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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS 3

The Modal Shift to Environmentally Sustainable : Prospects of Urban Transport Systems: LRT, BRT and Buses

HIROYA FUJIMOTO Environment and Energy Research Unit

years later, the organization incorporated its latest 1 Introduction ideas into the EST guideline.[2] The guideline presented different viewpoints regarding public In 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report by health and socioeconomic concerns raised by EST. the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Today, acknowledges EST as an Change)[1] concluded that the recent rise in average appropriate means to mitigate global warming. It is *1 global temperature is “very likely” due to a human- also considered key to achieving a compact city induced increase in greenhouse gases (GHG). in the future. In Japan and abroad, relatively low- The panel stated that implementing appropriate cost urban rail systems called Light Rail Transit measures in the next few decades could reduce (LRT), as well as articulated buses known as Bus these emissions. (BRT), are being actively introduced One proposal to mitigate these emissions called to many cities as a part of this initiative. Compared for a modal shift from cars to public transportation. to conventional and buses, these modern To make this happen, it is vital to develop policies machines look futuristic and highly sophisticated, that push for change in the lifestyles and behavior but its appearance is not the only thing that is patterns of car-dependent societies. revolutionary. With advances in technology, Interestingly, many European cities have actively these systems could evolve into other forms of promoted the use of public transportation since public transport that does not fit within the current the 1980s, a period known for the opposite: framework. motorization. City residents motivated this mindset By focusing on the technological trends that are by voicing their desire to rebuild their towns shaping the future of LRTs, this report discusses that had been taken over by vehicular traffic. the outlook of urban transport. Implemented measures have decreased air pollution from traffic congestion, and have preserved 2 The inevitability of a modal shift historical sites by reducing the environmental to public transportation burdens placed upon them. It was around this time that trams, which had all but disappeared after 2-1 The now and future of car-dependence World War II, began to reappear in Europe. In 2004, the World Business Council for In 1996, the OECD referred to this Sustainable Development (WBCSD) performed a European phenomenon as the development of study on global mobility trends up to year 2050. [3] environmentally sustainable transport (EST). Four This report, titled Mobility 2030, indicated an

Glossary *1 Compact city: A widely implemented concept aimed at resolving the inherent problems of suburbanization. With more cars due to motorization, residential and commercial districts often tend to decentralize from the city center. This move creates social problems such as reduced efficiency of human/goods transport, suppressed economic activity due to urban sprawl, and increased health risks caused by an overdependence on motor vehicles (refer to 2-4 for details).

46 Figure 1 PersonalQUARTERLY transport REVIEW activity No.29 / October 2008

FigureFigure 1Source: : Personal 2 ReferenceProjected transport [3] activity (original growth source: in the light United dutyNations vehicle (UN) 2001, ownershipWBCSD Mobility 2001) Source: Reference[3] (original source: the United Nations (UN) 2001, WBCSD Mobility 2001)

upward trend in human mobility (Figure 1). This tendency was attributed to the sustained growth of car ownership caused by factors such as rising per capita income. In particular, it forecasted a significant increase in the number of cars owned throughout Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, Latin America, and China for the next several decades (Figure 2). This rise was predicted to be due to the rapid growth of per capita GDP in these developing countries. Figure 2 : Projected growth in light duty vehicle ownership However, there are more things to take into Source: Reference[3] (original source: the United Nations (UN) consideration. With advances in technology, energy 2001,WBCSD Mobility 2001) efficiencies of transport vehicles are expected to Source: Reference [3] (original source: the United Nations (UN) 2001, WBCSD Mobility 2001) improve: Estimated energy-reduction rates average (Figure 3). 18 percent for cars and 29 percent for trucks It is important to note that GHG emissions from and aircraft. However, the surge in cars and the light-duty road vehicles (LDV) will continue to inevitable increase in CO2 emissions are likely to rise, and will remain elevated in the future (Figure cancel out the benefits of more efficient systems, 3). With the increased global mobility, along with resulting in a net increase of GHG concentrations the resulting boost in the global economy, the

47 Figure 3 CO2 emissions by mode (worldwide)

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Figure 3 : CO2 emissions by mode (worldwide) [3] Table1 HouseholdSource: Reference transportation (original source: the United Nations expenditures (UN) 2001, WBCSD Mobility 2001) Table 1 : Household transportation expenditures Source: Reference [3] (original source: the United Nations (UN) 2001, WBCSD Mobility 2001)

Notes: n.a = data not provided by source; may be included in "other"

Source: Reference[3] (original source: Japan Family Income and Expenditure Survey, UK DfT2003, US BLS 2003)

Source: Reference [3] (original source: Japan Family Income and Expenditure Survey, UK DfT2003, US BLS 2003) growth of motorization in developing countries shows the amount of household income spent on seems like a delightful concept. From a GHG transport costs in the U.S., England and Japan. At perspective, however, it is an increasingly alarming 19.3 percent, Americans spent the most amount situation. of their family income on transportation costs in 2003. The Japanese only spent 8.5 percent. A 2-2 Rates of car-dependence closer look at the breakdown of the costs showed To what extent do we rely on cars? Table 1 that within the total used for transportation,

48 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.29 / October 2008 Figure 4 Modal split of passenger transport by region Americans only spent 5.2 percent of it on public very low in at 33 percent, but outside of the transportation. The remaining 90-plus percent was three major cities (Tokyo, and ), car used for the acquisition and maintenance of private usage was high, at 84 percent. In less urban areas, cars. In Japan, the use of public transportation was overwhelmingly high at 28.7 percent, but the remaining 71.3 percent was used for personal Air means of transport. Waterborne Figure 4 graphs the modal split in preferred , Subway means of transportation. Both the U.S. and Europe Railways (EU-15 average) show a high dependence on cars, Bus Passenger car at over 80 percent and slightly under 80 percent, respectively. At less than 60 percent, Japan’s reliance on cars was relatively low, but the modal split was more widely varied in the larger cities Figure 4 : Modal split of passenger transport by region [4] (Figure 5). For example, in 2003, car usage was Source: Reference

䂹Transport share by mode (Tokyo area) Source: Reference [4]

1975 䇭’85 ’98 ’99 䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭2000 䇭䇭 䇭 ’01 ’02 ’03

Private Passenger JR (Japan Railways) Subway Bus railways car

䂹 Transport share by mode (Outside of the three major urban areas)

1975 䇭’85 ’98 ’99 䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭2000 䇭䇭 䇭 ’01 ’02 ’03

Private Passenger JR (Japan Railways) Subway Bus railways car

Figure 5 : Modal split of passenger transport in Japan Source: Reference[5]

49 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS railway usage was extremely low, at 8 percent. more fragmented. This is known as the sprawl From this, we can conclude that in Japan, car effect. This phenomenon leads to many societal dependence is high in the smaller regional cities problems such as (1) significant loss of time and and less urban areas. energy from transporting goods and people, (2) increased risk of lifestyle-related diseases due to 2-3 Difference of environmental burdens less walking, (3) unfair limitations imposed upon depending on the mode of transportation children and the elderly who cannot drive, and (4) The problem with car-dependent societies lies decline of economic activity due to reduction in with its large impact on the environment. Figure 6 population density. compares energy consumption and CO2 emission The widely implemented idea to achieve a of various modes of transportation. Cars show high compact city was developed to fix these problems. figures for both categories, emitting more than ten This concept aims to solve both business and times the amount of CO2 compared to trains, and housing issues to rebuild a lively and compact over twice the amount of buses. In order to mitigate city. One key to making this sort of city-building a global warming, we must reduce the amount of reality is the incorporation of a new transportation environmental burden per unit transport. Figures network, the LRT. By connecting residences, such as this make clear the importance of public businesses, hospitals, schools, stores, government transportation. buildings and other necessities via LRTs, people However, the two basic concerns with public are able to live in a compact city where foot travel transportation are its accessibility and the degree is possible. to which its use and convenience integrate with Compared to areas that have been developing existing lifestyles. Unless favorable preconditions policies since the 1980s like the U.S. and Europe, are in place, a spontaneous transition to public Japan is still far behind. However, the compact city transportation is going to be difficult to achieve. policies passed in 2006 will enable us to catch up In Japan and abroad, the LRT may be the answer at a rapid pace. to these societal demands. These trams have begun to appear on city streets, and are considered an 2-5 An example of a city with LRTs essential tool in creating more innovative cities. This section discusses as an example of a city that has successfully incorporated LRTs to 2-4 Addressing problems arising from car- achieve a compact city.[7] dependence Before it all began, Toyama had the lowest Following the growth of motorization in the population density among densely inhabited 1970s, residential areas and shopping centers have districts of all prefectural capitals in Japan. Its sprawled out to the suburbs on the premise that city-center was hollowing out, and residents were people are commuting by car. As a result, city purchasing large numbers of private cars and functions have spread extensively and have become suburban homes. Due to the reduced efficiency

Unit energy consumption in 2002 (KJ/person-km) Unit CO2 emission in 2000 (g-CO2/person-km)

Passenger car Passenger car (private)

Bus Bus (commercial)

Railway Railway Subway

Data from; The Energy Conservation Center webpage AGT

Tram

White Paper on Land, Infrastructure and Transport in Japan, 2002

Figure 6 : Units of energy consumption and CO2 emission by mode Source: Reference[6]

50 Figure 7 LRT in Japan䋻Toyama city (left) and BRT in Europe; Eindhoven district, the Netherlands (right) QUARTERLY REVIEW No.29 / October 2008

Figure 7 : LRT in Japan ; ToyamaSource: Referencecity (left) [8]and BRT in Europe; Eindhoven district, the NetherlandsSource: (right) Reference [9] Source: Reference[8](left),[9](right) caused by the urban sprawl, Toyama faced increasing financial costs to maintain and develop 3 Urban transport technologies roads, as well as to provide public services that (LRT, BRT, Buses) and their require movement of personnel and goods. These benefits services included welfare work, garbage collection and snow removal. Additionally, as train and 3-1 Functions of transport systems bus companies began to cut routes to cope with Figure 7 shows an example of the recently decreased demand, trains and buses became more introduced LRT and the BRT. With a futuristic inconvenient, starting a vicious cycle that attracted appearance, these systems possess unique fewer and fewer riders. Notably, this made life characteristics that are both technological and difficult for the children and the elderly who societal in nature. The basic purpose of these already had less access to transportation. systems is to provide what was previously lacking From this, Toyama formed the Compact City in the public transportation sector. Development Group in 2003 and began working Figure 8 graphs the operating speed and transport toward developing a compact city through capacities of the LRT and the BRT. In the past, collaboration with residents, businesses and the there has been a wide gap between city buses and local government. The core of this plan was the Automated Guideway Transit (AGT) systems introduction of a new transportation network, the (including monorails) and subways on this graph. LRT. To deal with this discontinuity, trains and city There are two basic methods for achieving a buses were used to support the main framework of compact city. One is the monocentric approach, the public transportation system. which creates one large concentrated city center, As shown in Figure 9, one kilometer of subway while the other is the polycentric approach, which track costs 17 to 30 billion yen to build. For an builds multiple interconnected small cities or AGT, the same distance would cost about 7 to facilities. 15 billion yen. Due to these high construction Toyama used the polycentric approach and costs, city buses were the only alternative in many connected already-existing facilities with LRTs. cities that did not have enough riders to justify From this, Toyama was able to make public the costs of the aforementioned systems. Recently transportation available within walking distance introduced LRTs and BRTs operate at speeds close from anywhere in the city. By making all necessary to that of a monorail while only costing 20 to 50 facilities readily available, they aimed to create an percent of what it would have cost to build one, urban environment where foot travel is feasible. bridging this so-called transportation gap. For these reasons, LRTs and BRTs are expected to improve the quality of the public transportation

51 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS Figure 8 Capability of public transportation Figure 9 Construction cost of public transportation 5 300

Subway 4 250 Subway

3 200 Transportation gap

2 150 AGT AGT

1 100 Construction Cost (100million yen/km) Maximum transport capacity (10,000people/hr-one direction) LRT 䇭 BusesBuse LRT 0 0 40 50 0 50 100 150 200 250䇭 0 10 20 30 Maximum transport capability Maximum ScheduledScheduled speed speed(km/hr) (km/hr) Construction (10,000people/hr-one direction) transport Cost Maximum transport capability (10,000people/hr-one direction) Figure8 : Capability of public transportation 䇭 Figure9 : Construction cost of public transportation capacity Prepared by the STFC(100million based on Reference yen/km) [6] Prepared by the STFC based on Reference [6] (10,000people/hr-one direction) Prepared by the STFC based on Reference[6] Prepared by the STFC based on Reference[6]

sector and become a mainstay for a bright future in to connecting the wheels below the vehicle floor city building. with an axle and powering that with a motor, the new systems completely do away with the axle and 3-2 Basic characteristics and societal benefits and incorporate a separate motor for each wheel. As a profits result, the floors of these vehicles are only about LRTs have several characteristics that will benefit 30 centimeters above the ground. With vehicle society that have not existed in the past. The most floors this close to the ground, not only will the notable of these technologies would be the low- cost to build platforms be reduced, but the distance floor capability and the onboard IC-card ticketing between the road surface and the platform will also system. (Figure 10) be shortened, minimizing the time passengers have Low-floor vehicles came into being through the to take to get on and off the LRT. innovation of existing drivetrain systems (wheels Also, due to the introduction of the onboard IC- and axles, motor and gear) (Figure 11). As opposed card ticketing system, passengers no longer need

Basic characteristics of the LRT Societal benefits

Low floor Incline vehicle 䊶Reduce cost to build platforms Platform Low floor 䊶Shorten distance between road and platform 䊶Provide barrier-free service Road surface 䊶Less danger of falling from platform Platform example Travel on designated tracks on roadways

䊶Improve scheduled speed and punctuality Common platform for LRT and bus Vehicle door Onboard IC-tick eti ng 䊶Allow installation in confined areas 䊶Seamless transfer to other transportations System IC card reader Transfer to bus without steps

Figure 10 : Characteristics of LRTs Prepared by the STFC based on Reference[10]

52 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.29 / October 2008

Figure 11 : Example of LRT drivetrain system Prepared by the STFC based on Reference[11]

Table 2 : Category of urban transport systems (LRT and BRT)

Power source Steering mechanism Drive mechanism Energy supply method 䋨energy type䋩

Overhead 2 tracks wire

Electric motor 䇭Tracks LRT 䇭䋨 䋩 䋨rail track䋩 electricity Groove embedded on 䋨䋫wheels䋩 road surface 1 track

Steering䋨wheels䋩 Engine Fuel tank 䋨fuel䋩 Automatic steering 䋨follows road surface marker) BRT

Hybrid 䋨electric motor + engine䋩

Prepared by the STFC based on Reference [6,12] to go through a separate ticketing gate, requiring 3-3 Technological characteristics of urban transport less overall effort. Furthermore, since the incline systems (LRT and BRT) from the road surface to the platform can be made Table 2 shows the technological characteristics of extremely gradual and confined within a relatively the recently introduced LRTs and BRTs categorized small space, the handicapped and the elderly will by power source and steering mechanism. There be able to board without assistance. Lastly, by are two energy sources that can power the LRT having bus stops and platforms for the LRT at the and the BRT: electric motors and engines. The same level, passengers can make use of a seamless LRT primarily uses electric motors (Figure 11). public transportation network. There are two ways to obtain electric power: through overhead lines that parallel the tracks or

53 Figure 12 Battery-equipped LRT introduced in France, Nice (a product of ALSTOM)

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS © Copyright ALSTOM 2008 Figure 12 Battery-equipped LRT introduced in France, Nice (a product of ALSTOM)

© Copyright ALSTOM 2008 © Copyright ALSTOM 2008 Source: Reference [13]

Figure 12 : Battery-equipped LRT introduced in France, Nice (a product of ALSTOM)

Source: Reference[13]

via a third rail embedded inside the road surface. capability, there are white lines and magnetic In order to obtain power from the overhead lines, markers that mark its movement area, increasing supporting structures such as poles and buildings the accuracy of its operation and reducing the gap become necessary, but the process is facilitated if between the platform and the vehicle entrance. said structures already exist along the route of the However, the unit cost for these hybrid BRTs is tracks. In Europe, the third rail©Copyright system ALSTOM is becoming 2008 Source:expensive. Reference [13] more common due to concerns of visual pollution and damage to historical sites. However, their 3-4 Recent technological trends engines are based on the BRT. In recent years, there have been notable There are two different steering mechanisms: improvements in the area of battery-equipped a system where steering is not required as the LRTs. In December 2007, a battery-equipped vehicle is guided by tracks, and a system where LRT was introduced in Nice, France (Figure 12). conventional wheels steer the vehicle. Trains Although it runs on the electricity obtained from that run on tracks are further divided into two the overhead wires, these vehicles are able to travel categories. The first kind is the dual-track type on battery power for as long as one kilometer with where two wheels move along two parallel tracks. a maximum speed of 30 km/h. Since it is able to The other type is the single-track type. In this run without the overhead wires, these LRTs are able configuration, the vehicle is guided along a single to operate through the historical Place Massena and track that runs underneath the center of the LRT. Place Garibaldi without causing visual pollution The LRT itself is supported by conventional rubber or harming its historical character. Upon entering tires, but they do not do the steering. an area without overhead wires, the pantograph is One advantage of the LRT is the ease of folded, and when it returns to an area with electric snow removal. This facilitates stable operations power, it is re-extended and begins recharging throughout the winter months. Another advantage the battery. Although the ability to operate on is that the bumps and swaying motions are battery power is still restricted to one kilometer, its reduced. This provides passengers with a smooth, societal benefits are significant: it enables public comfortable riding experience that making the LRT transportation to reach the crowded shopping areas a friendlier form of public transportation. and tourist spots while protecting the scenery and In recent years, hybrid BRTs have become more the historic qualities. With many valuable historic popular, incorporating both electric motor and sites to protect, Europe is expected to incorporate engines. These hybrids serve a dual purpose. They more and more of these battery-equipped LRT are environmentally friendly in the way that it technologies in the future. mostly runs on electricity, but at the same time, Even Japan is starting tests on battery-equipped it allows for the expansion of the BRT network LRTs. Table 3 is an example of an LRT running by running an engine where overhead wires are on nickel-metal hydride batteries. Testing began unavailable. Additionally, for vehicles with steering in November 2007 with the goal of achieving 10

54 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.29 / October 2008 kilometers of travel on battery power after a quick percent of weekend users.[19] five-minute contact recharge. Table 4 is an example By building the platforms for LRTs and buses of an LRT running on lithium-ion batteries. Testing the same height, passengers can enjoy smooth, began in October 2007 with the goal of achieving seamless transfers between different transportation a 40-second recharge under 1000A and a three- networks. Thus, many transportation networks that minute recharge under 500A. Both vehicles in share the same road surface have expanded. In the Tables 3 and 4 are in the process of collecting future, when minibuses start incorporating these necessary data for the operation in climates with electric-power and low-floor technologies, the harsh winters, and are projected to launch in the transportation network will reach every corner of near future. the city. On the other hand, there have been ongoing However, there has not been enough thought research and tests on electric buses that incorporate regarding passengers who are transferring between a non-contact power feeder technology. Figure 13 LRTs and existing train lines. In Japan, unlike shows a low-floor electric minibus that has a non- many countries in Europe, there are many cases contact power feeder underneath the bus chassis. where train stations exist far above the ground, as When it is not moving, the bus recharges its battery well as deep underground. In order to increase the through electro-magnetic induction from the road convenience and improve the accessibility of the surface without physical contact. In this case, transportation system as a whole, it is vital that we power-feeding efficiency is as high as 90 percent. take steps during the planning stages to develop a Figure 14 is a large hybrid bus incorporating the system that cuts down on walking distance. same technology, with ongoing tests since February 2008. (2)Safety In terms of battery-equipped vehicle technology, Safety concerns exist in countries such as Japan, Japan is slightly behind, but we are rapidly catching because people are not used to systems like the up. Since Japan has a strong background in battery LRT operating in such close proximity to cars technology, once caught up we expect to develop and pedestrians. There have actually been some technologies that enable long-distance travel on reported accidents where LRTs were involved.[20] one charge. With testing of non-contact rapid In many instances, the driver, who was unaware of power-feeding technology underway, we expect to the approaching LRT, had decided to make a right see a substantial increase in the operational range turn. Unable to stop in time, the LRT would end up of these vehicles. hitting the car that was blocking its path. New LRT tracks that are embedded into the 4 The analysis of the present and road surface are partially fixed with resin to the expectations of the future reduce noise and vibration. Unfortunately, this creates the possibility where drivers have a hard 4-1 Japan’s current situation time becoming aware of the existence of LRTs. (1)Convenience and network expansion This problem is not just limited to LRTs; electric- capability powered buses and cars have the same problem. As described in previous sections, low- Since the entire body of the LRT is completely floor vehicles and LRTs with onboard IC-card covered, the wheels are not exposed. Due to this ticketing systems are making public transportation beneficial feature, there have yet to be a tragic more convenient than in the past. For example, accident involving a person becoming caught in the according to a study of the LRT introduced to wheels. Toyama in 2006, ridership among seniors above As such, it is believed that residents generally age 60 has increased. Compared to before the LRT accept LRTs as a relatively safe form of public introduction, senior ridership has increased by 3.5 transportation. In European cities, LRTs even times on weekdays and 7.4 times on weekends. operate in crowded areas quite frequently. Ridership among the elderly is increasing: seniors However, in the future, the safety should not comprise 30 percent of weekday users and 43 be entirely in the skilled hands of the driver.

55 Table3 Nickel hydride battery-equipped LRT in field test (a product of Kawasaki Heavy Industries Co., Ltd) SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

Table 3 : Nickel hydride battery-equipped LRT in field test (a product of Kawasaki Heavy Industries Co., Ltd)

Items Configuration 600V direct current from overhead wire Feeding system and onboard batteries Vehicle structure 3-car, 3-truck, articulated Total length 15m

Floor height 330mm(door section)/ 䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭Items360mm(passenger䇭䇭䇭 compartment)䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭䇭Configuration Minimum aisle width 800mm Feeding system 600V direct current from overhead wire and onboard 62 passengers Capacity (including seat batteriescapacity of 28) Maximum operatingVehicle structurespeed 40km/hr 3-car, 3-truck, articulated Designed maximumTotal length speed 50km/hr 15m Phase induction motor IGBT, Main circuit Floorsystem height inverter controlled330mm(door section)/360mm(passenger Onboard nickelcompartment) hydride batteries Battery type (installed under passenger seats) Minimum aisle width 800mm Battery capacity 274Ah Travel distanceCapacity on section 62 passengers (including seat capacity of 28) without overhead wire More than 10km (on normal route) Maximum operating speed 40km/hr [14] Designed maximum speed 50km/hrSource: Reference

Table 4 Lithium ion battery-equipped LRT in field test Main circuit system Phase induction motor IGBT, inverter controlled (conducted by Railway Technical Research Institute as commitBatteryted type by New Onboard nickel hydride batteries (installed under Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization, NEDO) Energy and Industrial TechnologyTable Development 4 :Lithium Organization,ion battery-equipped NEDO) LRT in field test passenger seats) Items Configuration Items Configuration Type Battery capacityLH20 type 274Ah TypeTrack gauge 1067mm LH20 type Capacity Travel 44distance (seat capacity 20) on section More than 10km (on normal route) 1067mm Source: Reference [14] Power supply Overhead wire: 1500V direct current, 600V withoutBatteries: overhead 600V direct current wire CapacityEmpty weight 24.0t 44 (seat capacity 20) Maximum 40km/h (LRT track) Overhead wire: 1500V direct current, Powerspeed supply 70km/h (railway track) 600V Vehicle 12,900(lenth) x 2,230 (width) x 3,800 mm (height with configuration folded pantograph) Batteries: 600V direct current 350mm (low-floor height) EmptyTruck type weightCoil spring indirect mounted bolster truck24.0t Brake type Regenerating and electricity-accumulative40km/h electric (LRT track) Maximum speed commanding air brake 70km/h (railway track) Main motor Three-phase induction motor, 60kw rated power x four bogies 12,900(lenth) x 2,230 (width) x 3,800 Main motor VVVF inverter, 150kVA x 2 band Vehiclecontrol configuration mm (height with folded pantograph) Batteries 600V – 120Ah lithium ion rechargeable 350mmbattery (low-floor height) Battery and Current reversible step up/down chopper,Coil 600kW spring indirect mounted bolster Truckoverhead type power control truck Quick contact recharge Regenerating and electricity- from the pantograph Brake type Source: Reference accumulative[15] electric commanding air brake Three-phase induction motor, 60kw Main motor rated power x four bogies Main motor control VVVF inverter, 150kVA x 2 band 600V – 120Ah lithium ion rechargeable Batteries battery Battery and overhead power Current reversible step up/down control chopper, 600kW

(conducted by Railway Technical Research Institute as committed by New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization, NEDO)

Source: Reference[15]

56 Figure 13 Electric community bus in field test (conducted by Waseda University, National Traffic Safety and Environment Laboratory and Showa Aircraft Industry Co., Ltd as subsidized by New Energy and Industrial TechnologyQUARTERLY Development REVIEW Organization, No.29 / October NEDO) 2008

Vehicle

Power feeder

Advanced electric community bus (test model) Power feeder installed on the road surface

(conducted by Waseda University, National Traffic Safety and Environment Laboratory and Showa Aircraft Industry Co., Ltd as subsidized by New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization, NEDO)

Figure 13 : Electric community bus in field test Source: Reference [16,17] Source: Reference[16,17]

Power feeding Onboard coil

Air conditioner Batteries Vehicle frame Power feeding Onboard coil

Inverter Inverter Vehicle frame

Rectifier Track Batteries supply Inverter

Primary coil PM synchronizer Engine Engine One-way clutch Track One-way clutch supply Engine Feeder coil (embedded in concrete) Track Non-contact power feeder One-way clutch supply PM synchronizer Quick rechargingFeeder to onboard coil (embedded lithium ion in batteries concrete) are performed while the vehicle is parked through non- Configurations of non-contact power feeding hybrid contact electromagnetic induction from the power electric bus PM synchronizer Quickfeeder recharging embedded to onboard in the roadlithium surface. ion batteries are performed while the vehicle is parked through non- Items Details contact electromagnetic induction from the power feeder embedded in the road surface. Length x width x height 10.925m x 2.49m x 3.285m Gross vehicle weight 15.6 ton Capacity 63 passengers

Enables approximately 15 km- Battery mileage in urban areas with performance battery electric power alone. Photo provided by , Ltd. (conducted by National Traffic Safety and Environment Laboratory, Hino Mortors. Ltd. and Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

Figure 14 : Hybrid bus (engine + electric power) in field test Source: Reference[18]

It is essential that a device be developed that nation-wide plan to introduce these new modes of systematically and mechanically stops the vehicle. transportation. Motives for the introduction include the desire to control the city-sprawl effect and (3)Societal consensus for LRT introduction and future financial crises that become inevitable due to its results the aging population. Additionally, there is also the Japan only has limited examples of a successfully desire to revitalize city-centers. In order to solve rebuilt cities that were aided by the introduction these problems, cities must be re-built to make a of the LRT. However, it appears that there is a compact city. This is the reason LRTs and BRTs

57 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS are being chosen to be part of the transportation transport systems are as follows: network. The city of Toyama considered many opinions 1)Ease of access and the ability to operate regarding methods that would effectively and anywhere – even within public facilities. efficiently use limited resources to fund the This vision arises from the image that people introduction of the LRT. The city created the should be able to easily access even old and “publicly constructed yet privately operated” confined areas of the city. These may include concept, which called for a societal consensus facilities vital for everyday needs such as roofed to create a compact city that involved residents, shopping areas and malls, government offices and businesses and the city government. At the same hospitals. In order to achieve this, LRTs must be time, they received third party evaluations and a compact vehicle and be able to operate without developed a societal consensus. overhead wires. These are qualities that are within The number of passengers increased to a level reach of today’s technologies. Also, for example, where the project had paid for itself. As a result Japan has been rapidly progressing in the research of the LRTs, a modal shift from cars to public of batteries for electric cars. It would be optimal if transportation was about 12 percent. Due to this we could use this technology for urban transport shift, the amount of carbon dioxide reduced in the systems as well. year 2006 was calculated at 436 tons. Examples Assuming buses will be completely exhaust-free such as this have become a model for other cities from since tests for electric buses are underway, in Japan, and further introduction of the LRT is it would be entirely possible to bring LRTs within expected. the confines of public facilities such as shopping centers and hospitals. 4-2 The direction of future technology based on In a country like Japan where seamless transfers societal needs between LRTs and existing train lines are not To support the “Innovation 25” strategy organized established, we should do away with ticketing gates in 2007, the National Institute of Science and and aim to build a technology that automatically Technology Policy (NISTEP) put in place an expert charges passengers as they transfer. As a result, panel to discuss the topic of “Safe and Sustainable we can reduce unnecessary walking and make the Cities”.[21] The panel discussed what a city in 2025 transfer process friendlier for passengers, especially should look like, and proposed four measures to the elderly. deal with societal concerns such as the following: increased seriousness of the environmental and 2)Service so frequent that there is no need to look energy crisis, ruined cities due to population at a timetable decline and city-sprawl, increased car dependence This concept deals with how to maintain and traffic accidents, and cities’ weak responses to service frequency so that wait times do not natural disasters. The proposed measures were: (1) become a problem. Dedicated tracks and roads Compact cities, (2) Environmentally-friendly urban will become necessary when it becomes clear transportation, (3) Distributed energy systems, and that the concentration of traffic is causing traffic (4) Cities with few disasters. congestions. However, it appears that practical The above concepts, together with what was methods and know-how of traffic congestion discussed in section 4-1, formed the concept that management are not sufficiently established in calls for a public transportation system that is safe Japan. This is because congestion-relief measures and environmentally friendly, while contributing are not fully in place. Some ideas include traffic to the development of compact and lively cities. restrictions, congestion fees and usage limitations Figure 15 outlines this concept. This chart by time slot according to the purpose of the vehicle shows the necessary functions and performance (deliveries, regular traffic, etc). In order to become expectations in the future, and outlines the less car-dependent, research and development must requirements for upcoming technologies and start in these areas. systems. The three requirements on future urban It is important to note that simply increasing the

58 QUARTERLY REVIEW No.29 / October 2008 frequency of service would require extra costs, accurately, different approaches must be researched because naturally, the number of vehicles would through brain science and bioscience. have to be increased to achieve this. In order to By performing tests in areas where these prevent wasteful spending and promote efficient transport systems have already been implemented, operations, we must consider the demand, calculate we can gather information regarding the future the best routing depending on the situation, and of these emerging technologies. We look forward divide vehicles up accordingly. It is necessary to to establishing an infrastructure where LRTs can study this issue together with the aforementioned communicate and coexist with pedestrians and congestion-resolving measures. These research other vehicles around them. agendas are expected to become important in the future of R&D. 5 Conclusion

3)With no accidents, passengers can ride and The technologies we discussed are largely live with a peace of mind separated into two categories. One category This concept comes from the ideal vision that includes those technologies that are well underway pedestrians, cars and bicycles are not involved in in terms of development, and will be introduced accidents with urban transport systems. For this to society in the near future. The other category to become reality, there must be a high-precision includes those technologies that are still in its sensing technology and cognitive systems that preliminary stage, or have not yet begun its testing are able to detect people and objects. In the area stage. Technologies in both categories should of sensing technologies that identify obstacles eventually be implemented if we prioritize and (including people), significant development has determine the most efficient way to go about this been made in the car industry with Intelligent process. For these new transport systems to become Transport Systems (ITS).[22] By adapting and commonplace in society, there are several things integrating this into the area of urban transport that must be considered. One is the ease of transfer systems, we can expect new technological to and from other transportation systems, not just developments for LRTs. There must also be with railways, but also with cars and bicycles. information management technologies that Another is the simplification of the fare structure. determine risk from the information obtained It is vital that we figure out a way to make the through sensors that recognize the existence of transition to these systems worthwhile in the eyes people and vehicles. Furthermore, for human of society. If we further improve the technologies beings to process the information instantly and that make lives more convenient and increase

Requirements for Necessary functions and performances Necessary technology and system the future urban transport systems

Ability to run without overhead wires Recharging technology for onboard batteries Ease of access and the ability to operate anywhere – even within Compact vehicles Low-floor microbus (electric vehicle) public facilities. Shorter transfer distances in stations Automatic tickets (on platforms and in vehicles)

Service so frequent that there is Dedicated tracks (roads) and traffic signals Regional traffic congestion management system no need to look at a timetable. On-demand use Optimum vehicle allocation and route management system

Sensing technology to detect surrounding obstacles With no accidents, passengers can ride and live with a peace Collision avoidance with sensors Technology to communicate with pedestrians, bicycles, and cars of mind. Technology of risk analysis for surroundings䋨passengers,vehicle)

Technologies that will be introduced to Technologies that are still in its preliminary society in the near future stage, or have not yet started. through on-going research.

Figure 15 : Direction of technology and system required as future urban transport Prepared by the STFC

59 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TRENDS societal benefits, we will be able to accelerate the with urban planning”, information by the modal shift toward public transportation and put an urban transportation research section, urban end to our car-dependent society. planning division, regional development bureau, MLIT, Oct. 2005, Acknowledgement http://www.mlit.go.jp/crd/tosiko/guidance/ The author would like to express gratitude to pdf/04section1.pdf (Japanese) the following organizations for allowing the use [7] Toyama City: “Survey report on urban of their information in this paper: World Business development projects developing a compact Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), city”, March 2003, OECD, Toyama Light Rail Co., Ltd., Advanced http://www.city.toyama.toyama.jp/division/ Public Transport Systems BV, Transit System kikakukanri/kikakutyousei/buckup0405/ Toyama City Urban Construction Department, compact.pdf (Japanese) ALSTOM, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd., [8] Toyama Light Rail Co., Ltd.: Company Railway Technical Research Institute, Waseda website “PORTRAM”, University Environmental Research Institute, and http://www.t-lr.co.jp/outline/index2.html Showa Aircraft Industry Co., Ltd. (Japanese) [9] Advanced Public Transport System BV References (APTS); Project information on the first [1] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change generation of BRT in the Netherlands in (IPCC): “IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: their webpage, Climate Change 2007”, Nov. 2007; http://www.apts-phileas.com/ http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-syr.htm [10] Toyama City Urban Construction Department, [2] OECD: “Environmentally Sustainable Transit Promotion Section: “Toyama type Transport Guidelines”, Oct. 2000, urban development for a compact city http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd /53/21/2346679. and implementing EST projects”, Nov. pdf 2007, information obtained from the EST [3] World Business Council for Sustainable emergence seminar, Development (WBCSD): “Mobility http://www.estfukyu.jp/pdf/sohatsu_ 2030: Meeting the Challenges to kyushu3.pdf (Japanese) Sustainability”,2004, [11] Bombardier: Information on the LRT drive http://www.wbcsd.org/web/publications/ motor, mobility/mobility-full.pdf http://www.bombardier.com/index. [4] OECD: “Analysis of the Links between jsp?id=1_0&lang=en&file=/en/1_0/1_1/1_1_1. Transport and Economic Growth”, May jsp 2004, [12] Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd /29/37/31661238. Transport: Chapter 3 of “Guidance for pdf introduction planning of LRT systems [5] Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport that are integrated with urban planning”, (MLIT) : Information on modal split sited in information by the urban transportation “Current state of public transportations” by research section, urban planning division, the first sectional meeting on regional public regional development bureau, MLIT, Oct. transportation, transportation system section 2005, meeting of the policy advisory board, MLIT, http://www.mlit.go.jp/crd/tosiko/guidance/ Sept. 2006. pdf/06section3_.pdf (Japanese) http://www.mlit.go.jp/singikai/koutusin/ [13] ALSTOM: Information on LRV;“The battery, koutu/chiiki/1/03.pdf (Japanese) autonomous on-board system”, [6] Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport: http://www.transport.alstom.com/home/ Chapter 1 of “Guidance for introduction elibrary/technical/environnement/_files/ planning of LRT systems that are integrated file_31289_ 30088.pdf

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[14] Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd.: Webpage Information on regional transportation news release “Low Floor, Battery-Powered operators in the age of low birthrate, aging Tram SWIMO Completed”, and falling population “Toyama Light Rail http://www.khi.co.jp/ba/2007data/ba_c3071119-1. Co., Ltd.”, html http://www.mlit.go.jp/pri/shiryou/pdf/ [15] Railway Technical Research Institute: jirei_r03.pdf (Japanese) Webpage news release “Investigative [20] Toyama Light Rail Co., Ltd.: Website commission on LRT” and others, information on their safety report, http://www.rtri.or.jp/index_J.html (Japanese) http://www.t-lr.co.jp/topics/safety/safety.pdf [16] Waseda University Environmental Research (Japanese) Institute: “Comprehensive research on [21] Science and Technology Foresight Center, establishing an advanced community National Institute of Science and transportation system”, Technology Policy (NISTEP), Ministry of http://www.waseda.jp/weri/cluster/contents/ Education, Culture, Sports, Science and clus-senshin.html (Japanese) Technology: “Social vision towards 2025”, [17] Showa Aircraft Industry Co., Ltd.: Product NISTEP Report, No.101, p13, March 2007. catalog “non-contact power feeding system”, http://www.nistep.go.jp/achiev/sum/eng/ http://www.showa-aircraft.co.jp/products/ rep101e/pdf/rep101se.pdf EV/catalog_kyuuden.pdf (Japanese) [22] “Outlook on the next steps of Intelligent [18] Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and transport systems (ITS) technologies Transport: Webpage information on the in Japan: for overcoming Social and operation of non-contact hybrid electric bus Environmental problems brought by at , Automobiles”, Science & Technology http://www.mlit.go.jp/kisha/kisha08/09/090206_3_. Trends-Quarterly Review, No.22, January, html (Japanese) 2007. [19] Policy Research Institute for Land, http://www.nistep.go.jp/achiev/ftx/eng/stfc/ Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism: stt022e/qr22pdf/STTqr2202.pdf

Hiroya FUJIMOTO Environment and Energy Research Unit

PhD. (Mechanical Engineering.) Previously performed research planning and social research after engine research at Motors, Co. Ltd. Currently conducts research and studies with the interest in the environmental and energy fields. Aims to establish science and technology policies, and to realize an ideal society for people.

(Original Japanese version: published in May 2008)

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