephants was enhanced near situated opposite the Triveni Ghat in to the Gumaniwala and Dhalwala areas and . several cases of the movement of elephants Restricted Movements at Soni Shroath outside this area were observed. However, bridge.- From mid-February 2010 to April after January 2010 during the Maha Kumbh 2010, no movement of elephants was festival the movement of elephants in this observed at Soni shroath bridge, basically area was restricted, mainly because of the due to the large amount of vehicular traffic, level of traffic on the roads, especially whereas during January 2010 elephants used during the evening hours. this bridge five to six times to move Elephants’ Movement in the Gohri between the forests as this belt is rich in Forest.- Congested and uncontrolled vehicle Dalbergia sissoo (Shisham) – one of the traffic along the Haridwar–Chilla–Rishikesh favourite food items of elephants (Fig. 3). road formed a barrier against the movement On the other hand, the movement of of elephants towards the River Ganges. elephants near to the River Binj was only During the Maha Kumbh festival, between observed once during November 2009 to January 2010 and April 2010, elephants May 2010 inclusive. From the Chilla power- were observed in this track only eight times house to the Gohri forest check post (22 km (groups of elephants on six occasions and long track) there is no way for the elephants solitary bulls only on two other occasions). to cross the canal except at two points (Soni Elephants were found crossing the road after shroath and River Binj). Two other small dusk (20:00 hour onwards) and returning bridges are also situated over the canal near back before dawn, as they could not cross to Kaudia village and Kunao forest. the road during day hours due to the level of However, the elephants’ access to these two traffic using the road. Elephants are known tracks was restricted. Sometimes elephants to widely use the Chilla forest from utilize the Kunao bridge to move between December to June, and most probably from the forests or to visit the River Ganges, February onwards, since with the onset of whereas movement over the Kaudia bridge summer the natural water sources present was essentially stopped some 10 years ago inside the forest diminish and elephants due primarily to large amount of 116 TROPICAL NATURAL HISTORY 13(2), OCTOBER 2013

FIGURE 3. (A) A bull elephant crossing a narrow bridge situated over the Ganga canal in the Haridwar Forest division (HFD), and (B) elephants drinking water from the east Ganga canal in the Shyampur Forest. anthropogenic activities and the presence of the Anjani forest and towards the River the Kaudia and Ganga Bhogpur (talla & Ganges. A tremendous amount of traffic malla) villages at the very edge of the was found to use this highway even during bridge. the night period and accordingly the Barriers in the Khara – Anjani forests elephants’ movement towards the River stretch/connectivity.- Kumbh authority has Ganges was curtailed. In addition, the forest established a temporary police check-post at staff were also been assigned to deter the Singhal-ka-pul heading East over the Ganga elephants away when they were observed canal in Shyampur forest (HDF; Haridwar– near to the highway. Although elephants are national highway) and this is situated known to enter agriculture fields by crossing on one of the important corridors for the this highway, since the implementation of elephant movement from the Khara forest to this deterrence policy by the forest staff the JOSHI — EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ELEPHANTS 117 number of crop raiding complaints has elephants used to cross this highway during declined to zero. These activities could be evening hours to gain access to the other considered as causative agents for forests and to visit the River Ganges. In the enhancing the human – elephant conflict. last decade the government has constructed Are Elephants Leaving the Anjani six bridges over the river in this track and Forest?- Traditionally, elephants used to this has caused about 18 km of the forest move towards the River Ganges by crossing stretch along both the sides of the highway the Haridwar–Bijnor national highway (Fig. to be disrupted due to the dramatically 4) to feed upon riparian specific species, increased levels of anthropogenic activities. such as Acacia catechu (Khair) and In addition, agricultural expansion adjoining Dalbergia sissoo (Shisham), and several to the River Ganges has lead to the loss of grass species, such as Saccharum munja forest area and diversity and access, which (Sarkanda), but their movements have is then also hindering the traditional dramatically diminished since 2002. movement of elephants. Historical evidence Presently, only bull elephants are known to supports that all these agriculture lands were cross the highway, and do so mainly after formerly part of the elephants’ home-range dusk and before dawn. but during the last four decades as they About 24 km in length of this highway developed from forest to agricultural lands lies across the crucial elephant’s habitat and they have become denied to the elephants.

FIGURE 4. Bull elephants crossing the Haridwar–Bijnor national highway en route to the River Ganges. 118 TROPICAL NATURAL HISTORY 13(2), OCTOBER 2013

In the adjoining areas of this track various accumulated inside the forest, primarily stakeholders have constructed shopping because of the tremendous influx in the complexes, check posts and shrines, which number of tourists to the temple of the further hinder the movement of elephants. Goddess Mansadevi. Some patches of the Although elephants, especially bulls, forest close to the temple were observed to attempt to utilize this road all year round be completely covered on the ground with their movements were, however, found to be colored polythene bags. After the more frequent in the late summer and completion of Kumbh, the park monsoon season. administration took the initiative to clean Do Elephants Continue to use the the forest, and this was also performed near Chilla–Motichur Corridor?- Between to the temple of the Goddess Chandidevi, October 2009 to May 2010 inclusive, where the number of tourist visitors was elephants were not observed in Chilla– lower than at the temple of the Goddess Motichur wildlife corridor, which includes a Mansadevi. portion of the Haridwar–Dehradun national Irregularity in the distribution of highway and Haridwar-Dehradun railway elephants.- Generally elephants utilize the track. Over the last decade the movement of Chilla forest from March to June, whereas at elephants has been congested in this the onset of the monsoon season (July corridor. Although very rare, bull elephants onwards) their movement is concentrated are known to still use this forest to move towards the Shyampur and Chiriapur forests between Motichur and the Chilla forests of (HFD) and and Dogadda forests the RNP. This corridor is one of the crucial (LFD) from where some bulls commence habitat, which links the south-western part their journey towards the Kalagarh Tiger of Rajaji with Corbett Tiger Reserve. Reserve and CNP. Noticeably, in between January and May the movement of Impact of Human Activities elephants was found to be irregular with Garbage Accumulation and Elephants’ movement being chiefly observed in the Behavioral Responses.- At the very Shyampur and Chiriapur forests of the HFD commencement of Kumbh fair (from and the Gohri forest of the RNP, and very November 2009 to December 2009), bull little movement in the Chilla forest. elephants were observed feeding on the Notably, from the first week of June 2010 garbage in Shyampur forest (Fig. 5). These the elephants’ movement then increased in types of reports were also highlighted in the Chilla forest region. previous years from the Haridwar– Although a group of fourteen elephants Dehradun railway track, which also and two solitary bulls were found moving in attracted the attention of park managers and the Haridwar Forest (RNP), their researchers. It was noticed that tourists movements were restricted up to the threw edible items from moving trains and Ranipur area from where they returned back buses that then attracted wild animals to towards Dholkhand forest by crossing feed upon these items, which sometimes Beribara forest. Similarly, in Motichur caused wildlife mortality and risks forest the elephants’ movement was habituation of the animals. observed to occur only up to the boundary On the other hand, enormous garbage of the Motichur and Kharkhari forests, dumps, especially of polythene, have where the elephants no longer moved JOSHI — EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ELEPHANTS 119

FIGURE 5. Bull elephant feeding on garbage near to the Shyampur Forest in the Haridwar Forest division (HFD). towards Bilkeshwar forest (adjoining to and the Haridwar–Chilla–Rishikesh road Kumbh area). with the construction of temporary huts and Human Causalities.- Two people were centers in the dry bed of the River Ganges killed by elephants during the period of the and in the islands situated in between the Maha Kumbh festival. One incident banks of the River Ganges. When occurred in Bhadrakali Forest (Muni-ki-Reti renovation work on the Haridwar–Chilla– area, forest division) on the Rishikesh road was ongoing, traffic was 13th March, 2010 and another in the diverted to Jhabargarh Forest in the Chilla Shyampur Forest (HFD) on the 21st April, Forest range (RNP). An approximately 5 km 2010. Both the incidents occurred inside the stretch of forest was severely affected by the forest, However, this might have been due traffic and due to this the elephants’ to the irregular movements of elephants and movement was found to be constrained. In locals inside the forest. addition, the Haridwar–Bijnor and Developmental Projects.- Several small- Haridwar–Dehradun national highways scale developmental projects were carried were also renovated, which had a negative out during the pre–Kumbh period from impact on the movement of elephants. September 2009 to January 2010, which Construction of temporary parking in the included renovation of the Bhrampuri Motichur rau (Fig. 6), a seasonal water (Haridwar)–Mansadevi–Kharkhari by-pass stream, and in some pockets of the 120 TROPICAL NATURAL HISTORY 13(2), OCTOBER 2013

FIGURE 6. Construction of temporary car parking in the River Motichur, Rajaji National Park (RNP) during the early Kumbh period. The area lies in the Chilla–Motichur wildlife corridor, a crucial corridor for the movement of elephants between the RNP and the Corbett National Park (CNP).

Shyampur forest (HFD) also adversely The temples of the Goddess Mansadevi affected (restricted) the free ranging ability and Goddess Sureshwaridevi are situated in of the elephants. the Haridwar Forest range (RNP) and the Biotic Pressure.- Approximately, 16.3 temple of Goddess Chandidevi is situated in million pilgrims and tourists came to the Shyampur Forest (HFD). Generally, the Haridwar city during Maha-Kumbh 2010 to elephants’ movement is quite frequent on draw merits and for a royal bathe. In the outskirts of these shrines but notably addition, people from national and during February 2010 to April 2010 during international organizations came to this the festival, their movement was restricted location to join different saint communities in these pockets as tremendous numbers of and stayed for the whole festival period. To humans were present, especially from the date no other fair of this magnitude and kind early morning (06:00 h) to late night (20:00 has been organized in the country, where 60 h). Vehicle traffic pressure, which was million people collected together at a same almost increased overall some 3.3-fold place under the flag of religion and to adore compared to other normal days, and the River Ganges. This also reflects the specifically varied from 1.87- to 1.96-fold reverence of the world’s people for the higher on the busy Haridwar-Dehradum and natural heritage of ‘the Ganges’. Haridwar-Bijnor roads and up to 36- to 42- JOSHI — EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ELEPHANTS 121 fold higher on the normally quiet Haridwar the royal bathe of Kumbh, who entered the – Chilla - Rishikesh and Gohri - Swargashram Jhabargarh Forest (RNP) in an area within – Neelkanth roads, also restricted the routine the Chilla – Motichur wildlife corridor. activities of elephants (Fig. 7, Table2). They resided there for eleven days (from the Furthermore, the disturbance from the loud 4th to 14th April, 2010 inclusive), and and noise emerging from loudspeakers and from cooked food inside the forest and had baths the crowd prevented the elephants from in the River Ganges flowing adjacent to this staying or moving into these forest regions, forest. They were active and loud, singing but rather drove them away. and dancing to the religious hymns and folk Encroachment by Saint Foreigners.- of lord Krishna and Rama, and playing on During the festival another problem is the swings they had constructed on the trees disturbances cause by visitors encroaching (Fig. 8). Accordingly, these activities forced into the forest in movement corridors, and the elephants to leave the area, until these thereby their disturbance restricts the revelers were relocated outside the park. elephants’ movement in that corridor. One Group dancing and playing of musical example is a group of about 150 foreigners, instruments (guitar, drum, violin and dhapli) comprised of men, women and children, by saints has also impeded the activities of who came from different countries to take wild animals. In addition, the burning of

FIGURE 7. Average daily number of vehicles on different roads running across the Rajaji National Park (RNP) and adjoining habitats during the Maha-Kumbh 2010 fair (January–April, 2010) and other normal days. 122 TROPICAL NATURAL HISTORY 13(2), OCTOBER 2013

TABLE 2. National highways / motor roads, which exists in parts of Rajaji National Park and Haridwar forest division, affected forest areas with distance, estimated traffic pressure and affected wildlife corridors*.

S. Motor Affected forest area (from – to) Distance Vehicle Affected wildlife No. Road/National (in Kms., traffic corridor Highway approx.) pressure 1. Haridwar–Bijnor Chandidevi temple–Gaindikhatta 17.0 ±19,440 Rawasan–Sonanadi 2. Haridwar–Dehradun Motichur range office–Ganga 3.0&9.0 ±26,400 Chilla–Motichur, Majhara and River Suswa– Motichur–Kansrao– Chidderwala/ Laltappar village Barkot & Motichur– Gohri 3. Haridwar–Chilla– Chandidevi temple footway to 2.0&9.0 ±10,800 Chilla–Motichur Rishikesh Chilla range office, Soni shroath to Kaudia village/Binj river 4. Gohri– Gohri check post to south 5.0 ±8,400 - Swargashram– Lakshman Jhula forest beat Neelkanth 5. Mansadevi by-pass Complete track from Bhrampuri 7.0 ±16,800 - to Kharkhari forest

* Field data was based on the records, collected during March & April 2010, when most of the biggest royal bathe occurred and maximum number of devotees/pilgrims visited this place. fuel woods for cooking further restricted the Protection Act, 1972, they were animals’ activities. Notably, wild animals rehabilitated outside from the park area on were found to not move into or across this 14th April, 2010. This specific example part of the forest during daylight hours in illustrates some of the other more frequent these periods of high human activity in the and varied types of difficulties in human- area, although indirect evidence (track wildlife conflict management. signs) of the nocturnal movement of some The Activities of Tourists and Locals smaller herbivores (spotted deer and inside the Forests.- The Mansa - Devi by- sambhar) and small carnivores/scavengers pass runs across the RNP and has had a (jackal, hyaena, mongoose and civet) was huge impact upon the elephants’ activities. noted in the adjoining areas for animals that This road remained open for pilgrims and came to feed upon the waste left by the tourists from early morning (04:00 h) to humans. Some of the forest encroaching evening (19:00 h) with users given some humans were also observed to be reveling in instructions on the restrictions of deviating states of intoxication. They were moving away from the road into the forest being from country to country to learn and given on entry by the park administration. experience different cultures and to spread However, on several occasions, crowds the message of serenity and peace. They moving through this stretch on foot were argued that as world citizens, without any found to have entered inside the forest. hidden motive behind entering the park but Similar cases were also observed along the to worship god and to be a part of the Maha- Haridwar–Chilla–Rishikesh road, which Kumbh, they should be allowed to stay. As runs across one of the crucial habitats of the some of them were also associated with the elephants, including tourists cooking food Akhadas, it put the pressure on park within the forest. Several other cases of administration to resolve this matter. After tourists wandering inside the forests, careful examination of the Wildlife JOSHI — EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ELEPHANTS 123

FIGURE 8. In search of peace: Foreigners singing and dancing inside the Rajaji National Park (RNP) area. especially into the seasonal rivers were also killed for various reasons in Uttarakhand noted. State. The factors that contribute to the killing Wildfires.- Wildfires in the Haridwar of humans by elephants are primarily the (RNP) and Shyampur (HFD) forests during presence of people in the forest (often Kumbh also affected the forest flora and collecting firewood and fodder), conflict fauna. Approximately 5.0 hectare of over water, and the cultivation of palatable Haridwar forest and 7.5 hectare of crops near the forest boundary. Noticeably, Shyampur forest were severely affected by elephants and human beings in the SER are wildfires and this study’s baseline post fire increasingly entering into conflict with each examination revealed that the movement of other mainly because of the conversion of elephants in the post-fire regions was then protected habitats into farm, urban and restricted for the following two months industrial lands. In between November 2000 (May and June, 2010) after the respective to March 2012, elephants have killed 101 fires. persons and injured 64 persons in Uttarakhand state, of which more than 65 Vehicle Traffic and Elephant Movement persons have been killed in the area of the Apart from roads benefiting some RNP, CNP and adjoining habitats since wildlife as habitats for plants and corridors 2006. On the other hand, between for travel, or as sites of carrion food, the November 2000–2011, 212 elephants were negative impacts of roads on wildlife are well documented where they can also create 124 TROPICAL NATURAL HISTORY 13(2), OCTOBER 2013 barriers to movements, eliminate and Raiwala area) dissects this crucial elephant alienate habitats, and be a source of crossing. Notably, herd movement was mortality (Clevenger and Kociolek, 2006). almost totally restricted in this area with Over the last few decades, studies in a only bull elephants being observed to cross variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems the highway. The movement of elephants in have demonstrated that many of the most this area was observed during the dry season pervasive threats to biological diversity– and late winter. Approximately 26,400 habitat destruction and fragmentation, edge vehicles (categories as above) used this effects, exotic species invasions, pollution, highway per day during the Maha-Kumbh and over-hunting are aggravated by roads festival throughout the opening time (000:00 (Noss, 2002). Road construction affects hour to 03.00 hour), and accordingly this wildlife through the direct loss and highway impedes the movement of fragmentation of habitat, by introducing a elephants in the Motichur – Kansrao – source of additive mortality for wildlife Barkot wildlife corridor where principally populations, and by disrupting animal only solo bulls (occasionally groups) were movement and dispersal (Jackson and known to cross the road and even then Griffin, 2000). mainly only after dusk. Haridwar–Bijnor National Highway No. Haridwar–Chilla–Rishikesh Road.- In 74.- This highway runs across the Shyampur 1972-74, construction of the Chilla hydro- and Chiriapur forests and the Jhilmil Jheel electric power channel and the road parallel conservation unit, in the HFD. About 24 km to the channel divided the Chilla and of this highway lie within a crucial habitat Motichur Forests. About 17 km of this road for elephants, and elephants used to cross runs across several internal corridors this highway during the evening hours all (Ghasiram shroath, Soni shroath, Binj year round, although their movement was shroath and Hazara shroath) that are used by more frequent during the late summer and elephants to access the River Ganges. monsoon seasons. On an average 19,440 Elephants used to stay in this forest, vehicles, which includes trucks, bus, jeeps, especially during the dry months, but with a car and motor cycle, used this highway per remarkable 10,800 vehicles per day using day (except for a 3 h period from 00:00 hour this road during the Kumbh fair from 17:00 am to 03:00 hour) during the royal bathe hour to 20: hour, the passage of elephants days of the Maha Kumbh 2010 festival and was not observed and so seriously restricted the vehicle-traffic pressure was almost same or prevented. the nocturnal period as was during day Gohri–Swargashram–Neelkanth Road.- hours and so formed a significant barrier. This road runs across the Gohri Forest in the Haridwar – Dehradun National RNP, and dissects an 8 km forest stretch Highway No. 72.- This highway runs (from Gohri Forest check post to the parallel to the Haridwar – Dehradun railway Chaurani gad area in the Laxman Jhula track up to the Gular Parao forest north forest and up to the Kumbhi chaur (Satyanarayan area) and divides the Chilla area, Laxman Jhula south forest) that is a and Motichur Forests of the RNP, which is crucial wildlife habitat and where the an important corridor for the elephants’ elephants’ movement is maximum during movement towards the CNP. About 9 km of the dry period, although their presence was this road (from the Motichur river to the noted all year round. On various bathe JOSHI — EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ELEPHANTS 125 occasions of the Kumbh, traffic flow along human-induced and natural disturbances, this track was an average of 8,400 vehicles a and that stressed animals alter their day (from 17:00 hour to 19:00 hour). behaviour in an attempt to eliminate the Noticeably, the movement of tuskers was stressor, including a decrease in daily observed to be higher compared to that for displacement, shifts in their home range, the group elephant movement. social withdrawal, significantly higher stress Mansadevi by-pass Road.- The levels and seclusion to non-tourist areas, Mansadevi by-pass, which links Haridwar that are predictable, adaptable responses to city with the Kharkhari and Motichur areas, disturbance (Woolley et al., 2008). A was opened for tourists from dawn to dusk profound behavioural change was reported with some restrictions. This road is 5 km in African elephants in response to the long and dissects the Haridwar forest disturbance caused by poaching, and (RNP), which is home to several threatened resulted in a reduced foraging ability of the wild animals, such as the Muntiacus elephants during the dry season and a muntjak barking deer, Axis axis spotted reduced ability to undertake traditional deer, Cervous unicolor sambhar, Panthera seasonal migrations in response to rainfall pardus leopard and the elephant. and food availability (Ruggiero, 1990). Remarkably, no movement of animals was Traditionally, the impact of roads on observed during the whole festival period, wildlife has been viewed in terms of road which may reflect that an average of 16,800 mortality and threats to selected populations vehicles per day used this stretch of road of animals. When viewed from a landscape from 17:00 hour to 19:00 hour during the ecology perspective, however, it is clear that fair. highways have the potential to undermine ecological processes through the fragmentation of wildlife populations, DISCUSSION restriction of wildlife movements, and the disruption of gene flow and meta-population Studies carried out on African and Asian dynamics (Jackson and Griffin, 2000). The elephants have indicated that human direct ecological effects, such as flattened activities and changes in land use practices fauna are easy to see. In contrast, many that modify the elephant landscapes indirect effects of roads are cumulative and adversely affect elephant populations, whilst involve changes in community structure and these and human pressures influence the ecological processes that are not well behavioral responses of elephants (Hoare understood (Noss, 2002) and may not be and Du Toit, 1999; Kumar and Singh, 2010; manifested until another stress is induced. Vidya and Thuppil, 2010). When The fragmentation effects of roads results anthropogenic activities affect the natural when animals within populations are unable activities of animals then they perform to approach or cross roads and so fail to typical behavioral responses associated with connect to different habitats, access mates or competing for their requirements. A study meet other biological requirements carried out on the population and individual (Clevenger and Kociolek, 2006). elephant responses to a catastrophic fire in Developmental projects, mainly rail lines, Pilanesberg National Park (South Africa), roads, canals, industrial establishments, and highlighted that elephants are stressed by the encroachment by human habitations, are 126 TROPICAL NATURAL HISTORY 13(2), OCTOBER 2013 responsible for the fragmentation of habitat they performed mock charges to threaten the and blockade of migratory routes for crowd standing there. elephants in the RNP (Singh and Sharma, The negative effect of motorized traffic 2001). was observed on the behaviour of the Highways can negatively affect wildlife various deer species (white tailed deer, elk, by creating barriers in their habitat that leads moose, mule deer and bighorn sheep) in the to fragmentation of populations. Small Mountain protected area, where the deer mammal populations separated by highways were observed to use alternative habitats may be partially or completely isolated from away from the areas that were disturbed by one another due to low dispersal the high traffic volume and human capabilities, low probability of surviving activities, especially during weekends highway crossing attempts and avoidance of compared to weekdays (Pelletier, 2006). A areas adjacent to highways (Conrey and study carried out on the impact of road and Mills, 2001). Fragmentation of mega- train networks in the Jasper National Park in herbivore populations can restrict the Canada revealed that collision rates were frequent movement of individuals within influenced by, and influenced changes in, their traditional home range and can the wildlife behavior and these changes separate different crucial habitats and break depended on the species, but migration to up the animal’s population into smaller winter ranges adjacent to transportation groups. In such conditions demographic and corridors were the main influence on genetic consequences could affect their collision rates (Bertwistle, 2001). subsequent movement and persistence. The area around the RNP has a number It was noted during long-term field of natural attractions, which have a high observations on the elephants’ behavior that potential for eco-tourism and the presence bull elephants are now changing their of rich flora and fauna and unique tendency to utilize these traffic laden topography further ensures the feasibility of highways in that they now not only use the area for tourism. Elephants are one of these roads to access the other forest the key attractions for tourists here, fragments or the River Ganges and to enter especially when the park remains open for the farm lands, and that this occurs most tourists. The Jhilmil Jheel Conservation markedly during dusk and dawn. Typically, Reserve (Swamp deer’s habitat) in HFD, they used to arrive in the forest adjoining to Rishikesh city, Dehradun city, Neelkanth roads in afternoon hours (near to 14:00 h) temple, world famous Gayatri teerth and stayed there to almost dusk (16:00 h) Shantikunj, Har ki Pauri in Haridwar, and thereafter start crossing the highway in Wildlife Sanctuary, Patanjali groups. However, incase of crop raiding Yogpeeth/Vishwavidhylaya of Yog Guru their observed to be getting habituated and Swami Baba Ramdev, Mansadevi temple used to face heavy traffic. Currently, it was inside the RNP area, Chandi-devi temple observed on several occasions that when inside the HFD, Daksh Mahadev temple and bull elephants (especially older bulls) were Sati Kund are some of the main places of crossing the road they didn’t have any fear tourist interest. More than 600,000 to of the traffic present there. Sometimes they 700,000 people visit the Mansadevi temples spent a few minutes standing on the road every year, whilst the other temples receive facing the traffic and on several occasions more than 50,000 people annually. Large JOSHI — EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ELEPHANTS 127 crowds of people were present, especially the Corbett Tiger Reserve. Only bull on the occasion of Shivratri and Sawan elephants regularly make the attempt to Purnima fairs. More than 4 million people cross the road, and so have the chance to visited Haridwar during the Sawan Purnima move across the Sonanadi Wildlife and Kaanwar Mela occasions (Sawan Sanctuary and Kalagarh Tiger Reserve Purnima fair) during 2008, which falls in the forests. months of July and August every year. A number of wildlife habitats have The Haridwar–Dehradun and Haridwar– already undergone, or are being threatened Bijnor national highways, which are located with, fragmentation due to various between these reserve forests, the Chilla anthropogenic factors and this has adversely hydro-electric power channel/plant, the affected the large mammal populations Raiwala area, Army dump, Khand village, residing in them (Johnsingh et al., 1990). The and the Satyanarayan area, are some of the movement of elephants has been restricted key obstructions that now restrict the across the RNP–CNP corridor by the elephants’ movement in their traditional –Lansdowne road parallel to the corridors. Similarly, villages that are River Koh as with its steep edges and walls situated parallel to the Laldhang–Kotdwar built to prevent landslides, as well as the forest track (Laldhang, Sigaddi, Nalgaddi, heavy traffic using the road, serve to impede Papidanda, Kham, Chillarkhal, Mandevpur elephants from crossing it and so this hilly and Kishanpur), Kotdwar–Lansdowne road corridor is only used by some bulls. Some (15 km long) and Kotdwar–Kalagarh forest herds, especially those in the eastern and road (24 km long) are all other important western regions of Corbett Tiger Reserve, barriers that impede the frequent movement showed distinct seasonal movements, whilst of elephants within the RNP–CNP. others, such as the elephants in the Kalagarh Although elephants used to regularly region, show little seasonal movement migrate in the Gohri, Chilla, Laldhang, (Sunderraj et al., 1995; Singh, 1969). The Kotdwar, Shyampur, Chiriapur, Dogadda elephants’ movement in the SER was and Sonanadi forests, now group movement drastically effected in the recent past is rare and is found as isolated instances in primarily due to the increasing road network both the RNP and the CNP areas as both across the different elephant habitats and the these protected areas are disconnected, anthropogenic disturbances in traditional mainly due to huge amount of corridors (Joshi et al., 2010). anthropogenic and developmental activities. Although bull elephants were observed CONCLUSION crossing the Kotdwar–Lansdowne road group movements were almost completely non-existent in this area. Group movement In the last decade the landscape of and of elephants was observed from the Gohri around the has undergone a and Chilla forests of the RNP to the drastic change, primarily due to the rapid Dogadda forest of the LFD, which is a well increase in the human population and connected zone, but the steep terrain and industrialization as well as seasonal influxes heavy vehicle flow on the Kotdwar– into the area. As this is a holy place and the Lansdowne road prevents the elephants River Ganges, a symbol of religious belief, from crossing the road and moving towards flows across this area then huge crowds can 128 TROPICAL NATURAL HISTORY 13(2), OCTOBER 2013 be seen on different occasions all year round. its present form. I would like to thank Mr. As some parts of the RNP and HFD are C.M. Dobhal, Director of the Doon Institute bounded by cities in all directions and several of Engineering and Technology, Rishikesh, roads run across this landscape, some key for providing infrastructural support. Mr. corridors have been detrimentally affected. Srikant Chandola, Principal Chief Moreover, the increasing rate of vehicle Conservator of Forests, Mr. G. S. Pande, traffic has divided the various habitats and Conservator of Forests and Mr. S.P. disrupted wildlife movement between them. Subudhi, Director of the RNP are Long migratory journeys of elephants in this acknowledged for giving permission to region are now completely prevented because study elephants in the RNP and HFD in of the habitat fragmentation and previous years. Thanks are due to Mr. M. 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