THE STATE OF STATE PARKS

John Henneberger Beginnings

tate park systems constitute an important and valuable component of the USA’s total complement of national, state, regional, local, and private lands devoted to the preservation of nature and culture. These Slands also provide outdoor recreational activity, aesthetic enjoyment, and education to many millions of people. A tracing of the history of the state park movement presents an intriguing story that begins with the Yosemite grant to the state of California in 1864. There, the national and state park ideas emerged within a new form of park, one whose purpose would be to retain out- standing natural wonders in public ownership for all the people for all time. A succession of state parks then appeared through the efforts of individuals and groups, especially the wealthy. Several national parks; many state, county and city parks; the national forest reserves; a few state forests; and several national and state wildlife refuges were established within what can be called the first wave of the conservation of America’s natural resources. During this first wave, state parks often proved difficult to establish. Land acquisition, development, and operational funding were initially sparse. State legislatures were reluctant to spend tax dollars on parks. The second wave of the conservation movement occurred after World War I under the influence of a growing population, in- creasing affluence, and the arrival in common use of the automobile. Mobility became a distinctive feature of American life. This produced tremendous out- door recreational demand. Numerous state parks were created in the 1920s in many states to handle populations streaming out of the cities into the country- side in search of camping and cabins in the outdoors. Growth in state park sys- tems reached its highest levels when vast federal sums were poured into state park and recreation area programs during the Great Depression. The third wave occurred after World War II. It lasted until the presidency of Ronald Reagan, when a period of consolidation and stability in all park programs set in. Accounts of the establishment of some of the earliest and most notable state parks present reasons why the institution of state parks came into existence. The Yosemite state grant. After ans through the foothills of the Sierra Yosemite Valley was entered in 1851 Nevada in order to place them on res- by the California Mariposa Battalion ervations, the great scenic wonders of of Rangers, who were pursuing Indi- Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa

Volume 17 ¥ Number 3 2000 9 THE STATE OF STATE PARKS Grove of Big Trees to the south be- grant of lands to the states for the pur- came known to the people of Califor- pose of the public use, resort, recrea- nia, the nation, and the world, and tion, and, in this case, protection of an soon grew into prime tourist attrac- attractive part of the Sierra Nevada tions. Each region of the West was a region. Congressional grants of pub- dynamic section of its own, forming lic domain to the states were a com- part of a larger developing “West” mon political instrument used to which itself was becoming a distinct build canals, highways, railroads, “half” of the nation in apposition to public works, and schools. The Yo- the East. Such places as Yosemite, semite grant was different in that the Yellowstone, Sequoia, Mount Rain- parklands were given with the stipu- ier, , and the Grand Canyon lation that they not be sold. The pro- helped form a specific view of the ponents of the Yosemite Valley and West that was vital, had power, was Big Trees grant initiated a novel park progressive, was different from Euro- category of natural scenic lands to be pean ideas and models, and was part protected in public park status, one of the construction of urban institu- which in a short period would be- tions, structures, and places devoted come conventional in American to social reform. The parks that were culture. It joined the landscaped ur- created were part of a larger phe- ban central public park, which was nomenon within the general Ameri- then being adopted in Eastern cities, can experience: the establishment of to form two distinct park categories tourism as a prominent cultural ac- that would come to be blended over tivity, one that encompassed a grow- the next hundred years to produce a ing appreciation of and concern for variety of parks at the federal, state, nature. and local level. San Francisco was the major fo- The principals involved in the cus of a developing section of Cali- Yosemite grant were a group of fornia coming out of its Gold Rush northern Californian residents of days. The northern California region various occupations. Israel Ward possessed a world-famous, highly Raymond and Frederick Billings distinctive climate, along with attrac- were businessmen. Raymond was an tive landscapes of mountains, valleys, officer in the Central American and seacoast. In the national mind it Steamship Transit Company of New became a very special place. Out of York. Between 1849 and 1864 he this bustling region, through the ef- made numerous round-trips between forts of a few people, there emerged New York and San Francisco to the proposition of the Yosemite promote his company’s efforts to Grant. The Yosemite park creation construct a railroad across the Nica- utilized the mechanism of a federal ragua Isthmus to carry people and

10 The George Wright FORUM THE STATE OF STATE PARKS goods between the East and West articles on Yosemite and the work of coasts. Billings was engaged in the very lively Watkins, who would ventures, urban residential schemes, become one of the West’s most dis- and railroad construction in the West. tinguished commercial photogra- Both Raymond and Billings visited phers. Billings urged Watkins to Yosemite and the Mariposa Grove. photograph the Valley and Mariposa At Wawona, they met Galen Clark, Grove, which he did. who was proprietor of an overnight These principals interacted with facility that catered to tourists going to one another at Las Mariposa, Clark’s Yosemite. Billings was often in the way station, and Black Point. Billings Yosemite region at John C. and Raymond were conservationists Frémont’s nearby Mariposa property in a day when there were few in to discuss mining business. Also America. (Billings was a great ad- stopping at Frémont’s Las Mariposa mirer of fellow Vermonter George home were Carlton Watkins ,the Perkins Marsh, who authored Man California photographer; Thomas and Nature, the landmark conserva- Starr King, a minister from San Fran- tion book of the time.) Billings felt cisco; and State Geologist Josiah that commerce could serve the cause Dwight Whitney and his assistant of conservation by bringing visitors to William Ashburner. All of them went a site such as Yosemite that was wor- to Yosemite. At Mariposa, they were thy of protection, thus building a po- greeted and made at home by litical constituency and creating a Frémont’s wife, Jessie Benton source of funds to meet the costs of Frémont. When the Frémonts moved development and protection. Ray- to San Francisco, Jessie’s home at mond initiated the Yosemite legisla- Black Point became the cultural cen- tive campaign by composing and ter of the city. Between 1860 and sending a letter from his New York 1863 it was a meeting place, akin to a Wall Street office on February 20, country salon, for writers, artists, 1864, to Senator John Conness of politicians, businessmen, photogra- California. The letter outlined the phers, ministers, and other intellectu- essence of the Yosemite grant pro- als of the region. Jessie’s role was that posal. To prevent private exploita- of a catalyst and muse, prodding and tion, he recommended a grant en- encouraging such men as Bret Harte compassing both areas to the state of and King to write and speak, as she California. Raymond appears to have could not in a period where women been the main developer of the criti- were expected to inspire rather than cal pronouncement of purpose: that create. The emergence of the idea of a Yosemite was to be granted for public particular California landscape oc- use, resort, and recreation, with the curred through such activity as Starr’s lands held inalienable forever. Con-

Volume 17 ¥ Number 3 2000 11 THE STATE OF STATE PARKS ness sent Raymond’s letter to the important transportation corridors in General Land Office Commissioner North America. By the 1820s it had and asked him to prepare suitable become a heavily frequented tourist legislation to effect the grant. The destination. It quickly degenerated GLO promptly complied. Conness into a shabby resort as private entre- then introduced the legislation in the preneurs sought to wring money out Senate. It passed there and went on to of tourists. Frederick Law Olmsted the House, where it also passed. also became involved in Niagara Falls President Lincoln signed it into law when, in 1869, he and others on June 30, 1864. launched a media campaign to place Raymond, Clark, Whitney, and the U.S. overlook in public owner- Ashburner became members of the ship. The New York state legislature Yosemite State Board of Commis- responded in 1883 by creating a park sioners, the body created by the state commission empowered to acquire to administer the park. Clark was also land and manage it as a scenic reser- named “Guardian of the Yosemite.” vation. Enough funding and land ac- The famed landscape architect Fre- quisition followed to establish a 107- derick Law Olmsted, who at the time acre park in 1885. Restorative work was managing the Las Mariposa was undertaken that removed many mining properties, was also named to unsightly buildings. Olmsted and his the board. The state commissioners partner Calvert Vaux developed a ran the park between 1864 and 1906. park design that eliminated additional Most accounts of their management structures and re-established indige- have deemed it a failure. The state nous communities of trees and shrubs legislature refused to give the board along the shoreline. Shelters, walks, sufficient funds to properly take care and benches at overlook points pro- of the property. There was deteriora- vided a reasonably attractive setting tion of the natural condition of the within a rather small park reservation. Yosemite Valley floor. Finally, John Still, they never achieved the superior Muir and his Sierra Club’s criticism effort of the Canadians, who ap- of the board’s management pressured proached the administration of their the state to re-cede control back to the side of Niagara Falls differently. They federal government in 1906. The first vested in their park commission all park under state administration was the lands above and below the falls an unsuccessful venture. Yosemite and gave it leasing powers with nonetheless became a model that en- authority over the design and location larged the scope of public park sys- of generating plants to assure that the tems. spectacle remained unmarred. On the Niagara Reservation. Niagara American side there emerged a rather Falls was located on one of the most small standard landscaped park set up

12 The George Wright FORUM THE STATE OF STATE PARKS as a scenic attraction. curred in 1883 when the state legis- Adirondack Park. The drive for lature banned the exchange or sale of an expansive park for the Adirondack all state land in ten Adirondack Mountains first surfaced publicly in counties. Funds were provided to 1864 when The New York Times acquire the underlying fee title to tax- suggested that the spacious mountains sale lands held by the state within and forests in upper New York state what was called “Lands in the Adi- be created as “a Central Park of the rondack Forest Preserve.” In 1885, world.” The editorial summed up the the state authorized the establishment view of many New York City summer of a state forest preserve modeled after residents of the Adirondack mountain European municipal forests. There region: namely, that a park there was opposition to creating a “park.” would make a fine wilderness suburb That word conjured up taxpayer for the city, holding the capacity for expense in maintaining an area for the imparting recreational and aesthetic enjoyment of those who had the time pleasure as well as increasing wealth and money to spend in hunting, through tourist activity. Such a park fishing and other recreation. Within a would be a distinct outdoor adjunct five-million-acre region in the upper to urban life. An Albany resident, New York state counties, some Verplank Colvin, led the legislative 681,000 acres of state land was campaign for such a grand park. designated as a forest preserve under Colvin approached the park proposal an umbrella concept of these lands as a vehicle to halt the region’s being kept forever wild. Private lands destructive logging practices in order were not included within the pre- to save downstate water supplies. serve. The preserve was to be man- Sportsmen joined in the campaign, aged under scientific forestry princi- for they knew that the best way to ples that were being introduced in preserve hunting habitat was to make America in the 1870s and 1880s. the case for a large preserve to Management and protection of augment and include their private the new state forest preserve were hunting preserve holdings. Resort- virtually non-existent in the years oriented persons seeking recreational immediately after its creation. Disre- opportunities in relatively untouched gard for proper protection and utili- country joined these factions. Doctors zation brought on demands for a state proposed the enclosure of the park. The state legislature corrected mountains in a park as a good place the situation in 1890 by calling for the for the treatment of pulmonary dis- gathering of the scattered preserve eases. holdings into a park of “one grand The initial step toward an Adi- domain” that was to lie within a larger rondack park/forest preserve oc- forest preserve. A map of the entire

Volume 17 ¥ Number 3 2000 13 THE STATE OF STATE PARKS region was developed in which a blue voted to recreation, and there was an pencil outlined a rough circle that extension of governmental control took in nearly all of the Adirondack over private property. Forty-five per- Mountains. Within the blue line was cent of the state lands were designated some 2,800,000 acres defined as as wilderness. There finally had park, of which the state owned just emerged a commitment to wilderness over 550,000. There were patches of and the perpetuation of natural plant forest preserve, with the rest of the and animal communities by the state land remaining private. It was rec- after a hundred years of struggle to ommended that the state buy up all preserve the Adirondacks. the private land and turn the whole Itasca. Greater numbers of state region into a unified forest pre- parks appeared at the end of the serve—or Adirondack Park. To this nineteenth and the beginning of the day, the “Blue Line” has remained twentieth centuries as states used the synonymous with the park area, designation to establish scenic, rec- which has expanded to 5,927,600 reational, and historic sites to meet acres, with 2,337,936 state-owned. outdoor recreational needs and to The 1890 park legislation had loop- save particularly attractive and im- holes that permitted the sale of tim- portant cultural sites from encroach- berland for logging. The fight over the ment and destruction. Itasca, at the future of the park was joined. In 1894 headwaters of the in the forest reserve versus park issue north-central , became an became part of state constitutional active state park reservation in 1893. convention proceedings. Pres- The source of the Mississippi River is ervationists won when a proposal for a basin of lakes lying within a semi- a “forever wild” park was approved to circle of wood ridges some two hun- be put before the voters. The voters dred miles north of the Minneapo- agreed. Civilization gradually en- lis–St. Paul metropolitan area. Ex- croached upon the Adirondacks via cursions to these headwaters brought railroads, and then the automobile. the area into prominence. The need Transportation opened the region to to protect this unusual place was seen hordes of vacationists and sportsmen. by the Twin Cities community as they Trails, shelters, and campgrounds watched the region being dismem- were built. The mountains became a bered through timber cutting, home- place to ski, canoe, and climb. The stead entry, and railroad grant activ- years ahead were turbulent until the ity. At first, efforts were made to make 1970s, when a master plan was Itasca a national park. Since there brought forth for both the public and wasn’t enough federal land to do so, private lands in which some portions the campaign shifted to the state level. remained wild while others were de- Authorization by the state legislature

14 The George Wright FORUM THE STATE OF STATE PARKS for an came in 1891. with the involvement of prominent A superintendent was appointed who and wealthy personages who entered proceeded to put together a sizeable the field of public park establishment park out of federal holdings, some with timely gifts and donations of Northern Pacific railroad grant lands, property. Such philanthropy became a Weyerhauser timber tract, state common as America produce a great school lands, and miscellaneous pur- number of millionaires who used chased lands. The state later author- their wealth in many areas of social ized additional purchases that reform—public parks being one brought the park to 32,000 acres. prime area of interest. Many national Park rules and regulations were and state parks throughout the coun- drawn up, and penalties provided for try have benefited from individual infractions. and corporate wealth and interest. As in the Adirondack situation, at The unbroken line of perpen- Itasca there was initial indecision over dicular Palisade rock, rising 550 feet whether the area was to be a state park from the shoreline, was being quar- or state forest. Itasca initially shifted ried to feed the demand for rock for from a public outdoor recreation area New York City brownstone buildings that preserved scenery to a reserve and for ship ballast. The state legis- where conservation of timber became latures responded to the threat by the prime objective. The federal–state passing legislation creating a Com- public works program of the 1930s mission for a Palisades brought substantial recreational who were directed to put together a facilities to Itasca. Federal funding for park proposal. The first segment of development forced the state to the park was a Hudson Fulton Boule- remove Itasca from supervision by its vard skyline drive corridor along the Forestry Department and place it Palisades. An extension was then under a newly created State Parks created to connect the Palisades with Division. Transitions through the a Bear Mountain Park that was being whole range of park purposes, from established around the 1,314-foot- scenic protection and outdoor high mountain that overlooks the recreation development to ecological Hudson River. The Bear Mountain concerns, were realized at Itasca portion became a reality in 1901 when a 2,000-acre wilderness sanc- through gifts from John D. Rockefel- tuary was designated there after ler and J. Pierpont Morgan. In 1909, World War II. Mrs. E. H. Harriman gave a million Palisades Interstate Park. In dollars and ten thousand acres to 1895, New York and New Jersey cre- form the nucleus of a Bear Moun- ated the nucleus of the Palisades In- tain–Harriman State Park complex. terstate Park along the Hudson River Eventually the two state parks were

Volume 17 ¥ Number 3 2000 15 THE STATE OF STATE PARKS expanded to over 85,000 acres. Bear 1,500 acres in the southwest corner of Mountain became a popular outdoor the state, and a Martha’s Vineyard recreation area. Steamers brought Game Reservation of 1,601 acres, people from New York City on day followed. These areas formed the and overnight excursions. Two mil- nucleus for the Massachusetts State lion visitors were using the Interstate Park System that grew in scope in the park areas by 1913. The Palisades next century. Interstate Parkway was completed in The Oregon experience. The 1958 to connect the Bear Mountain genesis of Oregon State Park System Park with the George Washington occurred in 1913 when the state leg- Bridge. This provided direct auto- islature designated the entire coastal mobile access from New York City to area as a public highway. Included the Bear Mountain Park and to the were all the ocean tidelands from the additional state parks that had been mouth of the Columbia River to the developed to the north and along the California State line. This gave public Hudson River to meet the park and access to the ocean shore for hiking, outdoor recreational needs of the fishing, clamming, and aesthetic greater New York metropolitan re- pleasure. The Oregon State Highway gion. Commission in succeeding years ac- The Massachusetts State Park quired lands for highway construc- System. As the nineteenth century tion along the coast, in the Columbia was ending, some states began to River Gorge area, and in the Wil- think in terms of park systems for their lamette Valley. Remnants of parcels residents. The state of Massachusetts were developed into roadside parks created the Trustees of Public Reser- and waysides. State legislation vations (1891) and a Metropolitan emerged to preserve timber along the Park Commission (1892) as their rights-of-way and for parks, parking direction in establishing park, forest, places, campsites, public squares, and and game reservations. The Metro- outdoor recreation grounds. The politan authority quickly created State Highway Commission in 1925 many parks in the Boston area. The was directed to improve, maintain, Trustees for Public Reservations ac- and supervise these parklands. Ore- cepted gifts of park land to be admin- gon’s state park system thus primarily istered by a special commission to developed out of its state highway handle each park, forest, or game ref- program. Substantial acreage for park uge. A forested and mountain area in purposes was subsequently acquired the Berkshires of 8,600 acres was under aggressive leadership to facili- given to the state in 1898 to become tate a number of park areas of up to the Mount Greylock State Park. The 4,000 acres that extended well be- Wachusett Mountain State Park of yond the highways.

16 The George Wright FORUM THE STATE OF STATE PARKS

Katahdin—The wilderness state derness. In 1933, the legislature ap- park. The Katahdin region in Maine proved setting aside this land as Bax- was wild, isolated, mountainous ter State Park. Baxter continued country to the early settlers. In the fighting for a larger park. He eventu- nineteenth century, there was little ally managed to get it to 202,000 need within Maine to create parks, acres. Baxter developed an individual preserves, and refuges. The state pos- philosophy of wilderness for the park. sessed substantial acreage for outdoor In the 1930s, he developed a close recreation that was available to resi- relationship with Robert Marshall dents, tourists, hunters, and fisher- and other members of the Wilderness men. It was only when lumber com- Society, who supported Baxter on panies began to open up and log off wilderness status for the park. As the huge blocks of timber that interest in park grew larger and more popular, it setting aside some of Maine’s wild became exceedingly difficult to country occurred. National park maintain Baxter’s rather pure wilder- status for Katahdin was pushed in ness philosophy for Katahdin. Like 1911, but Congress took no ac- most state parks everywhere, Baxter tion—they were not yet ready to Park was developed in the 1930s un- “buy” national parks. Percival P. der Civilian Conservation Corps Baxter, a wealthy Portlander and (CCC) programs. A central wilder- member of the state legislature, be- ness component was, however, re- came a champion for park status for tained to somewhat secure Baxter’s Katahdin. He began a remarkable vision. lifelong campaign to preserve this The Redwoods. By the end of the area in a wilderness condition. Baxter nineteenth century, logging compa- was unexpectedly propelled into the nies had appropriated most of the state’s governorship in 1920. From redwoods on public domain lands that position he succeeded in 1923 in from the Monterey Mountains up the getting the legislature to create a coast into Oregon. They were cutting 90,000-acre Katahdin Park Game Sequoia sempervirens at an alarming, Preserve that was made up mostly of devastating rate. Individuals and private timber company holdings. groups began rescuing remnants to After Baxter left state office, he preserve sections as tourist attractions intensified his crusade by deciding to and for scientific interest. The initial purchase Katahdin himself and give it focus was on a 20,000-acre grove at to the state. He bought an interest in Big Basin in the Santa Cruz Moun- about 5,620 acres from a lumber tains south of San Francisco. A local company. The state accepted his do- group and Stanford University be- nation along with conditions of use came interested in this grove. They that expressed his conception of wil- called themselves the Sempervirens

Volume 17 ¥ Number 3 2000 17 THE STATE OF STATE PARKS Club, which was later enlarged to cedure for planning a diverse park broaden support. A successful cam- and recreation system over a large and paign was mounted that obtains State varied geographical area. He de- legislation in 1901 to create a Cali- veloped criteria for the creation of fornia Redwood Park Commission to comprehensive state, county, and save the Big Basin grove. Funding was local park systems. For California, obtained. Negotiations with lumber Olmsted proposed 125 park projects companies resulted in 2500 acres of he felt worthy of inclusion in a state prime redwood being acquired for park system. Many projects were the park. Additional cutover land was beach sites; redwood and Sequoia donated, along with 3,980 acres of groves; areas with lakes, rivers, federal land that was turned over to mountains, and deserts; and sites of the State. historical and cultural interest. Under Interest in redwood preservation this guidance, California began to shifted to northern California in 1916 build a remarkable State Park System. when state highway construction Voters approved a $6 million opened up the magnificent groves matching state bond in 1928 to ac- along the South Fork of the Eel River quire the majority of the recom- to logging and tourism. A prominent mended parks. group of San Franciscans began a The National Conference of campaign to have some of the groves State Parks. The automobile trans- placed into park status. A Save the formed outdoor recreation for the Redwoods League was formed in middle classes of America. The crea- 1918 to consolidate redwood pur- tion of state and local park commis- chase efforts. Large amounts of sions came about from the growing money came forth from wealthy indi- influence of the middle-class tourists viduals and average citizens. Groves who on weekends and vacations were purchased by the League and wanted to “get back to nature.” These dedicated to particular individuals. commissions sought to provide the The problem as to where the groves needed areas and facilities. State park would eventually reside for their leaders and other advocates gathered management and protection was in Des Moines, Iowa, in 1921 to turned over to the secretary of the strengthen state parks systems under League. Obtaining the necessary state the leadership of Stephen T. Mather. legislation was difficult, but finally The Des Moines group proclaimed was achieved in 1927. State funds that outdoor recreation was a basic were made available that permitted a human need. The resulting National survey of potential state parks by Fre- Conference of State Parks began to derick Law Olmsted, Jr. The younger effectively promote the creation of Olmsted developed a standard pro- parks that were closer to centers of

18 The George Wright FORUM THE STATE OF STATE PARKS population and more easily accessi- for land acquisition for state parkland ble. Conference advocates met annu- and development of the acquired in- ally to discuss matters. They called for dividual park and recreational areas. coordinated national outdoor rec- His approach to state park activity was reational planning to provide a full to embrace both scenic protection range of recreational opportunities. and the development of new kinds of In 1924, President Coolidge con- recreational areas within a vened a National Conference on nationwide park and recreation plan- Outdoor Recreation, which assem- ning structure. There was close co- bled twenty-eight national organiza- operation between NPS and the states tions and a substantial number of state in park and recreational planning and park representatives. The Conference development until the 1960s, when resulted in the creation of a this function was taken away from cooperative association of national, NPS and given to the new Bureau of state, and local park and recreation Outdoor Recreation. The CCC state groups to coordinate national policy. park program was a major compo- Under this emphasis, states began to nent of the American park movement, plan for systems of scenic and recrea- equal in scope to the development of tional areas, parkways, and historic the National Park System. State sites. governments acquired over one CCC build-up. The 1930s million acres of new parklands during brought the most radical change to the CCC period. Hundreds of state the status of state parks in America. parks were designed, with the char- The CCC was utilized by almost acteristic features of roads and trails, every state to perform emergency picnic areas, and campground and conservation work in their parks. The cabin facilities. (NPS) pro- The future of state parks. Tight vided guidance for state and local budgets for public park maintenance park development. The creation of and expansion in the last two decades new state parks and the design of fa- of the twentieth century has to a great cilities was supervised from NPS’s extent dissipated the work of the New Branch of Recreation, Land Plan- Deal and that which occurred in the ning, and State Cooperation under immediate post-World War II pe- the leadership of landscape architect riod. State outdoor recreation areas Conrad L. Wirth. He vigorously pur- are now, for the most part, over- sued state cooperative activities. crowded and ill-maintained. Hardly Where states had no parks or park any new parks have been created. commissions, he helped them pre- What is needed is a massive program pare a recreational land-use plan so comparable with that of the CCC era they could qualify for federal funding so that state parks can help meet the

Volume 17 ¥ Number 3 2000 19 THE STATE OF STATE PARKS needs of the American public for tion of their natural and cultural outdoor recreation and the preserva- heritage.

John Henneberger, 3256 NW Harrison Boulevard, Corvallis, Oregon 97330; [email protected] 11

20 The George Wright FORUM