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Download Download Proc Soc Antiq Scot, 136 (2006), 47–60 LAWRENCE: NEOLITHIC MORTUARY PRACTICE IN ORKNEY | 47 Neolithic mortuary practice in Orkney David Lawrence* ABSTRACT The human skeletal remains from the Neolithic chambered cairn of Isbister, Orkney have recently been re-examined to test the accuracy of observations reported in the published analysis. During this examination, pathological lesions, signs of weathering and other taphonomic markers were recorded. Two marked disparities between the current study and the published report have been discovered: the Isbister population has been found to display a high prevalence rate of pathological symptoms not previously described; and the bones were found not to display any great degree of the weathering, bleaching and other erosion remarked upon in the published literature. Doubt is also cast on the published calculation of minimum number of individuals interred. The most likely explanation for the apparent differences in results is the systematic misinterpretation of pathological symptoms as evidence of taphonomic processes. It is suggested that there is no supporting evidence for the view that external exposure or preliminary disarticulation occurred prior to interment in Isbister chambered cairn. INTRODUCTION both weathering and bleaching in the human skeletal material (Chesterman 1983, 124–7). hazards arise from . over-reliance on one The chambered cairns of the highland zone outstandingly productive and intensively audited appear to be regional variations of a more site, Isbister (ORK 25) (Davidson & Henshall widespread phenomenon. English barrows, in 1989, 52). particular, have received attention. Excavation Modern studies have indicated that a variety of reports from Neolithic chambered cairns and mortuary practices existed in Neolithic Britain long barrows throughout Britain have typically (Saville 1990; Wysocki & Whittle 2000; Baxter noted the occurrence of a large quantity of 2001; Smith 2005). One recent paper (Henshall human bone in apparent disorder within the 2004) summarized the evidence for Neolithic structure. Not infrequently, these have been said mortuary practice in Orkney in particular, to be accompanied by complete skeletons in explaining that interment of flexed cadavers anatomically correct arrangement. This led early in chambered cairns was the norm, with later archaeologists to suggest that the mortuary use rearrangement of disarticulated remains a of these monuments involved the inhumation of common feature. Two exceptions to this were the body in the chamber(s) and later movement noted: the cairns at Isbister and Quanterness, of unarticulated elements to ‘tidy’ the space. where preliminary exposure had been identified At Stoney Littleton, for example, Colt Hoare as occurring prior to deposition in the chambers (1829) suggested that crouched interment was (Henshall 2004 after Hedges 1983, 269). This the early practice and extended interment late, interpretation was based on a high degree of with a potential phase of cremation. The possible * Bayview, Birsay, Orkney KW17 2LR 48 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2006 practice of external exposure or of relocation dry bones after defleshing was complete. He of remains in the Neolithic was suggested as further claimed that the bones, because of their early as 1869 in a wide-ranging discussion of fragmentary nature, must have been intentionally known mortuary practices by Thurnam, using broken across stones. It is only with a recent ethnographic parallels (Thurnam 1869). By the study that substantial information on this site has early 20th century, Grinsell, following Hoare been published (Benson & Whittle 2006), but a & Thurnam, confidently explained that in the failure to comprehend archaeological remains Neolithic, ‘people were often buried in the was criticized by the site excavators at the contracted position’ but that ‘Frequently the time, pointing out the lack of evidence for ‘ill- custom was to expose deceased in an ossuary conceived suppositions concerning bleaching or in the open air for several weeks or months and bone fractures’ (Benson & Clegg 1978). before burial, and then to place a selection of his bones in the long barrow’ (Grinsell 1936, 34). EVIDENCE FROM ORCADIAN CHAMBERED Excavations by Ashbee at Fussell’s Lodge, CAIRNS Wiltshire, in 1958 retrieved probably the best-recorded human skeletal assemblage to Few of the antiquarian excavations of Orcadian that date. It was found that the bones were chambered cairns in the 19th century involved limited to the expected burial location but had any substantial recording of deposits. Together suffered from varying degrees of weathering with destruction of bone in the local wet acid and frequent breakage. The assemblage soils, this has left little available evidence of any appeared unarticulated but ‘bundled’ and human remains that might have been present, Ashbee considered that the population had been their nature or their distribution. The 1930s saw interred as inhumations at some other place and the publication of reports on several chambered then transferred in containers whilst in a state cairns excavated by Grant & Callander on the of advanced decay (Ashbee 1966, 37), some Orcadian island of Rousay, with more detailed elements possibly being removed at a later descriptions than was previously common. date (ibid, 39). Ashbee later considered that the Perhaps most notable of these was Midhowe, typical inhumation was crouched (Ashbee 1984, a stalled cairn containing the remains of 25 62) but that there had been differences in the individuals, many discovered lying flexed degree of exposure in different areas within the on their sides on shelves with their backs to tomb (ibid, 60) and that later rearrangement of the walls with a quantity of unarticulated and the bones had occurred (ibid, 63) that produced individually heaped human bone (Callander & the observed features. Grant 1934). This pattern is directly comparable Judson T Chesterman’s first published paper with the evidence from English long barrows. on Neolithic human remains (Chesterman In 1974, Quanterness chambered cairn was 1977) followed his analysis of the human bone excavated (Renfrew 1979), and the subsequent assemblage from Ascott-under-Wychwood, publication included skeletal analysis by Gloucestershire, which had been excavated Chesterman (1979). It was natural that some ten years earlier. That paper lays out the Chesterman should then also perform the human pattern for his later, highly influential, opinions. bone analysis for the later report on Isbister Chesterman suggested that the bones were chambered cairn. Both these Orkney reports bleached, weathered and entirely disassociated furnished supporting evidence for Chesterman’s from any anatomical relationship, with skeletal previously published views on Neolithic elements missing. He concluded that this must mortuary practice. Weathering, bleaching, have been the result of exposure of cadavers disarticulation and post-mortem fracture were to the elements followed by interment of the described as highly prevalent and were used LAWRENCE: NEOLITHIC MORTUARY PRACTICE IN ORKNEY | 49 to propose an extra-mural exposure practice 1983, xvii) and in 1982 further trenching (Chesterman 1979, 106–7; 1983, 124–7). was undertaken (ibid, 301). The two major A recent study (Beckett & Robb 2006) publications on Isbister written by Hedges laud found that Isbister remains the largest Neolithic the quality of Simison’s excavations, and yet, inhumation assemblage (341 individuals) yet although recording was by trained professional recovered in Britain, with that from Quanterness archaeologists used to Orcadian conditions, the being the second largest (165 individuals), entire site as reported in the formal monograph and that only 26 sites produced ten or more is described with just 16 contexts of limited individuals. Chesterman alone performed the stratigraphic value (ibid, table 1). Four contexts skeletal analyses on over 71% of the published describe modern or unstratified deposits for sample of human inhumation remains from example, two are from backfilling in antiquity the British Neolithic. An additional important and five are given to structural elements of the aspect of the large assemblage sizes at Isbister cairn. and Quanterness is that it is possible that a Chesterman’s (1983) skeletal analysis complete population was interred and remained provides detailed non-metric observations and in situ in each case – a very rare case in the metrical analysis of the bones, the probable British Neolithic. The accurate description of high accuracy of which has been demonstrated these assemblages is therefore fundamental (Bernal 2003). It contains, however, little to understanding prehistoric health status in description of any pathological lesions other Britain. than ‘osteoarthritis’ and ‘osteophytosis’. The few other described abnormalities occur almost entirely within the crania and, except dental ISBISTER CHAMBERED CAIRN disease, none relates to infection. The limb At Isbister, excarnation took place outside the bones have a single case of osteochondritis burial chambers (Stoddart et al 1999, 104). dissecans and two (plus one inferred) fractures that form the entire catalogue of non-arthritic The Isbister Neolithic chambered cairn, the so- pathology. In his published report on the called ‘Tomb of the Eagles’ (Parish of South Quanterness remains, Chesterman explicitly Ronaldsay, map reference ND 4704 8449, states that there was no indication of infectious
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