Running Head: METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 1

Good in Theory: A Metatheoretical Review of Social Psychological Theories of Human Sexuality

Kirsten A. Quistberg & John K. Sakaluk

University of Victoria Western University METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 2

Abstract

The fields of social psychology and sexual science have an intuitive and growing connection, with social psychology’s tradition of theory generation poised to enrich the psychological study of the sexual. For those interested in applying social psychological theories to topics of sexuality, however, there are questions regarding the features, qualities, and strengths and weaknesses of social psychology’s theoretical offerings. We therefore conducted a comprehensive metatheoretical review of social psychology theories applicable to sexuality (n = 44). In doing so, we (i)promote a deeper understanding of the current state of social psychology theory (ii)provide original theory maps to streamline future theory testing (iii)evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of current social psychology theories. Our review finds existing social psychology theory to present a range of clarity with regards to theory definition, theory applicability, and testability. We interpret our results as encouragement for the pursuit of contemporary methods of theorizing in social psychology.

Keywords: metatheory; sexuality; social psychology; theory METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 3

Good in Theory: A Metatheoretical Review of Social Psychological Theories of Human Sexuality

“In our endeavor to understand reality we are somewhat like a man trying to understand the mechanism of a closed watch. He sees the face and the moving hands, even hears its ticking, but he has no way of opening the case. If he is ingenious he may form some picture of a mechanism which could be responsible for all the things he observes, but he may never be quite sure his picture is the only one which could explain his observations.”

(Einstein & Infeld, 1950, p. 33)

The sexual constitutes a core and complicated arena of social life. For many, the pursuit of fulfilling sexual relationships is a key life goal, which when fulfilled, can enrich the well- being and sense of meaning amongst partners (Smith, Lyons & Ferris, 2011). Unfulfilled sexual needs, meanwhile, can provoke an individual to feeling the utmost sense of rejection and social estrangement (Birnbaum et. al., 2006), whereas deliberate perpetration of nonconsensual sex is both a widespread and impactful form of social violence (House et al., 2014). Further evidencing the centrality of the sexual, identities defined by particular sexual (non)attractions (e.g., Barker,

2005; Damm, Dentato, & Busch, 2018; Riggle, Mohr, Rostosky, Fingerhut, & Balsam, 2014;

Scherrer, 2008), are often the targets of vitriolic and/or innocuous prejudice and discrimation

(e.g., Bezreh, Weinberg, & Edgar, 2012; Hoffarth, Drolet, Hodson, & Hafer, 2016; Hudson &

Ricketts, 1980; Schechinger, Sakaluk, & Moors, 2018), and therefore, the affected communities are some of the most visible exemplars of group resilience, mobilization, and political action

(e.g., Graham, Butler, McGraw, Cannes, & Smith, 2016; Klesse, 2019; Kwan, 2013). Although the sexual features of these phenomena may be unfamiliar to the average social psychologist, their social context and impact are not: interpersonal well-being, meaning, rejection and inclusion, power, stereotyping and prejudice, and identity and intergroup dynamics are well- trodden ground for social psychologists. METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 4

Both beginning and operating independently throughout most of the early/mid 20th century, the fields of social psychology and sexual science now enjoy a fruitful exchange of academic scholarship. In the present paper, we argue that one of the most valuable intellectual products social psychology has to potentially offer sexual science is its rich tradition in theory.

Amidst the myriad of other disciplines from which to draw, social psychology appears poised to supply scientists interested in the study of sexuality with theories that can guide examinations of sexual affect, cognition, identity and behavior.

Realizing the benefits of the rich tradition of theory in social psychology in the neighboring field of sexual science, however, is not a given. In order to be valuable, social psychological theories need to be understandable, usable, testable, and developed in such a way that makes them applicable for the sexual context. We therefore conducted a metatheoretical review of generalist social psychological theories that could be applied to the study of sexuality.

In doing so, we speak to descriptive empirical patterns in the development and makeup of these theories, as well as subjecting each theory to a deconstructive and reconstructive analytic process, in order to evaluate their epistemic and scientific value to would-be adopters from sexual science.

Theory: What, Why, and How?

Although there is a general lack of consensus on the definition of theory and how it is to be applied (Langley et al., 2013), for our purposes we adopt a definition of theory as a collection of propositions used to explain the empirical relations among constructs (Weis, 2012), .

Constructs are commonly referred to as the “building blocks” of theory and propositions are statements which delineate the relations among constructs (Weis, 1998a). The Need To Belong theory (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), for example, includes the following constructs (building METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 5 blocks): human drive, interpersonal contact, and feelings of belonging. The propositional statements associated with this theory are that there is a fundamental human drive to seek interpersonal contact to gain a sense of belonging. Theories are used to explain and predict phenomena, to formulate logical propositions and to draw connections between constructs

(Finkel, 2014; Reiss, 1999). Theorizing in prototypical psychology reflects the following basic formulation: theory ‘p’ implies that fact ‘q,’ we observe ‘q’ and therefore theory ‘p’ is inferred

(Meehl, 1993).

The epistemic and scientific functions of theory are manifold, but we propose that certain key usages of theory are widely shared. First, and at the broadest level, theories are often constructed as a heuristic that can be inferentially applied to address how and why a phenomenon tends to occur in an effort to approximate the truth. They can therefore be used to help define the scope of a research program by demarcating what constructs (and consequently, which processes) are necessary for understanding a particular empirical phenomenon. According to Lakatos (1978a; 1978b) a theory is pseudoscientific if it does not make novel predictions about existing phenomena or if the predictions made have been falsified. As new discoveries about a phenomenon are made, and/or areas of conceptual or process ambiguity are uncovered, theories can help researchers to determine the trajectory of their research programme (Lakatos,

1978a; 1978b) in order to expand, contract, and/or refine the theory accordingly. From our perspective, we do not believe this use of theory to result in necessarily linear science (i.e., we would resist the frame of “progress” toward some scientific end-state, see Endreß, 2016). We suggest theories can nonetheless help researchers reduce the seemingly infinite possible avenues of inquiry and thereby identify a more epistemically manageable number of higher theory-value research questions. METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 6

Theories not only shape the research questions a scientist pursues, but also the researcher’s expectations of what ought to happen if a given theory captures the processes of interest. Again, a caveat is necessary: as theories are constructed (not discovered) in an inductive process according to how useful they are in explaining a particular set of phenomena (Mintzberg,

2005), they are strictly false at the onset, and so their relative truthiness, verisimilitude, approximate accuracy, etc., must be considered (Meehl, 2004). Still, it is fair to say that a popular function of theories is to inform a researcher’s hypothesis in some form of hypothetico- deductive approach to science.

Finally, and relatedly, by allowing a researcher to derive testable propositions against empirical data, theories serve a vital organizational function in science. Specifically, when there is a critical mass of studies of the same general phenomenon and competing theories that explain them, theories can elevate the organization of the scientific record beyond the level of mere observation. That is to say, once the pace of scientific observation becomes too torrid, theories enable researchers to “score-keep” within a literature to a better degree than if they had to keep track of each finding, case-by-case, devoid of any superordinate context.

Contribution to Social Psychology

The current metatheoretical review strives to contribute to the field of social psychology by providing an in-depth review of the current state of theory in social psychology and critically analysing these theories in order to inform future theorizing. With regards to the former, our aim is to describe all current social psychology theories in the Handbook (both volumes of Van

Lange, Kruglanski & Higgins, 2012). By providing details on the origins of each theory, the type of theory and theory definitions and applications, social psychologists will be able to see the timeline of theory development and the way theory is currently being described and used in the METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 7 literature. By providing a consistent theory definition and formulations of current social psychology theories, social psychologists can evaluate the accuracy of each theory by testing the propositions made by these theories. In other words, social psychologists can establish the validity and replicability of the theory a priori, as opposed to applying theory to their findings post-hoc.With regards to the latter, informing future theorizing, the current metatheoretical review will critically analyze the existing theory and provide clear depictions of the components of a “good” theory. Furthermore, this work will include visual representations (i.e., theory maps) of each theory that social psychologists apply to their current work. Finally, our work will delineate the shortcomings of current social psychology theory in order to inform contemporary theorizing. It is our objective that social psychology, as a field, begin to identify and understand the current state of their theoretical frameworks, and use the flaws of current theories to inform

“good” contemporary theorizing.

Social Psychology Theory and Sexual Science

Our pursuit of a metatheoretical review of social psychology theories for sexuality is motivated primarily by two factors. First, the multidisciplinary field of sexual science presents an interesting case study for applying metatheory, given the strong historical tradition of sexual scientists proceeding throughout their research in a largely atheoretical and descriptive manner

(Weis, 2002). And second, of all the disciplines from which sexual science could draw theoretical inspiration, social psychology appears particularly well suited to deliver theories and accompanying methods that align well with the assumptions, interests, and values of sexual scientists.

The historical deficit of theory in sexual science. Sexual science is a unique multidisciplinary field of study. Lying at the intersection of the humanities, social sciences, and METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 8 medical sciences, sexual scientists attempt to draw from a multitude of divergent perspectives and methods in an attempt to advance understanding of a subject matter that is often deeply personal, societally politicized, and historically taboo (Sakaluk, 2019; Wiederman & Whitley Jr.,

2001). Despite--or perhaps in response to--these complicating factors, much of the sexual science literature has been conducted in a rather atheoretical fashion (Wiederman & Whitley Jr., 2001).

This pattern of theoryless science seems to stem to some degree from the legacy of Kinsey and his colleagues (Kinsey et al., 1948, 1953), for whom the accurate, non-judgemental description of the sexual conduct of participants was paramount. Decades later, although one can find instances of theory substantively guiding sex research (Fletcher, Dowsett, Duncan, Slavin &

Corboz, 2013; Reiss, 1999; Wallis, 2010)1, atheoretical, descriptive research remains a popular modality for sexual science (Reiss, 1999). As Weis (1998a) summarized "compared to many other areas of scientific inquiry, it is fair to suggest that sexual theory is still in its infancy—both because relatively little sexuality research is oriented to testing theoretical hypotheses and because few empirically-tested theories with conceptual precision have yet to emerge" (p. 1).

In context, the atheoretical approach of Kinsey et al. (1948; 1953) seems appropriate; documenting the breadth of what behavior around which the field could later attempt to theorize was prudent, if not wholly necessary. The field of sexual science remains predominantly intent on accumulation and tabulation of its many empirical observations, instead of prioritizing the integration of consistent findings or adjudication of conflicting findings in the pursuit of generalizable principles. The potential costs of this continuing contemporary deficit of theory in sexual science--particularly for established topics of study--is more concerning. Without any

1 When theory is front-and-center, it is often (although not always, e.g., see van Anders, 2015) evolutionary in origin. However, in noting this anecdotal observation, we do not wish to convey that this suggests the state of evolutionary theory in sexual science is de facto healthier or superior to other (a)theoretical traditions of sex research, as this subarea seems to suffer from the same concerns of failures to replicate key effects (Elliot & Niesta, 2008; Lehmann, Elliot, Roberts, & Pollett, 2018; Lehmann & Calin-Jageman, 2017; Peperkoorn, Roberts, & Pollet, 2016). METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 9 unifying frameworks to serve as empirical score keepers, the field has continued to amass descriptive findings without any clear way to organize, explain, and synthesize its knowledge production. Over time, the absence of strong theory may compound in its impact on a field like sexual science (for specific arguments, see Weis, 1998a, 1998b, 2002), as Corely and Gioana

(2011) noted that a paucity of scientific framework for theorizing may contribute to subsequent difficulty constructing and quantifying strong theory in research.

The theoretical offerings of social psychology. Social psychology, it seems, is tailor- made as a companion discipline from which sexual scientists can draw scientific practices that meet a number of pressing scholastic needs. Indeed, a sexual scientist would find much to like about social psychology, but if they glanced at definitions of the field. Allport (1954), for example, offered that social psychologists attempt to understand how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, implied, or imagined presence of others; likewise. Likewise, sex is fundamentally interpersonal (e.g., dyadic or multi-partnered sexual interactions, identification within particular sexuality-related groups, the establishment of sexual norms within a given society, etc.,), and contains many interactive affective (e.g., levels of sexual desire), cognitive (e.g., states of sexual knowledge and/or belief), and behavioral elements

(e.g., particular sexual practices) that can be influenced by others (e.g., partners, friends, educators, therapists, nurses, parents, etc.,); even the less interpersonal aspects of sexuality (e.g., masturbation) can be accommodated by social psychological perspectives (e.g., imagined partners in sexual fantasies)!

Whereas sexual science may be lacking in theoretical offerings, social psychology, as a field, has theory to spare. It is in our science-culture DNA: “there is nothing as practical as a good theory” (Lewin, 1943, p. 118). Social psychologists inspired by this maxim have gone on to METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 10 produce a legion of theories, from those more intuitive and/or mundane (e.g., Theory of

Reasoned Action, Fishbein, 1979) to those more elaborate (e.g., Uncertainty-Identity Theory,

Hogg, 2007) or even bizarre (Terror Management Theory, Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski,

1991), and many with incredibly rich traditions of scholarship (e.g., Social Identity Theory, ,

Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Further, theories in social psychology are available to inform investigations into the multitude of concepts embedded in the field’s definitions: from attitudes

(Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2007) to zealous beliefs (Swann Jr., Jetten, Gómez, Whitehouse, &

Bastian, 2012), there is likely a social psychological theory that can speak to the formation, maintenance, responsiveness, and change of a particular psychological variable within and across social contexts. Thus, an interested sexual scientist would be spoiled for theoretical choice if inclined to situate their research within a social psychology paradigm.

Although the preoccupation with theory may have laid the groundwork for certain disciplinary problems (e.g., replicability, p-hacking, theoretical allegiance, etc., see Nelson,

Simmons, & Simonsohn, 2018), we think it reasonable to claim that social psychologists may have benefited their field by focusing their empirical discourse at the level of theories, as opposed to quibbling about individual subordinate observations/findings. Thus, by drawing on social psychological theories, the multi-disciplinary field of sexual science could similarly benefit from drawing inspiration from the theories in social psychology.

We hedge in proselytizing the ostensible virtues of theory, because of course, the benefits of theory (social psychological or otherwise) can only be realized if the theory in question is any good. Here, we do not mean to suggest that the “goodness” of theory is synonymous with its correctness, but rather, is intimately tied up in utilitarian and epistemic features, such as conceptual clarity, coherence, testability, and the like (see Sussman & Sussman, 2001). For METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 11 social psychological theory to benefit neighboring fields like sexual science (or even social psychology itself), concepts and processes of the theory need to adequately capture the phenomenon under study, and would-be users of the theory must therefore somehow be able to wrap their minds around the major elements of the theory, derive reasonably defensible and informative predictions from the theory, and be able to substantively interpret their observations in such a way that can inform the current state of the theory.

Moreover, we by no means are attempting to argue that social psychology offers a theoretical utopia for interested sexual scientists. Indeed, the state of theorizing in social psychology more broadly has been the subject of periodic critique. Some have argued, for example, that social psychology suffers from “theory-shyness”, preferring mid-range theories to more ambitious high-level theorizing (Kruglanski, 2001). In turn, this theory shyness can lead to fragmentation in the field—a failure to notice commonalities in the field and existing concepts

(e.g., Marsh, Craven, Hinkley, & Debus, 2003; Moreland, 2010)—and to a failure to “push the envelope” of theorizing to new heights (Kruglanski & Higgins, 2004). In other words, failing to construct and apply original and ambitious theory may lead to a lack of originality in theorizing, and may halt the advancement of theoretical progress in the field. Even so, whereas theorizing in social psychology may stand to be improved in an absolute sense, it seems apparent to us that it is in a relatively healthier state of theorizing than atheoretical sexual science.

Metatheory: Theory as Empirical Subject

Assessments of the state of theory in a given field--like social psychological theories relevant to sexuality--need not be relegated to superficial armchair argumentation. Rather theory, like individual psychology, can be studied in a systematic empirical fashion--a process described by some as “metatheory” (Wallis, 2010 ). Metatheory is broadly defined as the “scientific theory METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 12 of scientific theorizing” (Meehl, 1992, p. 340). In other words, metatheory is a specific kind of theorizing which is designed to evaluate and conceptualize existing theories, while identifying overarching themes and assumptions. Abrams and Hogg (2004) likened metatheory to a good travel guide – it tells you “where to go and where not to go” with theory. Although there is little agreement on the exact definition and operationalization of metatheory, it is often conceptualized as being informed by theory and applied to create novel research questions and systematically study existing theory (Finkel, 2014). Metatheory provides a framework from which a variety of seemingly disparate phenomena can be integrated systematically as a means of facilitating theory development (Abrams & Hogg, 2004). Specifically, the aim metatheory is to improve our understanding of how science “works” and systematically discern which factors contribute to an effective versus an ineffective theory (Meehl, 1993). The interlocking principles of metatheory allow for the observation of what does and does not qualify as an acceptable theory (Wallis,

2010). Given the concerns about theory in social psychology (e.g., Kruglanski & Higgins, 2004) and the theoretical vacuum in sexual science, we see the application of metatheory to scientifically evaluate social psychological theories for sexuality as an informative and valuable opportunity.

Metatheory Methods and Applications

Historically, three metatheoretical methodologies have been applied ranging from the most simplistic to the most complex in the following order: (i) the categorization of theory (ii) the construction [and deconstruction] of theory and (iii) the critical analysis of theory.

Theory categorization. A surface-level metatheoretical approach is to simply categorize existing theory by range, type, and purpose of the theory. Identifying ‘what kind of theory’ is being analyzed is an important first step in a metatheoretical review (Steiner, 1998). METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 13 Categorization allows for a description and organization of the current theories based on overarching themes derived from the literature. At the most basic level, theories can be categorized by objective properties such as: year developed, central theorist, description of the theory, and the purpose or application of the theory (Wallis, 2010). Additionally, theories can be categorized into a scaled range of theory. Beginning with single units of analysis, building to mid-range theory (where most social science theorizing is done), to grand theory, and finally to metatheory (Ritzberg, 2001). Wallis (2010) highlights the importance of including a range of theories when conducting a metatheoretical review, but in order to do so effectively, similarities between theories must be extrapolated. The analysis of the categories which define theories is critical because it provides context to theory construction and application. Yet, it is important to note that categorization does not actively analyze the theory or draw conclusions about the effectiveness of theory, and therefore should not be the sole metatheoretical method used in theory analysis. Although these qualitative descriptions contribute to formulating a picture of the current state of theory, they fail to quantify how helpful these levels of theories are as applied to the specific research area of question.

Constructing [and deconstructing] theory. Effective theory construction is commonly highlighted as the most pivotal component to advancing scientific research (Kruglanski &

Higgins, 2004; Reiss, 1999). Judging what constitutes ‘good’ theory a thorough understanding of the theory construction process. Within and between disciplines, there is little consensus on how to construct ‘good’ theory. The analysis of theory construction through deconstruction and reconstruction processes allows for the identification and evaluation of the ‘goodness’ of the theory. This metatheoretical approach focuses on validating theory from within the composition of the theory itself. METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 14 Theory deconstruction refers to the dismantling of theory into core constructs and propositions (Lakatos, 1983). Similarly, Meehl (2004) proposed that to understand a theory it is necessary to outline and operationalize the constructs and processes (associations between constructs) to understand what constitutes effective theorizing. We consider the deconstruction process vital to establishing the clarity constructs and the coherence of the relation amongst these constructs, or the processes. Shepard and Suddaby (2017) argue:

“The act of naming a core construct early in the process of theorizing is a critically important step because even though the theoretical narrative is not yet clear and the construct itself is still somewhat fuzzy, the act of putting a formal name to the phenomenon of interest is an essential step in conceptually separating one’s phenomenon from the mass “noise” of our everyday empirical experience and/or separating one’s core construct from the mass “noise” of prior research” (p. 65).

The aim of deconstruction is to not only understand the essence of a theory, but to be able to compare theories in a meaningful way.

Theory deconstruction typically involves the analysis of core and periphery constructs and processes (see, Lakatos, 1970; Meehl, 1992; Wallis, 2014). The core-periphery distinction was originally introduced via the Lakatosian “hard core” and “protective belt” notion. For

Lakatos, the hard core referred to the basic propositions of the theory; whereas, the protective belt described the additional “ad hoc” hypotheses (Lakatos, 1970). Following from this conceptualization, a core-periphery distinction applied has later been utilized by Meehl (1992) and other metatheorists. In more contemporary conceptualizations, core constructs and processes are those which are definitive of the theory itself; whereas, peripheral (belt) constructs or processes are more systemic (Wallis, 2014). A heart-body analogy is useful for conceptualizing the core-periphery distinction: the core is the “heart” of the theory, and the peripheral is the

“body” which supports the heart. The heart-body analogy is particularly useful because much like the body is dependent on the heart, a theory is dependent on its core; yet, all the external METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 15 processes of the body contribute and interact with the heart. See Figure 1 (below) for a visual depiction of the core-periphery distinction. The deconstruction process allows for the evaluation of a theory’s usefulness, the ease of use and the behavioural intention as they relate to the falsifiability of a theory (Hovorka, Birt, Larsen & Finnie, 2012). Meehl (1992b) asserts that

Lakatos’ distinction between core and periphery constructs is “a necessary feature, improving on the simple tally of true and false postulates” (p. 688). Specifically Meehl (1992b) views this distinction as an index of verisimilitude (the truthfulness of a theory).

Figure 1. Visual representation of the core-periphery distinction.

Theory reconstruction involves putting the deconstructed aspects of theory back together in a meaningful way. Theory mapping is a commonly used theory reconstruction method, which involves visually representing links between constructs. Gray (2017) created a rigorous guide to theory mapping, including a theory mapping legend(see Figure 2) and specific guidelines. Based on Gray’s (2017) theory mapping protocol each variable is labeled a latent (i.e., cannot be METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 16 measured directly, e.g., an attitude) or observable (i.e., can be measured directly, e.g., behavior), core or peripheral, and unique or common, based on the operationalization of these variables from the deconstruction phase. Similarly, processes, or associations between variables in each theory, can be identified as: positive, negative, or empirically equivalent and core or periphery.

The causal direction of association can be visualized with directional arrows. According to Gray

(2017), correlations between constructs that are of a “sufficient size (e.g., r > .8) are empirically equivalent and therefore lack divergent validity—[and are] indicated by a line marked with ≈ ” (p. 6). The final element we included in the theory map was varieties or examples of a construct. For example,

‘diffuse’ and ‘specific’ were included as varieties of feelings of certainty in the Uncertain Identity Theory. As Gray (2017) notes including varieties and examples are important because many psychological constructs have a variety of fundamental elements that are critical to understanding the context of the theory overall. METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 17

Figure 2. Theory mapping legend.

Critical analyzing theory. Critical analysis in the most systematic and comprehensive tool for theory validation. The macro-level analysis takes the components of ‘good’ theory and utilizes a systematic method for determining the quality of the theory. Critically evaluating and analyzing theory is critical for identifying strengths and weaknesses of theories overall, and provides a meaningful way to draw comparisons between theories.

Numerous criteria have been proposed to describe which elements that are necessary to produce a ‘good’ theory. Good theories are defined as plausible, testable and have heuristic values so it can be applied across domains (Sussman & Sussman, 2001). In a related formulation,

Van Lange (2012) proposes the ‘TAPAS’ criterion for ‘good’ theory. The ‘TAPAS’ acronym stands for theory which is: testable, utilizes abstraction (i.e., describe theory in terms of general concepts and assumptions), contributes to the progress of the field (i.e., goes beyond what is already known), and is widely applicable (as standards). Albeit, these broad criteria only brush the surface of the criterion often applied to theory evaluation. Metatheoretical reviews will provide insight on what aspects of theories necessitate ‘good’ theory and inform these current practices. METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 18 The lists of methods proposed to evaluate theory are often extensive. For example,

Wallis (2010) suggests that theory can be evaluated based on its level of abstraction, generalizability, credibility, linkage between factors, uniqueness, complexity, robustness, and a variety of other factors. However, more broad themes in theory verification are also noted. For instance, Meehl (2004) proposed theories are evaluated based on the number corroborating (or dis-corroborating facts), the diversity of facts derived, novelty of facts derived, statistical precision of facts derived, and the reducibility of the theory. These samples of the impressive array of tests that can be applied to evaluate theory and metatheory make it difficult to determine which methods are the most effective theory.

The most prominent tools used to determine the acceptability of a theory that have emerged from the literature include: falsification, parsimony, and verisimilitude. Popper (2005) proposed a scientific epistemology called falsifications—the explicit description of results which would disconfirm a theory—to distinguish scientific from unscientific work. Falsification is a valuable tool for theory analysis because it allows for the quantification of effective theory. That is, a theory is considered acceptable if it can be falsified. The Lakatosian defense aims to supplement the falsification theory by highlighting the importance of multiple corroborations for the validation of a theory (Lakatos, 1978). However, the Lakatosian defence may be problematic, especially for the “soft-sciences” like social psychology and sexuality because they tend to rely on correlational data. This is problematic because it is nearly impossible to find a correlation of zero (i.e., the “crud” factor), therefore all corroborations may not be meaningful (Meehl, 1992).

Parsimony—the most simplistic and succinct theory is superior—is argued to be the most used and the most problematic for the verification of theory (Meehl, 2002). The operationalization of parsimony varies between studies. It may refer to the simplest curve, METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 19 economy of postulates or concepts, or Occam’s razor. The lack of clarity in what constitutes simplicity and why simplicity is superior in every case are the central short-comings of this approach.

Finally, Meehl (2002) proposes that verisimilitude is the most pragmatic and effective tool for analyzing theory. Verisimilitude the approximation of the factual truth of the theory, and can be measured via statistical analysis to determine the success or failure of a theory (Meehl,

2002). This approach quantifies elements of falsification, allows for the comparison of the effectiveness of parsimony versus complexity and it is correlated with the number of corroboration (Meehl, 2004). Thus, verisimilitude is considered the “best approximation to a gold standard criterion” (Meehl, 1992, p. 377) for evaluating theory.

Table 1 Summary of Previously Proposed Theory Evaluation Criteria.

Theorist Proposed Theory Evaluation Criteria

Wallis (2010) Level of abstraction, generalizability, credibility, linkage between factors, uniqueness, complexity, robustness, and a variety of other factors. Van Lange (2012) TAPAS (truth, abstraction, progress, and applicability) criteria Meehl (2004) Number corroborating (or dis-corroborating) facts, the diversity, novelty and statistical precision of facts derived (verisimilitude), and the reducibility of the theory (parsimony)

Popper (2005) Falsifiability

Lakatos (1978) Falsifiability and multiple corroborations (i.e., Lakatosian defence)

The Present Metatheoretical Review

The dearth of theory in sexual science positions social psychology as a potentially powerful theoretically rich neighboring academic field from which to draw. However, whatever METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 20 gains there are to be had in such a multidisciplinary endeavour are contingent on the quality of theoretical offerings in social psychology that are applicable to the study of sexuality. In the present metatheoretical review, we there provide a comprehensive review of theory in social psychology as applied to sexual science. Our objectives were to categorize and critically analyse current theory in order to: (i) develop a deeper understanding of the current state of social psychology and sexuality theory (ii) provide visual representations (i.e., theory maps) for each theory to streamline future theory testing (iii) evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of current social psychology theories as well as their applications to sexual science. Building a scientific framework for theory and metatheory in social psychology and sexuality is an essential first step in progressing research within these disciplines.

A variety of metatheoretical methodologies have been put forth in the literature (i.e.,

Lakatos, 1978; Meehl, 2004; Popper, 2005; Wallis, 2010; Van Lange, 2012). We relied on three broad metatheoretical approaches: theory categorization, theory deconstruction/reconstruction and critical analysis. Following from Wallis’s (2010) recommendation, we first categorize each theory by objective properties such as: year developed, central theorist, definition of the theory, and the purpose or application of the theory. The aim of theory categorization is to empirically organize theory to keep a record of basic theory information and discern how these theories are defined and applied in the literature.

Next, we used a theory deconstruction and reconstruction metatheoretical approach.

Theory deconstruction (and reconstruction) allows for the evaluation of the internal coherence of a theory and the ability to compare theories on a structural level (Wallis, 2016). We deconstructed each theory by identifying and evaluating the basic compositional components, namely, variables and processes (i.e., associations between variables). From here, we METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 21 reconstructed the theory using a visual, theory mapping, methodology to rebuild these basic compositional components to represent the key hypotheses and assumptions of each theory. theory maps are meant to complement the diagrams of mediation models and Structural Equation

Modeling, not replace them”(Gray, 2017, p. 733). By using a theory mapping methodology we are able to determine the clarity of the interconnectedness among theory constructs and thereby evaluate the effectiveness of the central hypotheses made by the theory based on the layout of these processes.

Methods

Theory Selection

We included forty-four social psychology theories in the current metatheoretical review, selected from both volumes of Van Lange, Kruglanski & Higgins (2012; hereafter, the

Handbook). We thought the Handbook provided a reasonable selection of social psychological theories for several reasons. First, the Handbook is one of the most recent and comprehensive summaries of widely used theories in social psychology. Secondly, the theories contained in the

Handbook are, for the most part, generalist social psychological theories, which is to say that they were not developed with sexuality or sexual science applications specifically in mind; they therefore represent theories that could plausibly be imported to enrich the theoretical landscape of sexual science. Finally, we used the selection in the Handbook because Van Lange,

Kruglanski and Higgins (2012) evaluated each theory using the aforementioned TAPAS criterion, implying that the theories contained in the handbook possess some minimally appreciative level of validity, generalizability, generativity, and utility.

All theories included were subjectively categorized as mid-range theories (apart from the evolutionary theory, classified as a grand theory) by Van Lange and colleagues (2010), given METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 22 their more limited scope and specific phenomena of interest (Kruglanski, 2001). Evolutionary theory, by contrast, is sometimes considered a theoretical framework, as opposed to an independent theory. However, we included evolutionary theory in the current review because it is frequently used in social psychology and sexuality research and fell within our other inclusion criteria. These theories were selected because of their widespread use in social psychology and their salience to topics of sexual science. Therefore, we were able to provide clear depictions of how theories have been applied and corroborated in past research and create a more comprehensive understanding of the potential shortcomings of the theory.

We excluded theories from the current review if the theory was classified as a grand theory (theoretical framework), including a theory of individualism and collectivism, a theory of cooperation-competition, and the stereotype content model or if the theory lacked relevance or supporting research in modern social psychology, including shared reality theory, a theory of impulse and reflection and the evaluative space theory.

Metatheory Review Components

We evaluated each theory through processes of theory categorization, application, deconstruction, and reconstruction.

Theory categorization. First, we categorized each theory by the level of analysis, or broad overarching themes, delineated within the Handbook, namely: biological-based, cognitive, motivational/affective, interpersonal, and cultural-level theories (see, Van Lange, Kruglanski &

Higgins, 2012). Next, we listed the original theorist(s) responsible for developing and establishing the theory. In instances in which an original theory was restored and reconceptualized by a modern theorist, the names of both the original theorist(s) and modern theorist(s) were included. Third, we recorded the year theory was developed based on the year of METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 23 the original publication, or as a date range (i.e., 1970s) to signify the development and refinement of the theory over the corresponding years. Finally, we cite the original publication based on the following criteria (in priority order): (i) the first recorded publication of the theory by the original theorist(s) (ii) the most widely cited publication of the theory by the original author (iii) the most comprehensive review of the theory by the original author; in addition to their descriptive utility, we suspect these resources will help aspiring theory-users identify the key references needed to get up to speed within a given theory.

Theory definition. We also included a definition of each theory, in the original theorist(s) own words as a direct quotation or in a paraphrased definition. The purpose of providing definitions was to ensure the author's original conceptualization of the theory was captured. We derived these definitions from either the original publication, the most recent publication, or the most comprehensive publication, selecting definitions based on the clarity of the statement and the extent to which the statement captured the theorist(s)’s discussion of the core variables and processes of the theory.

Theory applications.

General application. We derived the general application of each theory from the theorist’s description, as well as additional reading on the development and use of the theory in the generalist social psychology literature. In particular, we coded the description of the application of the theory in the theorist’s own words or a succinct summary of the application based on a thorough review of the original publication of the theory. Our objective for recording theory applications was to identify the key postulations of the theory and describe how it was intended to be used. In an ideal prototypical format, the general application of a theory would be described in the following format: theory ‘t’ postulates ‘x,’ ‘y,’ and ‘z’ (key arguments or METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 24 assumptions), therefore, ‘a’ (is applied in this way). For instance, the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) application reads: according to the TPB, the likelihood of an individual completing an action is determined by their attitudes, subjective norms, intentions, and perceived behavioral control. Incorporating perceived behavioral control allows for the explanation of behaviors that are both within and outside of an individual's control.

Application to sexual science. We then identified one or more examples how each theory has been applied to sexual science. We applied a ‘no applications found’ label if this search yielded no relevant applications to sexual science. The purpose of providing applications to sexual science was to depict how theories have been used in sexual science. In addition, these applications provide concrete examples of how the processes and variables included in social psychology theory could be effectively applied to sexual science topics.

Theory Deconstruction

We deconstructed each theory to characterize its key variables and processes. In doing so, we first classified each variable and process (i.e., association between two variables) in a given theory into either core or peripheral classifications (Lakatos 1978a; 1978b). Theory deconstruction is considered an important metatheoretical methodology because it breaks down the implicit assumptions of the theory into core components that can be analyzed and compared to existing theories (Ritzer, 1998; Wallace, 2010). Subsequently, we identified each variable and process as either unique to a particular theory, or common to a number of theories. Specifically, we applied a ‘unique’ classification if a given variable or processes (e.g., ‘mortality salience’ in

Terror Management Theory) was not well-researched, or drawn primarily from another theory.

We applied a ‘common’ classification, conversely, to well-researched variables or processes that feature in (sometimes many) other theories (e.g., ‘motivation,’ in Self-Determination Theory, or METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 25 ‘ attitude,’ in Cognitive Dissonance theory).

Theory Reconstruction

We reconstructed each theory using a specific visualization method, namely theory mapping--a visual modality used to characterize key variables, and the association between variables. The operationalization and classification of the theory elements (deconstruction phase) were incorporated into this visual representation. Theory reconstruction is helpful because it operationalizes the connections of theories and creates a meaningful way to empirically evaluate the validity and reliability of a theories key propositions (Gray, 2017).

Results

Theory Categorization

Theory descriptives. Table 2 summarizes the theory descriptives, including the theory name, level of analysis, year of publication and central theorists. The year theories were established ranged from the 1950s-2010s, with the majority being established before 2000

(approximately 88%). The average year of publication was in the 1980s (approximately 1984).

The trends in the popularity type of theory--biological, cognitive, motivational and affective, group and cultural and interpersonal theories--changes with the year of publication. As seen in

Figure 3, there is a positive trend signifying an increase in theorizing between 1940 and 2000, aside from biologically rooted theories which remained consistently low (2 total). There is a notable increase in motivation/affective theory and cognitive theories between 1980 and 2000. In general, there is a lack of contemporary theorizing with the majority of theories categorized as affective/motivational or cognitive.

Table 2 Theory Descriptives METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 26

Theory Level of analysis Year Central Theorist(s) Evolutionary Theory Biological 1950s E.O.Wilson', Karl Von Frisch & Konrad Lorenz Tend and befriend theory Biological 2000 Shelley E. Taylor Accessibility theory Cognitive 1987 Edward Tory Higgins Construal Level Theory Cognitive 1990s Nira Liberman & Yaacov Trope A Theory of Social Information Cognitive 1990s Robert S. Wyer, Jr. Processing Balanced-Logic Theory Cognitive 1975 Chester A. Insko (modern); Fritz (modern); Heider (Historical) 1958 (historical) Lay Epistemic Theory Cognitive 1980 Arie W. Kruglanski The Elaboration Likelihood Cognitive 1980 John T. Cacioppo model A Theory of Heuristic and Cognitive 1980 Shelley Chaiken Systematic Information Feelings as Information Theory Cognitive 1980 Norbert Schwarz

The Linguistic Category Model Cognitive 1988 Gün R Semin

Action Identification Theory Cognitive 1985 Robin Vallacher & Daniel Wegner An Attribution Theory of Cognitive 1946 Fritz Heider Motivation Theory of Reasoned Action Motivational/affective 1980 Icek Ajzen & Martin Fishbein Theory of Planned Behaviour Motivational/affective 1985 Icek Ajzen

Self-determination Theory Motivational/affective 1985 Richard M. Ryan & Edward L. Deci Social Comparison Theory Motivational/affective 1954 Leon Festinger Terror Management theory Motivational/affective 1986 Jeff L. Greenberg, Tom Pyszczynski & Sheldon S. Solomon Cognitive Dissonance Theory Motivational/affective 1957 Leon Festinger Regulatory Focus Theory Motivational/affective 1997 Edward Tory Higgins Mindset Theory of Action Motivational/affective 1987 Peter Gollwitzer Phases Self-Control Theory Motivational/affective 1970s Walter Mischel Self-Verification Theory Motivational/affective 1983 Willam Swann METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 27

Uncertainty-Identity Theory Motivational/affective 2000 Michael A. Hogg Optimal Distinctiveness Motivational/affective 1991 Marrilynn B. Brewer Theory A Model of Behaviour Self- Motivational/affective 1981 Charles Carver & Michael F. Regulation Scheier A Cognitive-Neoassociation Motivational/affective 1990 Leonard Berkowitz Theory of Aggression Implicit theories Motivation/affective 2001 Allen R. McConnell Theory of Interpersonal level 1986 Margret S. Clark & Judson R. Communal/Exchange Mills Relationships Sociometer theory Interpersonal level 1999 Mark R. Leary Social Role Theory Interpersonal level 1978 Alice H. Eagly & Wendy Wood Need-to-belong theory Interpersonal level 1995 Roy F. Baumeister & Mark R. Equity Theory in Close Interpersonal level 2007 Elaine Hatfield and Richard L. Relationships Rapson The Investment Model of Interpersonal level 1980 Caryl E. Rusbult Commitment Interdependence Theory Interpersonal level 1959 Harold Kelley & John Thibaut System Justification Theory Group and Cultural 1994 John Jost & Mahzarin Banaji Justice theory Group and Cultural 1988 Tom R. Tyler & E. Allen Lind Minority Influence Theory Group and Cultural 1969 Serge Moscovici Social Identity Theory Group and Cultural 1970s Henru Tajfel & John C. Turner Self-categorization theory Group and Cultural 1975 John C. Turner Social dominance theory Group and Cultural 1999 Jim Sidanius & Felicia Pratto The common ingroup identity Group and Cultural 2010s Samuel L. Gaertner & John F. model Dovidio Social Representation Theory Group and Cultural 1961 Serge Moscovici The Focus Theory of Group and Cultural 1990s Robert Beno Cialdini, Raymond Normative Conduct R. Reno, & Carl A. Kallgren

METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 28

Figure 3. Accumulation of theory types by year of publication. Theory definitions. Table 3 includes a definition of each theory as described by the original theorist or relevant contemporary theorist. It was often difficult to locate a clear theory definition in the original theorist’s own words (or in theory’s original formulation). Some common barriers to finding an appropriate definition included, a lack of a succinct definition, a failure to include the core constructs in the definition, and theory definitions that lacked specificity. With regards to the first barrier, ellipses were commonly used in the definition to reduce the length In terms of the lack of core constructs in the definition, some theorists describe some, but not all core constructs. For example, Balance Logic Theory (defined below) describes the need for psychological balance, but fails to include the core constructs of the theory, namely

‘person,’ ‘object’ and ‘other.’ Finally, other theories were defined in vague terms that were not METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 29 easily operationalized. For instance, the Model of Self-Regulation theory is defined as the

“information regarding the outcome of one’s action and the subsequent guidance it provides are

[the basic elements of] self-regulation” (Carver & Scheier, 1982, p.124). This definition does not include the specific information required to understand the central theory arguments. Although there were barriers to finding strong definitions for each theory, we were able to find adequate definitions for most theories.

Table 3 Theory Definitions Theory Definition Evolutionary Theory “Evolutionary psychology is simply the scientific study of thought, emotion, and behavior, in light of a general adaptationist framework. This framework includes two general assumptions: (a) All organisms living today are descendants of ancestors efficiently designed to survive and (more important) reproduce, and (b) successful survival and reproduction is usually accomplished most efficiently by living systems composed of domain-specific mechanisms” (Kendrick, 2006, p. 102) Tend and befriend theory "Human female responses to stress ... are not well characterized by fight-or-flight, as research has implicitly assumed, but rather are more typically characterized by a pattern we term "tend-and- befriend" ... we suggest that, by virtue of differential parental investment, female stress responses have selectively evolved to maximize the survival of self and offspring... females respond to stress by nurturing offspring, exhibiting behaviors that protect them from harm and reduce neuroendocrine responses that may compromise offspring health (the tending pattern), and by befriending, namely affiliating with social groups to reduce risk" (Taylor et al., 2000, p. 411). Accessibility theory Accessibility theory uses the concept of accessibility to explain how information is processed: "Accessibility refers to the readiness with which each stored construct is used in information processing" (Higgins, 1987, p. 320). Construal Level Theory "Temporal construal theory states that distant future situations are constructed on a higher level (i.e., using more abstract and central features) than near future situations. Accordingly, the theory suggests that the value associated with the high-level construal is enhanced over delay and that the value associated with the low- METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 30

level construal is discounted over delay. In goal-directed activities, desirability of the activity's end state represents a high-level construal, whereas the feasibility of attaining this end state represents a low-level construal" (Liberman & Trope, 1998, p. 5). A Theory of Social “The model specifies several stages of processing en route to a Information Processing judgment or behavioral decision (comprehension, organization in memory, inference, integration, and the generation of an overt response). The processing at these stages can be either deliberative or automatic. More specific theoretical formulations of comprehension, inference, judgment, and decision making can often be conceptualized in terms of the cognitive operations that occur at different stages of processing and the factors that influence their activation and use (Wyer, 2011, p. 2)” Balanced-Logic Theory Balance theory is a motivational theory of attitude change proposed by Fritz Heider (1958) which conceptualizes the consistent human motivator as a drive toward psychological balance. Heider proposes that “sentiment” or liking relationships are balanced if the affect valence in a system multiplies out to a positive result. Lay Epistemic Theory “The theory of lay epistemics concerns the process of knowledge formation. It outlines a general framework designed to pertain to all kinds of knowledge, scientific and lay, including personal knowledge of people and the world, religious knowledge, political knowledge, etc.” (Kruglanski, Dechesne, Orehek & Pierro, 2009, p.148) The Elaboration "The model proposes that people are neither universally thoughtful Likelihood model in evaluating persuasive messages nor universally mindless. Instead, a variety of individual and situational factors will determine how much cognitive effort a person devotes to processing a message. The ELM postulates a continuum of message elaboration anchored at the high end by what we have called the central route to persuasion, and at the low end by what we have called the peripheral route to persuasion. " (Petty & Cacioppo, 1984, p.668). A Theory of Heuristic and “In essence, a systematic view of persuasion emphasizes detailed Systematic Information processing of message content and the role of message based cognitions in mediating opinion change, whereas a heuristic view de-emphasizes detailed information processing and focuses on the role of simple rules or cognitive heuristics in mediating persuasion” (Chaiken, 1980, p. 752). Feelings as Information "Feelings-as-information theory conceptualizes the role of Theory subjective experiences – including moods, emotions, metacognitive experiences, and bodily sensations – in judgment. It assumes that METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 31

people attend to their feelings as a source of information, with different feelings providing different types of information. Whereas feelings elicited by the target of judgment provide valid information, feelings that are due to an unrelated influence can lead us astray. The use of feelings as a source of information follows the same principles as the use of any other information" (Schwarz, 2012, p. 2). The Linguistic Category According to the Linguistic Model Category Model, "four linguistic Model categories are organized along a dimension of concreteness- abstractness and that their systematic ordering along this dimension is related to the cognitive implications of the linguistic terms as measured by the five dependent variables ... as one moves from DAVs [Descriptive Action Verbs] to lAVs [Interpretive Action Verbs to SVs [State Verbs], and, finally, to Adjs [Adjectives], subject informativeness increases, situative informativeness decreases, and the sentence appears more endurable, less verifiable, and more likely to be the object of disagreement or dispute" (Semin & Fiedler,1988, p.563). Action Identification “The essence of the Action Identification theory is that the Theory identification of one's action, though highly variable in principle, is ultimately constrained by reality. Through the interplay of three processes, each framed as a principle of the theory, people are said to gravitate toward an identification of action that proves effective in maintaining the action” (Vallacher & Wegner, 1987, p.4). An Attribution Theory of An Attribution Theory of Motivation asserts that “individuals Motivation search for causal understanding, with expectancy disconfirmation and negativity (e.g., nonattainment of a goal) key antecedents of causal search; there are lists of perceived causes for many outcomes and states but typically a few are most salient, such as ability and effort as causes of achievement success and failure; causes share three properties: locus, stability, and controllability, so that they differ quantitatively as well as qualitatively and can be compared on these causal dimensions; and finally, for some causes such as aptitude and chance there is high interpersonal agreement on their properties, whereas for other causes such as effort there may be lower between-person reliability concerning dimensional characteristics, particularly with regard to stability”(Weiner, 2018, p.7). Theory of Reasoned "Theory of reasoned action .... assumed that most human social Action behavior is under volitional control and, hence, can be predicted from intentions alone. The construct of perceived behavioral control was added in an attempt to deal with situations in which people may lack complete volitional control over the behavior of interest" METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 32

(Ajzen, 2002, p.666) Theory of Planned “Attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms with respect to the Behaviour behavior, and perceived control over the behavior are usually found to predict behavioral intentions with a high degree of accuracy. In turn, these intentions, in combination with perceived behavioral control, can account for a considerable proportion of variance in behavior” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 206). Self Determination Theory “SDT [ self-determination theory] differentiates the content of goals or outcomes and the regulatory processes through which the outcomes are pursued, making predictions for different contents and for different processes. Further, it uses the concept of innate psychological needs as the basis for integrating the differentiations of goal contents and regulatory processes and the predictions that resulted from those differentiations. Specifically, according to SDT, a critical issue in the effects of goal pursuit and attainment concerns the degree to which people are able to satisfy their basic psychological needs as they pursue and attain their valued outcomes” (Deci & Ryan, 2000, p.227) Social Comparison Theory Social comparison theory (SCT) can be defined as a “process of thinking about information about one or more other people in relation to the self” (Wood, 1996). Terror Management According to the terror management theory, high self-esteem (i.e., Theory the extent to which one holds favorable views of oneself) reflects the successful participation in and internalization of a meaningful cultural worldview. By becoming a valued member of society, linked with like-minded others through shared ideals and beliefs, an individual can manage the potentially paralyzing terror of death and live life with relative equanimity. Conversely, low self-esteem reflects an ineffectual buffer against death anxiety due to failure to meet cultural standards of value. This view of self-esteem forms one of the core pillars of TMT (see Greenberg, Pyszczynski & Solomon, 1986). Cognitive Dissonance “Cognitive Dissonance can be seen as an antecedent condition Theory which leads toward activity oriented to dissonance reduction just as hunger leads to towards activity oriented toward hunger reduction” (Festinger, 1962, p.3) Regulatory Focus Theory Regulatory focus theory posits that people’s degree of promotion and prevention focus influences the nature and magnitude of their emotional reactions to success and failure" (Brockner & Higgins, 2001 p.38). Mindset Theory of Action "According to the mindset theory of action phases (i.e., MAP), goal METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 33

Phases pursuit can be divided into four successive but distinct action phases... Mindset theory of action phases is further based on the clear-cut distinction between motivational (i.e., the predecisional and the postactional phases, where the why of pursuing a goal is at issue) and volitional phases (i.e., the preactional and the actional phases, where the how of pursuing a goal is the central question). In the predecisional phase, individuals have to choose between many potential goals (wishes) and thus have to deliberate on feasibility- and desirability-related information, which benefits heavily from the activation of a deliberative mindset. By making a decision to pursue a certain goal, individuals are crossing the metaphorical Rubicon and move on to the preactional phase, where identifying opportunities to act in the future and the choice among strategies (i.e., planning out when, where, and how to act) is of high priority, and therefore an implemental mindset is beneficial. In the subsequent actional phase, individuals act toward the attainment of their chosen goal and direct their attention to cues that signal opportunities to act. In this phase, an actional mindset is activated. Finally, in the postactional phase, individuals evaluate their goal- striving efforts to make an informed decision about whether sufficient progress has been made to claim goal attainment or whether further action is needed, which necessitates an evaluative mindset” (Gollwitz & Kellar, 2016, p. 1). Self-Control Theory “A 2-system framework is proposed for understanding the processes that enable—and undermine—self-control or 'willpower' as exemplified in the delay of gratification paradigm. A cool, cognitive 'know' system and a hot, emotional 'go' system are postulated. The cool system is cognitive, emotionally neutral, contemplative, flexible, integrated, coherent, spatiotemporal, slow, episodic, and strategic. It is the seat of self-regulation and self- control. The hot system is the basis of emotionality, fears as well as passions—impulsive and reflexive—initially controlled by innate releasing stimuli (and, thus, literally under 'stimulus control'); it is fundamental for emotional (classical) conditioning and undermines efforts at self-control” (Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999, p. 3) Self-Verification Theory "Self-verification theory proposes that people prefer others to see them as they see themselves, even if their self-views happen to be negative" (Swann, 2012 p.24) Uncertainty-Identity "The core tenet of uncertainty-identity theory is that feelings of Theory uncertainty, particularly about or relating to who one is and how one should behave, motivate uncertainty-reduction, and that the process of self-categorization as a group member reduces self- conceptual uncertainty because it provides a consensually validated group prototype that describes and prescribes who one is and how METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 34

one should behave" (Hogg, 2012, p. 4) Optimal Distinctiveness "Optimal distinctiveness is a social psychological theory seeking to Theory understand ingroup–outgroup differences. It asserts that individuals desire to attain an optimal balance of inclusion and distinctiveness ''within'' and ''between'' social groups and situations" (Brewer, 2003). A Model of Behaviour Carver and Scheier (1982) argue that “information regarding the Self-Regulation outcome of one’s action and the subsequent guidance it provides are [the basic elements of] self-regulation” (p.124). A Cognitive- "I propose a cognitive neoassociationistic model to account for the Neoassociation Theory of effects of negative affect on the development of angry feelings and Aggression the display of emotional aggression. Negative affect tends to activate ideas, memories, and expressive-motor reactions associated with anger and aggression as well as rudimentary angry feelings. Subsequent thought involving attributions, appraisals, and schematic conceptions can then intensify, suppress, enrich, or differentiate the initial reactions. Bodily reactions as well as emotion-relevant thoughts can activate the other components of the particular emotion network to which they are linked" (Berkowitz, 1990, p. 494). Implicit Theories "Implicit theory proposes that entity theorists see others’ traits as fixed and stable, whereas incremental theorists see others’ traits as malleable and changeable. It was found that entity theorists formed on-line judgments and incremental theorists formed memory-based judgments of target individuals" (McConnell, 2001, p. 215). Theory of "In communal relationships, often exemplified by friendships and Communal/Exchange romantic relationships, people feel a special responsibility to Relationships another's welfare. They give benefits in response to another's needs or in order to please the other. In exchange relationships, often exemplified by acquaintances and business relationships, people feel no special responsibility for the other’s welfare. They give benefits with the expectation of receiving benefits in return or in response to benefit previously received” (Clark, 1986, p.414) Sociometer theory “According to sociometer theory, self-esteem serves as a subjective monitor of one's relational evaluation--the degree to which other people regard their relationships with the individual to be valuable, important, or close. Put somewhat differently, the self-esteem system monitors one's eligibility for lasting, desirable relationships, including membership in important small groups. The self-esteem system is essentially a sociometer that monitors the quality of an individual's interpersonal relationships and motivates behaviors that help the person to maintain a minimum level of acceptance by other METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 35

people” (Leary & Baumeister, 2000, p. 9). Social Role Theory Social role theory is a social-psychological theory that addresses differences and similarities in the social behavior of women and men. Its central tenet is that these differences and similarities result primarily from the distribution of women and men into social roles within their own society. Through the socialization directed to children and young people and the collective processes involved in forming and maintaining gender roles, the behaviors of men and women generally support and sustain the division of labor (Eagly & Wood, 2016a, p. 2). Need-to-belong theory "The need to belong is a fundamental need, then belonging to one group should satisfy it and hence obviate or reduce the need to belong to another group. People may be driven to form social bonds until they have a certain number, whereafter the drive to form attachments would presumably subside" (Baumeister & Leary, 1995, p. 498). Equity Theory in Close "Equity theory posits that in relationships, two concerns stand out: Relationships firstly, how rewarding are people’s social, family, and work relationships? Secondly, how fair, just, and equitable are those relationships? " (Rapson & Hatfield, 2012, p. 201) The Investment Model of "According to the investment model, attraction to and satisfaction Commitment with a relationship is a function of a comparison of the relationship outcome value (both rewards and costs) to the individual’s expectations, or comparison level. Commitment to a relationship is said to be a function not only of the relationship outcome value, but also the quality of the best available alternative and the magnitude of the individual’s investment in the relationship. The intrinsic or extrinsic investment of resources serves to increase commitment by increasing the costs of leaving the relationship. Thus, increases in investment size, decreases in alternative value, and increases in relationship value should increase commitment to an ongoing relationship" (Rusbult, 1980, p. 172). Interdependence Theory Kelley (2003) explains that the "interdependence theory provides a systematic account of certain key interpersonal properties of situations, as well as the individual’s response to those properties, as the causal determinants of social interaction. The term “interdependence” refers to the manner in which two individuals influence each other’s outcomes in the course of their interaction" (p.3). System Justification “System-justification refers to the psychological process whereby Theory an individual perceives, understands, and explains an existing situation or arrangement with the result that the situation or METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 36

arrangement is maintained” (Jost & Banaji, 1994, p.10). Justice theory The resource motive shaped judgments of distributive justice, whereas the relational motive shaped judgments of both distributive and procedural justice. Second, procedural justice is the primary justice judgment influencing affect and the willingness to accept third-party decisions, although distributive influences also occur” (Tyler, 1994, p. 857). Minority Influence Theory Minority influence theory argues that, “being consistent a minority is capable of influencing a majority at the level of verbal and perceptual responses” (Moscovici, Lage & Naffrechoux, 1969 p. 377). Social Identity Theory The social identity theory posits, that “the social identity of an individual conceived of as his knowledge that he belongs to certain social groups together with some emotional and value significance to him of his membership can only be defined through the effects of social categorizations segmenting an individual’s social environment into his own group and others. A social group will therefore, be capable of preserving its contribution to those aspects of an individual’s social identity which are positively valued by him only” (Tajfel, 1974, p. 72) Self-categorization theory Self Categorization theory, "is a theory of the nature of the self that recognizes that perceivers are both individuals and group member, explains how and when people will define themselves as individual and group entities and its implications, and examines the impact of this variability in self-perception (‘I’ to ‘we’) for understandings of mind and behaviour" (Turner & Reynolds, 2012, p. 2). Social dominance theory "Social dominance theory was developed in an attempt to understand how group-based social hierarchy is formed and maintained. Unlike most other theories of prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination in social psychology ... social dominance theory assumes that we must understand the processes producing and maintaining prejudice and discrimination at multiple levels of analysis, including cultural ideologies and policies, institutional practices, relations of individuals to others inside and outside their groups, the psychological predispositions of individuals, and the interaction between the evolved psychologies of men and women" (Pratto, Sidanus & Levin, 2006 p.272) The common ingroup The Common Ingroup Identity Model uses a recategorization identity model strategy, “whereby members of different groups are induced to conceive of themselves as a single, more inclusive superordinate group rather than as two completely separate groups ... the goal is to alter systematically the perception of intergroup boundaries, METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 37

redefining who is conceived of as an ingroup member, to reduce bias. If members of different groups are induced to conceive of themselves as a single more inclusive, superordinate group, rather than just as two completely separate groups, attitudes towards former outgroup members would be expected to become more positive through processes involving pro-ingroup bias, thereby reducing intergroup bias” (Dovidio, Gaertner & Saguy, 2007, p. 299). Social Representation “Social representations are systems of values, ideas and practices Theory which…enable communication to take place among the members of a community by providing them with a code for social exchange and a code for naming and classifying unambiguously the various aspects of their world and their individual and group history” (Moscovici, 1973, p. xiii). The Focus Theory of According to a focus theory of normative conduct to “predict Normative Conduct properly the likelihood of norm-consistent action requires, first, that one specify the type of norm—descriptive or injunctive—said to be operating. Second, one must take into account the various conditions that would incline individuals to focus attention on or away from the norm” (Cialdini, Reno & Kallgren, 1990, p.1024)

Theory Applications

General applications. See Table 4 for general applications of each theory. Each application provides a description of how the key propositions of each theory have been used in previous literature. Importantly, each application example aimed to include references to all the key variables of the theory.

Table 4 General Social Psychology Theory Applications. Theory General Application Evolutionary Theory Evolutionary psychology, or evolutionary theory, posits that all aspects of human behavior are driven by the need to survive, and sustain the human species. Tend and befriend According to the tend-befriend theory, adaptive, biobehavioural responses to theory stress differ between men and women. Men tend to "fight or flight"; whereas it is more adaptive for women to tend and/or befriend: "Tending involves nurturant activities designed to protect the self and offspring that promote METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 38

safety and reduce distress; befriending is the creation and maintenance of social networks that may aid in this process" (Taylor et al., 2000, p. 411). Accessibility theory The accessibility theory argues that individuals process information using the most readily accessible constructs and dismisses less readily available constructs of referents. Construal Level According to the construal level theory, "people traverse different Theory psychological distances by using similar mental construal processes. Because the various distances have the same egocentric reference point, they should all be cognitively related to each other and similarly affect and be affected by level of construal. As psychological distance increases, construals would become more abstract, and as level of abstraction increases, so too would the psychological distances people envisage. Construal levels thus expand and contract one’s mental horizon. The different distances should also similarly influence prediction, evaluation, and action, inasmuch as these outcomes are mediated by construal" (Trope & Liberman, 2010, p. 440). A Theory of Social “The social information processing approach proceeds from the fundamental Information premise that individuals, as adaptive organisms, adapt attitudes, behavior, and Processing beliefs to their social context and to the reality of their own past and present behavior and situation. This premise leads inexorably to the conclusion that one can learn most about individual behavior by studying the informational and social environment within which that behavior occurs and to which it adapts” (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978, p.226). Balanced-Logic According to the Balance logic theory, “it is both balanced and hedonic for a Theory positive self (+) to receive (+) a reward (+), and also to avoid (-) a cost (-). Likewise, it is imbalanced and anhedonic for a positive self (+) to receive (+) a cost (-) and to avoid (-) a reward (+). The parallel between balance and hedonism flows from the assumption of positive self-evaluation. Although this overlap between the multiplicative rule and hedonism may strike some as bizarre, note that the essential idea is captured in everyday, common parlance by the reference to "rational economic decisions” (Insko, 1999, p.133). Lay Epistemic Theory The lay epistemic theory proposes that, "knowledge-seeking behavior is initiated by a purpose that a person has for reaching a given inference and consists of the stages of problem formulation and of problem resolution, the latter stage being governed by the principle of logical consistency" (Kruglanski, 1980, p. 70). The Elaboration “When elaboration likelihood is high, issue-relevant thinking tends to be the Likelihood model most direct determinant of the recipient's reactions to the recommendation, whereas when elaboration likelihood is low, the more important determinant of persuasion tends to be cues that, although perhaps peripheral to the personal merits of the appeal, allow the recipient to attain a reasonable position without diligently considering the merits of the specific recommendation. Note that the specific stimulus or factor to which a subject is responding may be the same (e.g., a long list of strong arguments) the critical difference is the manner in which an individual relates this incoming information from her prior METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 39

knowledge” (Cacioppo & Petty, 1984, p. 673). A Theory of Heuristic “According to a systematic view, recipients' systematic and a heuristic view of and Systemic persuasion, exert considerable cognitive effort in performing this task: They Information actively attempt to comprehend and evaluate and evaluate the message's arguments as well as to assess their validity in relation to the message's conclusion. In contrast, according to a heuristic view of persuasion, recipients exert comparatively little effort in in partial fulfillment of the doctoral requirements judging message validity: Rather than processing argumentation, recipients may rely more accessible information such as the source s identity or other non- content cues in deciding to accept a message's conclusion” (Chaiken, 1980, p. 752). Feelings as According to the Feelings as information theory, subjective experiences such Information Theory as moods, emotions, metacognition and cognitive experience are a source of information in their own right that directly influence human cognition and decision making (see Schwarz & Clore, 2003 for details). The Linguistic The most frequent application of linguistic category model is to the Category Model attributional domain, that is the notion that "the attribution of behavior is largely predetermined by the choice of specific word classes which locate the behavior on the major attributional dimensions" (Semin & Fiedler, 1991, p. 13). Action Identification The action identification theory is applied through the following three Theory principles: (1) action maintained from prepotent identity (2) if both lower and higher order identity are available there is a tendency for the higher identity to become prepotent (3) when the action cannot be maintained in terms of prepotent identity then lower identity becomes more prepotent (Vallacher & Wegner, 1987). An Attribution Theory According to an Attribution Theory of Motivation, outcomes of an event lead of Motivation to outcome-dependent affect which in turn a break down of the causes: causal antecedents (e.g., specific information, biases), causal ascriptions (i.e., achievement, afficilation) and causal dimensions (i.e., locus, controllability stability) which in turn lead to both psychological and behavioural consequences. Theory of Reasoned According to the Theory of Reasoned Action, the likelihood of an individual Action completing an action is determined by their attitude’s subjective norms, and intentions. Theory of planned According to the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the likelihood of an individual behaviour completing an action is determined by their attitude’s subjective norms, intentions, and perceived behavioral control. Incorporating perceived behavioral control allows for the explanation of behaviors that are both within and outside of an individual's control. Self Determination The self-determination theory (SDT) posits that the type of motivation--- Theory amotivation, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation (with a specific focus on autonomous and controlled motivation) ---are predictive of behavioral outcomes (i.e., well-being, performance etc.). Further, the SDT METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 40

argues that the strength and type of motivation can be either strengthened or weakened by the individual's physiological need for autonomy, competence and relatedness. Social Comparison The social comparison theory (SCT) contends that people evaluate themselves Theory (i.e., their appearance, abilities, opinions etc.) by comparing themselves to others. More specifically, people seek others who are more similar to themselves in order to derive a more accurate comparison, which would be much more difficult with others who are different than they perceive themselves. Terror Management TMT posits that in order to manage the potential terror engendered by the theory awareness of mortality, people must sustain: (a) faith in a cultural worldview that imbues reality with order, meaning, and permanence and provides paths to literal and/or symbolic immortality for those who meet prescribed standards of value; and (b) belief that they are meeting standards of value prescribed in the culture at large (e.g., the feeling of self-esteem) (Greenberg, Vail & Pyszczynski, 2014). Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive dissonance theory postulates that when an individual's attitudes do Theory not match their beliefs, they will actively pursue ways to reduce the discomfort associated with this incongruence. Regulatory Focus Higgins (1997, 1998) suggested that there are important differences in the Theory process through which people approach pleasure and avoid pain. Higgins proposed two distinct hedonic self-regulatory systems, one in which people have a promotion focus and the other in which they have a prevention focus. People’s regulatory foci are composed of three factors which serve to illustrate the differences between a promotion focus and a prevention focus: (a) the needs that people are seeking to satisfy, (b) the nature of the goal or standard that people are trying to achieve or match, and (c) the psychological situations that matter to people (Brockner, Higgins & Low, 2004, p. 37) Mindset Theory of In the pursuit of a goal, the Mindset theory of action suggests that individuals Action Phases go through the four action phases: predicational, reactional, actional and postactional. At each phase, different obstacles must be overcome. Self-Control Theory The self-control theory is typically applied to the delay of gratification paradigm used with a child. Within this paradigm, the self-control theory implies that balancing the hot and cool systems in order to wait to receive a larger reward (delay gratification), rather than receiving a smaller reward immediately is linked to more positive outcomes. Self-Verification The self-verification theory proposed that individuals prefer others to perceive Theory them in the same way as they perceive themselves. For example, a depressed individual would prefer and elicit more negative feedback from others (i.e., matching or 'validating' theory self-perception). Uncertainty-Identity The uncertainty-identity theory suggests that behavior is motivated by the Theory desire to reduce feelings of uncertainty. Feelings of uncertainty are developed and can have specific or diffuse causes derived from the social context. Additionally, the motivation to reduce this uncertainty is influenced by METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 41

whether people are uncertainty oriented (e.g., seek out information to raise uncertainty) or certainty-oriented types (e.g., avoid situations that lead to uncertainty). Optimal The optimal distinctive theory suggests that individuals in a social context are Distinctiveness motivated to be similar to others (included in the in-group) while also Theory maintaining their own individual uniqueness. A Model of Behaviour According to the Model of Behavioral Self-regulation, feelings arise as a Self-Regulation product of feedback loops: "This process operates simultaneously with the behavior-guiding function and in parallel to it. One way to describe this second function is to say it's checking on how well the behavior loop is doing at reducing its discrepancies. Thus, the input for this second loop is a representation of the rate of discrepancy reduction in the action system over time" (p.52). A Cognitive- Berkowitz (1990) writes that according to the cognitive neoassociationistic Neoassociation model "there is an associative connection between negative affect and anger Theory of Aggression related feelings, ideas, and memories, and also with aggressive inclinations. According to this formulation, the negative affect generated by the aversive occurrence automatically gives rise to at least two sets of reactions at the same time: bodily changes, feelings, ideas, and memories associated with escape from the unpleasant stimulation and also bodily reactions, feelings, thoughts, and memories associated with aggression. (p. 496). Implicit theories The implicit theories imply that behaviour is guided by individuals common sense beliefs or implicit theories. Theory of Communal/ Theories of communal giving suggest that in communal relationships – such Exchange as those we have with family members, romantic partners, and close friends – Relationships people provide care non-contingently; that is, they give care to each other with little concern for what they will receive in return. Sociometer theory The sociometer theory is proposed to determine how individual's monitor their own relational value. More specifically, self-esteem is argued to be an internal gauge that is sensitive to their inclusion and exclusion outcomes with others, and this evolution motivates individuals to seek social acceptance from others (or not). Social Role Theory The social role theory is applied to predict sex-specific affect, cognition and behavior, and explain how this contributes to the formation and maintenance of gender roles. These gender roles are proposed to be a manifest of the division of labor which is determined by physical sex differences, and the individual's social/environmental context. Need-to-belong theory The 'need-to-belong' theory posits that humans require frequent interpersonal contact with others that is free of conflict and perceive that from the contact a lasting "interpersonal bond" or relationship has been established. Equity Theory in "According to equity theory, people feel most comfortable when they are Close Relationships getting exactly what they deserve from their relationships – no more and certainly no less" (Hatfield, Rapson & Aumer-Ryan, 2008, p.413) METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 42

The Investment Model Investment size (I,) is defined as "[I, = sum of wj*rj] where rj refers to the size of Commitment of the investment of resource j in relationship X, and wj refers to the importance of this resource" (Rusbult, 1980, p. 174). Interdependence According to the Interdependence theory, an analysis of variance table can be Theory used to predict how individuals will react to a situation: "The analysis of variance table below the matrix shows the three sources of variance in each person’s outcomes, that is, the three sources of control over each one’s outcomes: ( 1 ) the person’s own actions (Actor Control or AC), ( 2 ) the partner’s actions (Partner Control or PC), and ( 3 ) the interaction between their two actions (Actor-by-Partner Control, or Joint Control – JC) (Kelley, 2003, p. 34) OR "Expressed formally, I = f (S, A, B). To predict what will transpire in an interaction between two persons, we must consider (a) what situation they confront ...(b) person A's needs, thoughts, and motives with respect to this interaction (i.e., which traits or values are activated, how does he feel about person B?), and (c) person B's needs, thoughts, and motives with respect to this interaction. " (Van Lange & Rusbult, 2012, p. 3). System Justification “Advocates of system justification theory argue that (a) there is a general Theory ideological motive to justify the existing social order (b) this motive is at least partially responsible for the internalization of inferiority among members of disadvantaged groups, (c) it is observed most readily at an implicit, nonconscious level of awareness and (d) paradoxically, it is sometimes strongest among those who are most harmed by the status quo” (Jost, Banaji & Nosek, 2004, p. 881). Justice theory The justice theory is applied through the use of the group engagement model, which "hypothesizes that, of the two types of motivations, it is the development and maintenance of a favorable identity that most strongly influences cooperation. The model predicts that people's willingness to cooperate with their group, especially cooperation that is discretionary in nature-flows from the identity information they receive from the group. That identity information, in turn, is hypothesized to emanate from evaluations of the procedural fairness experienced in the group. This suggests that identity evaluations and concerns mediate the relationship between justice judgments and group engagement” (Tyler, & Blader, 2003, p. 353). Minority Influence According to the original formulation of minority influence theory, “the Theory minority must initially induce a conflict with the majority by challenging the majority norm; consequently, it has to provide a consistent and stable alternative norm. Both goals are achieved by showing a behavioral style that indicates certainty and commitment. Although Moscovici (1976) listed a number of potentially relevant behavioral styles (consistency, investment, autonomy, rigidity, and fairness), consistency has become the cornerstone of minority influence” (Maass & Clark, 1984, p. 428). Social Identity Theory According to the social identity theory, “social interactions are determined to a large extent by the individuals' reciprocal group memberships, positive social identity can be achieved, in a vast majority of cases, only through appropriate intergroup social comparisons. Thus, the positive or negative conceptions of a METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 43

social group are seen as being primarily relational in nature” (Tajfel, 1982, p. 24). Self-categorization The self-categorization theory, “explains group polarization as conformity to a theory polarized norm which defines one's own group in contrast to other groups within a specific social context. Whether the ingroup norm is polarized or not depends on the social comparative context within which the ingroup defines itself. It was predicted from self-categorization theory that an ingroup confronted by a risky outgroup will polarize toward caution, an ingroup confronted by a cautious outgroup will polarize toward risk, and an ingroup in the middle of the social frame of reference, confronted by both risky and cautious outgroups, will not polarize but will converge on its prestest mean” (Hogg, Turner & Davidson, 1990 p. 77). Social dominance According to social dominance theory, group discrimination tends to be theory systematic because social ideologies help to coordinate the actions of institutions and individuals. That is, people share knowledge and beliefs that legitimize discrimination, and most often they behave as if they endorsed these ideologies” (Sidanius, Pratto, Laar & Levin, 2004, p. 847). The common ingroup The Common Ingroup Identity Model proposes, “that bias can be reduced by identity model factors that transform members’ perceptions of group boundaries from “us” and “them” to a more inclusive “we." From this perspective, several features specified by the contact hypothesis (e.g. co-operative interaction) facilitate more harmonious intergroup interactions, at least in part, because they contribute to the development of a common ingroup identity” (Gaertner, Dovidio, Anastasio, Bachman & Rust, 1993, p.1) Social Representation In a modern expanded formulation social representations are defined as: Theory "Representation = f (subject, object, project, time, medium, intergroup context)"(Bauer & Gaskell, 2008, p. 344) which are necessary for all information processing. The Focus Theory of A focus theory of normative conduct implies that one must consider both Normative Conduct descriptive norms (norms of is) and injunctive norms (norms of ought), as well as the focus of the norm for the individual when predicting behaviour/normative conduct.

Applications to sexual science. Table 5 summarizes the applications of social psychology theory to sexual science. All applications were selected as examples of how social psychology theory has been applied to sexual science, rather than an exhaustive list of all existing applications. For ten theories (out of the total of 44 theories) we did not find applications in the existing sexual science literature. The ten theories we did not find applications for were predominantly in the cognitive and group/cultural theory categories. The motivational/affective METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 44 and interpersonal social psychology theories, on the other hand, were well represented in sexual science literature. This trend demonstrates that there may be a tendency for sexual scientists to draw on theories that focus on emotional and motivational states and theories that focus on close relationships. Whereas, cognitive theories that focus on individual mental states, and group and cultural rooted theories that focus on larger group-based processes, are less likely. In general, the applications of social psychology theories to sexuality tend to include variables such as motivation, feelings states, attitudes, and relationships, especially romantic relationships.

Table 5 Application of Social Psychology Theory to Sexual Science Theory Application(s) to Sexual Science Evolutionary Theory According to the evolutionary theory, females are more sexually restrictive, and select mates based on the physical resources and status of the male; whereas, males are less sexually restrictive and select mates based on physical attractiveness (see, Li and Kenrick, 2006) Tend and befriend theory Tend and befriend theory can be applied to understand women and alloparenting. Kuhle and Radke (2013) suggest that women tend and befriend response results in a higher likelihood of them engaging in same sex behavior that will strengthen female/female relationships and therefore increase their offspring's chances of survival. Accessibility theory Implicitly priming perceivers to categorize women as sexual objects increases the accessibility of this construct, influencing perceivers (in this case men) to view and interact with women as sex objects in inappropriate contexts (Rudman and Borgida, 1995). Accessibility theory has also been applied in researching the social marketing of AIDS related sexual health promotion. Raghubir and Menon (1998) found that increasing the accessibility of knowledge of risk of contracting AIDS reduced self-positivity bias and intentions to engage in safer sex practices. Construal Level Theory The construal level theory proposes that when people are in love they are more likely to think in a long-term perspective and therefore engage in holistic and creative METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 45

thinking; whereas, when people are having sex they will likely focus more on the present experience and thus engage in more analytical thinking (Forster et al. 2009). A Theory of Social Information No applications found. Processing Balanced-Logic Theory No applications found. Lay Epistemic Theory No applications found. The Elaboration Likelihood model The elaboration likelihood model has been applied to sexual assault prevention programs. Heppner (1999) used the elaboration likelihood model in a sexualized violence prevention intervention for college students to draw attention to the core message of the program. A Theory of Heuristic and Systemic No applications found. Information Feelings as Information Theory No applications found. The Linguistic Category Model No applications found. Action Identification Theory Action identification theory has been applied to understanding male masochism, where masculinity is preserved at a lower level of self-awareness (physical) and subverted at a higher cognitive level (Baumeister 1988). Vallacher and Selz (1991) have used action identification to explain how people judge the actions of alleged perpetrators and victims of sexual assault. An Attribution Theory of Motivation No applications found.

Theory of Reasoned Action Individuals attitudes and subjective norms determine and intention which determine sexual behavior (e.g., Gillmore et al., 2002) and/or safe sex practices (e.g., condom use, see Sneed & Morisky, 1998). Theory of planned behaviour Individuals attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived (extension of TRA) behavioral control determine and intention which determine sexual behavior and/or safe sex practices (e.g., Albarracín, Johnson, Fishbein, & Muellerleile, 2001). Self Determination Theory Self-determination has been applied to understanding sexual satisfaction including: (a) autonomy required to seek out sexual activity (b) competence to improve technical skill; and (c) the relatedness needed to connect with one’s partner(s) (see Smith, 2007 for details). Social Comparison Theory An individual’s evaluation of their self-worth as a sexual partner (i.e., technical skills, attractiveness, genitalia etc.) may be derived via comparing themselves to their sexual partner(s), previous partners, or their partner(s) previous partners (e.g., VanYperen & Buunk, 1991) METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 46

Terror Management theory "To the extent that sexuality is a reminder of their creaturely, animalistic nature, which in turn is a reminder of the inevitability of death, TMT suggests that people would similarly seek to imbue sexuality with abstract meaning and value. Thus, by providing such meaning and value, sexual acts and relationships can actually enhance the management of existential concerns" (Goldber et al., 1999, p. 1176) Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive dissonance theory is used to explain behaviors within sexual and romantic relationships, such as actions taken to reduce discomfort associated with an extra- marital affair (e.g., Foster & Misra, 2013) and conflicts between sexual orientation and religiosity (e.g., AndertonPender, & Asner-Self, 2011). Regulatory Focus Theory The regulatory focus may be applied to understanding sexual strategies. For example, Sassenberg and colleagues (2012) found an ingroup favoritism for females in a prevention focus than in a promotion focus and for males in a promotion focus than in a prevention focus. Mindset Theory of Action Phases Sexuality Mindset is linked to higher levels of relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction and lower levels of problematic pornography use (Bothe et al., 2017) Self-Control Theory Bouffard and Kunzi (2012) found higher levels of self- control were exhibited by participants in the high arousal condition, as compared to all other conditions (e.g., low arousal). Self-Verification Theory Self-verification is related to a higher quality of romantic relationship (Swann, De La Ronde, & Hixon, 1994). In sexual relationships, women who were more body dissatisfied were found to be less happy, but more understood when self-verified (Brown, Stukas & Evans, 2013). Uncertainty-Identity Theory The Uncertainty-Identity theory has been applied to the uncertainty surrounding the development of one's sexual identity (e.g., Borders, Guillén & Meyer, 2014). Optimal Distinctiveness Theory No applications found. A Model of Behaviour Self- Ward and Hudson (1998) model sexual offense and the Regulation relapse of sexual offenders as a failure of self-regulation. A Cognitive-Neoassociation Theory The Cognitive Neoassociation model has been applied to of Aggression research investigating anti-gay violence (see, Parrot & Zeichne 2005). METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 47

Implicit theories Implicit theories have been applied to understanding how sexual well-being is defined (see, Maxwell, Muise, MacDonald, Day, Rosen & Impett, 2017). Theory of Communal/Exchange High communal strength (i.e., non-contingently Relationships responding to a partner’s sexual needs) is found to predict higher sexual desire, and the ability to better resolve sexual disagreements and maintain the relationship (see, Muise & Impett, 2016). Sociometer theory When selecting a mate, individuals are highly sensitive to social rejection/acceptance and this leads to changes in self-esteem, and ultimately one's relational value to their partner (Kavanagh, Fletcher & Ellis, 2014) Social Role Theory The social-role theory has been used to argue females have a lower number of sexual partners and view premarital sex more negatively, and males hold more negative attitudes toward sexuality (e.g., see Eagly & Wood, 2016b). Need-to-belong theory The need-to-belong theory had been applied to understand community connectedness in LGBT+ individuals and subsequent psychological well-being (Baams et al., 2012; Frost and Meyer, 2012; Galliher et al., 2004). The need-to-belong theory has also been used to explain sexual offending as a result of the failure to attain the need for human closeness (Hudson and Ward, 2000). Equity Theory in Close Relationships Equity theory in close relationships has been used in sexual science to study sexual satisfaction (see, Buunk & Bakker, 1997; Hatfield et al., 2007; Traupmann et al.,1983). The Investment Model of Rustbult's investment model of commitment has been Commitment applied in a number of ways in sexual science, including: relationship satisfaction (Hosking, 2013); the impact of pornography on extradyadic behavior (Gwin et al., 2013); investment in friends-with-benefits relationships (Vanderdrift et al., 2010); safe sex practices (Buunk & Barker, 2006; Vanderdrift et al., 2006); verbal sexual coercion and relationship maintenance (Katz et al., 2006), and sexual aggression (Christopher et al., 1998). Interdependence Theory Howard, Blumstein, and Schwartz (1986) have applied interdependence theory to determine whether and how sex roles, structural, and interpersonal power contribute to individual's influence over each other in couples of different sexual orientations. System Justification Theory System justification theory has been applied to explain: METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 48

women's beliefs in rape myths and their level of hostility towards other women (Cowan, 2000); erotic racism (Eastwick et al., 2009),and; system justification in sexual minorities (Hoffarth & Jost, 2017) Justice theory According to justification theory, women high in procedural justice apprehension may not report sexual harassment and seek a solution based in the legal system due to lack of confidence in the system (Rudman et al., 1995). Minority Influence Theory No applications found. Social Identity Theory The Social Identity theory has been applied primarily in understanding identities of LGBT+ people (Chong, 2015; Everett et al., 2016; Negin et al., 2011). When applied to understanding safe sex behaviors and media use, social identity theory predicts that when individuals perceive media messages relevant to their group identity, they will use this as an information on their group's norms, influencing their sexual health behaviors (Morton and Duck, 2000). Self-categorization theory Self-categorization theory was used as a framework to examine adolescent boys' sexual bullying of girls (Page, Shut, and MacLachlan, 2014); sexual risk-taking behaviours (Go et al., 2013); and HIV prevention (Sherman & Knowlton, 2003) Social dominance theory Social dominance theory has been applied to understanding the following research areas: rape myth acceptance (Sussenbach and Bohner, 2011), sexism, and reactions to sexist subtypes (Fowers & Fowers, 2010). The common ingroup identity model According to the common ingroup identity model people's prejudice against gays/lesbians will be lessened by experience positive contact with gays/lesbians (Licciardello, Castiglione, and Rampullo, 2011) or after receiving information that emphasizes that there is little difference between gay and straight people (White and Garcia, 2018). Social Representation Theory No applications found. The Focus Theory of Normative No applications found. Conduct

Theory Deconstruction and Reconstruction

Figure 2 provides the legend used to deconstruct each theory into core and peripheral METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 49 variables. All theory maps that we created for each theory from their descriptions are available at the following anonymous view-only link: https://osf.io/w6rgk/? view_only=39a76bb79c3b4a169059e4df9e90d685. Below, however, we provide the deconstruction and reconstruction of three sample theories--the Theory of Planned Behaviour,

Action Identification Theory and the Implicit Theory-- in detail. We selected these sample theories because they provide a range of ‘goodness’ in terms of theory testability, conceptual grade and the clarity of processes.

Theory of Planned Behaviour. See Figure 4 for the Theory of Planned Behaviour theory map. To review the Theory of Planned Behaviour is defined as:

“Attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms with respect to the behavior, and perceived control over the behavior are usually found to predict behavioral intentions with a high degree of accuracy. In turn, these intentions, in combination with perceived behavioral control, can account for a considerable proportion of variance in behavior” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 206).

From this definition the key variables are easily identifiable (deconstructed) as the following: subjective norms, attitude, perceived behavioural control, intention and behaviours. Behaviour is an observable variable and the remaining variables are considered latent because they cannot be directly observed. Intention is the core variable because it is associated with all the variables in the theory. The processes and direction of the associations between the variables is also evident from the definition. For example, it is clear that subjective norms, attitude, perceived behavioural control predict, or contribute to intention formation. Furthermore, intention is directly related to the outcome variable (behaviour) rendering this association core (in comparison to the previously described peripheral associations). It is also noted that perceived behavioural control contributes to some of the behaviours and therefore is indirectly related to behaviour. Therefore, the hypotheses proposed by this theory are unequivocal and as a result are testable, conceptually METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 50 sound and all processes are clearly defined.

Figure 4. Theory of Planned Behaviour theory map.

Action Identification Theory. See Figure 5 for a theory map of the Action identification

Theory. As previously defined:

“The essence of the Action Identification theory is that the identification of one's action, though highly variable in principle, is ultimately constrained by reality. Through the interplay of three processes, each framed as a principle of the theory, people are said to gravitate toward an identification of action that proves effective in maintaining the action” (Vallacher & Wegner, 1987, p.4). From this definition, the variables of the theory are somewhat clear, namely identification (and processes of identity identification: higher, lower and proponent identity), action and reality constraint. Although the three processes of identification are not explicitly stated in this definition they are outlined in the original paper (see Vallacher & Wegner, 1987). The processes and direction of the relationship between variables is moderately comprehensible. The core process between prepotent identity (the core variable) and action represents a clear hypothesis that is to be tested by the Action Identification Theory. However, it is difficult to ascertain the processes involved in the formation of a proponent identity. It is presumed that there is a direct METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 51 association between higher order identity and prepotent identity. Yet, the indirect associations between higher order identity and lower order identity, as well as lower order identity and prepotent identity are not well defined in the definition. Finally, the variable ‘reality constraint’ is not testable and difficult to incorporate into a model of this theory. Overall, the Action

Identification Theory provides a somewhat clear description of the variables and processes, but lacks clarity in the processes involved in forming a prepotent identity and includes variables that are not testable (i.e., reality constraint).

Figure 5. Action Identification Theory theory map.

Implicit Theory. See Figure 6 for the Implicit Theory theory map. The definition of

Implicit Theory (derived from Table 3) is as follows:

"Implicit theory proposes that entity theorists see others’ traits as fixed and stable, whereas incremental theorists see others’ traits as malleable and changeable. It was found that entity theorists formed on-line judgments and incremental theorists formed memory- based judgments of target individuals" (McConnell, 2001, p. 215). It was difficult to find a consistent and clear definition of Implicit Theory. The underlying variables of all definitions included implicit theories (or common sense beliefs) associated with

‘explanations for successes and failures.’ Furthermore, measuring a common sense belief, METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 52 especially considering that a common sense belief, by definition, is a belief held by most people presents a methodological challenge. Furthermore, as a result of the ubiquitous nature of common sense beliefs it is challenging to draw conclusions regarding the associations between these beliefs and subsequent behaviours without incorporating or controlling for extraneous variables. Given the lack of specificity in the definition, it is difficult to form testable, specific hypotheses, or clear measurable variables. The variables and processes are unclear and are not consistent across definitions of Implicit theory.

Figure 6. Implicit Theory theory map.

Conclusions. The selected theories provided examples of the components of a strong, moderate and weak theory. The ‘goodness’ of these theories was evaluated based on the theory testability, conceptual grade and the clarity of processes. These evaluation criteria are interconnected: the testability of a theory if contingent on the conceptual grade (specifically defining measurable variables), as well as the clarity of processes. It is evident from the review of the Theory of Planned Behaviour that clear variables and processes lead to testable hypotheses that can be corroborated (or falsified). This is a key element of a strong theory and ensures there is no ambiguity in how the theory ought to be interpreted. The Action Identification Theory, on the hand, requires the interpreter to make some leaps when formulating the key hypotheses of the METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 53 theory and the direction of the processes is not plainly evident from the theory definition. The

Implicit theory, in addition to lacking clearly defined processes, underscores the problems associated with theories that include non-specific variables that cannot be easily measured. From the information gathered on this theory is not clear what evidence would prove or disprove the claims made by the Implicit theory. The construction and deconstruction process highlights the importance of clearly defined variables and processes when evaluating the effectiveness of existing theory, as well as when constructing novel theories.

Discussion

The central aim of our metatheoretical review was to evaluate the current state of social psychology theory and evaluate its usefulness and applicability to sexual science. In this review, we critically evaluated existing social psychology theory by describing empirical patterns and using a deconstructive and reconstructive analytic metatheoretical methodology. Our results indicate that social psychology has a strong theoretical standing with each theory ranging in its degree of empirical usefulness, testability and understandability (see, Earp & Trafimow, 2015;

Weiss, 1998b). In addition, our metatheoretical review highlights the usefulness and applicability of social psychology theory to sexual science. In the following sections, we discuss the strengths and weaknesses of social psychology theory, how these theories have been applied to sexual science and how the current state of theory can be used as a roadmap for future theorizing.

Antiquated Theory and its Potential Consequences

The goal of describing each social psychology theory was to provide a general overview of the qualitative features of the theory. In describing each theory, arguably the most staggering finding was the lack of contemporary theorizing, with 88% of theories being developed before the year 2000. Social psychology theories dated from 1950s to 2010s, with the majority being METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 54 established in the 1980s. The central concern with the absence of modern theory is the relevance of the theory for explaining current psychological phenomena and behaviours. There have been significant social and cultural changes (e.g., technological innovations, marriage equality, climate change movements, etc.) in our society since the turn of the 21st century. It is important that theory construction and applications consider these changes because of their profound impact on human thought and behaviour (Baez, García & Ibáñez, 2018). When theorizing focuses on describing phenomena rather than grounding observations in the current social and cultural context, there is a risk of halting scientific progress. Unlike natural sciences which center around building theory to describe an objective ‘truth,’ social psychology requires more advanced theorizing that evolves in parallel with the current context (Gergen, 1992). The central pitfall of using historically rooted theory is it often neglects current contextual societal conditions that are inextricably linked to human thought and behaviour and therefore necessary components of strong theorizing in social psychology.

Defining Theory: Degrees of Verisimilitude

Based on the current review, the central shortcoming of some of the cited social psychology theory definitions was a lack of verisimilitude: the approximation of a theory to the actual truth of the theory. According to Meehl (2002; 2004), verisimilitude is the most pragmatic and effective tool for theory evaluation. Verisimilitude requires clear, testable hypotheses that can be corroborated (or falsified). Many of the definitions in the current review excluded key variables and processes requiring the reader to extrapolate on the theoretical propositions. For instance, the Social Comparison theory is defined as the “process of thinking about information about one or more other people in relation to the self” (Wood, 1996). Although constructs can be derived (i.e., comparing self to others, thinking, behaviour) from this definition, it was difficult METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 55 to determine the hypothesized relations amongst these constructs. The lack of clarity is particularly worrisome as it allows space for subjective interpretation and potentially applying a theory to fit one’s data as opposed to testing a theory a priori. Even though some level of abstraction is necessary to have a widely applicable theory (see, TAPAS criterion for ‘good’ theory; Van Lange, 2012) theory propositions that are too general and ill-defined are problematic. While some theorists failed to provide strong definitions, other theorists provided succinct definitions which outlined the constructs and processes and had clear testable hypotheses. When testable hypotheses are provided and thus may be supported or unsupported by the data, the theory becomes falsifiable and therefore more “scientific” (as opposed to observational or ‘pseudoscience’) (see, Popper, 2005). The verisimilitude of a theory requires that all variables and hypotheses are clearly outlined in the theory definition. In the current review, each theory definition presented a range of verisimilitude, with many theories lacking the conceptual clarity required for a theory to be adequately falsified and evaluated.

Applying Theoretical Frameworks

In the current metatheoretical review, we provided examples of how the theory has been applied to social psychology generally, as well as sexual science. We included theory applications to evaluate the purpose of a theory and its utility in explaining, predicting and understanding phenomena. Following from the definitional challenges, theory applications often lacked clear testable theoretical frameworks. The utility of applying a theoretical framework is contingent on the ability to evaluate the theory propositions and whether they are supported or unsupported by the data (Gray, 2017). Although many theories provided clear applications demonstrating the utility of the theory, others lack the clarity and coherence to be applied and falsified. METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 56 Importantly, the applications of social psychology theory to sexual science provided clear evidence for the inherent value of social psychology for sexual science. As previously discussed, the overlap in constructs of interest between the two fields is significant given the shared interest in psychological and interpersonal processes in predicting and explaining behaviour. There were a number of social psychology theories that did not have current applications in sexual science reflecting the potential for theory sharing and utilizing these theories in future work.

Critical Analyses: How ‘good’ are the theories?’

We used a deconstruction and reconstruction technique to evaluate existing social psychology theories. The aim of the critical analysis was to evaluate the coherence of a theory and compare theories on a structural level (Wallis, 2016). The deconstruction method involved pulling the core and periphery variables and processes derived from the theory definition and application. These variables and processes were then reconstructed into theory maps (see Gray,

2017). The deconstruction method was often difficult given the lack of clarity in some theory definitions and applications. Typically, identifying the “hard core” (Lakatos, 1970), or the core constructs and at least some of the basic processes were relatively easy to extract from the definitions. However, the “protective belt,” or ad-hoc hypotheses (peripheral constructs and processes and their association with the hard core) were often less clear. The reconstruction

(theory mapping) process was contingent on the clarity and coherence of the deconstructed theory elements. Our most commonly encountered issue with the reconstruction process was identifying the direction (i.e., positive or negative) of the processes. For instance, the Self

Determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) hypothesizes associations between ‘competence,’

‘relatedness,’ and ‘autonomy,’ but the direction of the association between these constructs are not easily derived from the definition. Occasionally, theorists provided a visual depiction of their METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 57 theory in their original theoretical formulation which allowed for theory reconstruction without misinterpretation. For example, Eagly and Wood (2012) provide a clear theory map associated with the Social Role theory visually depicting all the hypothesized associations between constructs. There was a range in the ‘goodness’ of each theory based on the clarity of the constructs and processes.

Furthermore, outlining clear constructs and propositions are necessary to “score keep” theories within the literature. Through the deconstruction/reconstruction process, we aimed to derive testable hypotheses from each theory that could be evaluated with future empirical data.

In other words, we anticipated finding well articulated hypotheses that could be measured for accuracy in future research. However, as a result of a lack of consistent definitions and applications of some of the theories, it was difficult to determine if the metatheoretical process was an accurate and reliable portrayal of the study. As such, although many social psychology theories have been evaluated a myriad of times in existing literature, it is not clear if these empirical findings were measured against the same conceptual model of the theory. In addition, it is challenging to directly compare and contrast the best fitting theory without testable hypotheses being derived from the theory itself. Continuing to improve build upon existing research, and utilizing the testable propositions provided current metatheoretical review we will be able to organize and evaluate the validity of scientific records beyond mere observation.

We utilized the Theory of Planned Behaviour, Action Identification theory and Implicit theory to exemplify a range of comprehensibility. Each of these theories was evaluated using the deconstruction/reconstruction method so the coherence, clarity and testability of each theory could be compared on a structural level (Meehl, 1992; Sussman & Sussman, 2001). The Theory of Planned behaviour was selected as an example because it clearly described hypotheses METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 58 including measurable variables and it is easy to determine what would falsify this theory. The

Action Identification theory, on the other hand, provides some clear hypotheses while including some unmeasurable variables (i.e., ‘reality constraint’) and vague hypotheses. For example, the indirect relationship between higher and lower order identities are not clear. Finally, the Implicit theory is lacking clear variables and theory propositions. The Implicit theory using nondescript, vague language that it could be applied broadly without any clear possibility for falsifiability.

The central lesson from the closer examination of these theories is the importance of measurable variables and testable hypotheses via clear, succinct theory definitions.

Take-away for social psychologists. Taken together, the current review underscores the importance of critically thinking about existing social psychology theory and applications.

Through the critical analysis process, it is evident that there are significant shortcomings of the existing social psychological theory. There is a lack of consistency in how theories are defined, including a lack of clear variables and propositions, that make it exceedingly difficult to effectively test these theories. As has been discussed at length throughout this paper, the inability to corroborate or falsify a theory based on this lack of clarity lends itself to a largely non- scientific theorizing process. Without a plainly evident set of proposed hypotheses for each theory it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine if research that applies these theories are in fact testing the same propositions. Relatedly, the failure to define and apply theories consistently allows social psychological theorists to more easily apply a theory to their findings rather than applying their data to test each theory. The theory maps provided demonstrate where the gaps lie in each theory (e.g., where the variables are not measurable or the direction of proposed processes are not clear) and which aspects of the theory are not well-understood in the current literature. We hope the presented critical analysis will encourage social psychologists to think METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 59 critically about their theory use and promote theory driven research.

In addition, we hope that future theorizing in social psychology will be informed by the pitfalls of the current theory outlined in this review. Given the lack of contemporary theorizing, the first recommendation is to encourage social psychologists to develop modern theories that reflect the current social, cultural and political climate relevant to our scholarly areas. In developing these modern theories, it will be critical to understand where we have gone wrong with theory in the past. Specifically, it would be beneficial to think about verisimilitude in theory development and determine what data would corroborate or falsify your theory (Lakatos, 1978a;

1978b; Meehl, 2004). Through this review the value of developing a visualization, or theory map, to aid in theory conceptualization and testing has become plainly evident. Relatedly, the development of computational and/or formal theories (e.g., Smaldino, 2017; Guest & Martin,

2020; Navarro, 2020; Rodinaugh, Haslbeck, Ryan, Fried, & Waldorp, 2020), in which core constructs and processes are specified and quantified formulaically, could a long way towards reducing some of the ambiguity in ways theory interpretation and adjudication is carried out.

Future Directions

Future work should aim to strive for clarity, coherence and testability when developing and testing theories. We encourage social scientists to develop contemporary, empirically-based theories that reflect the principles of “good” theory outlined here. Theory-shyness and a reliance on historical theories without critically thinking about the utility of the theory should be avoided in future work. We acknowledge that the Handbook used in the current review was published in

2010 and thus may not account for newer theories. However, it is unlikely that many contemporary theories were excluded given the time period when most theories were developed

(i.e.,1980s). It is recommended that sexual scientists strongly consider incorporating social METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 60 psychology theory into their research questions and pursuits given the significant overlap between these fields of study. We hope that the theory maps provided will encourage theorists to visualize and evaluate their theoretical assumptions. Providing a visual representation of key hypotheses and evaluating these models statistically is essential for corroborating or falsifying theory. In addition, it was observed that the majority of theorists included in the current review were male and white-passing; there is an underrepresentation of theoretical offerings from women and BIPOC (Black, indigenous, people of colour) individuals. Encouraging and allowing for these voices to be represented in social psychology theory is important. The inclusion of more diverse theorists will also likely facilitate the development of more contextually and culturally accurate theoretical frameworks that reflect the current social and political climate. A future metatheoretical review which focuses on sexual science theory is recommended as this field of study continues to expand.

Conclusions

In the current metatheoretical review we sought to describe, examine and compare current theory in social psychology and examine its current and potential applications to sexual science. We hope that the review will be used as a resource for social psychologists and sexual scientists alike to examine existing theories and think critically about how to test the theoretical assumptions effectively. Through the deconstruction and reconstruction processes we were able to ascertain the key elements of what constitutes a “good” theory. These criterion include the conceptual grade, clarity of variables and processes and the testability of the theory.

Furthermore, the theory maps provided for the current review are intended as tools to evaluate the effectiveness of existing theory and as models for testing these theories in future work.

Through the review process, it is evident that there is an urgent need for researchers to think METATHEORY AND SEXUALITY 61 critically about the ‘goodness’ of a theory a priori and not apply a theory post-hoc to fit the data.

Even so, it is equally clear that social psychology is rich in theory from which the study of human sexuality could benefit.

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