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Planetary Aeolian Geomorphology Mary C 261 11 Planetary Aeolian Geomorphology Mary C. Bourke1, Matthew Balme2, Stephen Lewis2, Ralph D. Lorenz3, and Eric Parteli4 1 Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland 2 The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK 3 Johns Hopkins University, Laurel, Maryland, USA 4 University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany 11.1 ­Introduction eccentricity, obliquity, and se ason of perihe- lion are more variable than on Earth, leading Aeolian processes play an essential role not to a strongly forced global climate that only in the dynamics of beaches and deserts has varied significantly through time on the Earth, but also contribute to surface (Laskar et al. 2004). landforms on several bodies in our solar As on Earth, atmospheric circulation pat- system. terns on Mars are generated by air flows at many different scales, varying spatially, and seasonally. Martian global wind patterns are 11.2 ­Planetary Atmospheres derived from Hadley cells. Also, baroclinic instability on Mars is produced by an obliq- There are at least four bodies in our solar uity and rotation similar to Earth (see system that have sufficient enough atmos- Table 11.1). Air rises at intertropical conver- phere to sustain winds that can transport gence zones (ITCZ) and sinks at the poles. sediment: Mars, Titan, Venus, and Earth. Unlike Earth, however, the Hadley cells are of These atmospheres interact with geological unequal size in different seasons as the processes and influence the morphology Martian ITCZ shifts latitudinally due to the and composition of surfaces (Grotzinger rapid thermal response of the surface. For et al. 2013). example, at the solstices, the summer hemi- sphere Hadley cell crosses the equator and 11.2.1 Mars sinks in the winter hemisphere. The resultant surface winds are, like Earth, deflected to the Landforms and geochemical signatures west as they approach the equator by a suggest that the atmosphere of Mars was Coriolis effect. The significantly higher ele- significantly thicker in its past, even as vations in the southern hemisphere together Mars today has the thinnest atmosphere of with severe eccentricities (see Table 11.1), all the bodies that contain confirmed aeolian in which the perihelion occurs during the features. On Mars. the orbital parameters of southern summer, contribute to a stronger Aeolian Geomorphology: A New Introduction, First Edition. Edited by Ian Livingstone and Andrew Warren. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2019 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 262 11 Planetary Aeolian Geomorphology Table 11.1 Properties of planetary atmospheres and surfaces. Body Venus Earth Mars Titan Mean distance from sun (AU) 0.72 1 1.52 9.58 Diameter (Km) 12 104 12 742 6779 5150 Gravitational acceleration (m s−2) 8.87 9.81 3.71 1.35 Rotation period (sidereal day) 223 1 1.04 16 Mean surface atmospheric pressure (bar) 91 1.01 0.007 1.47 Mean surface air temperature (°C) 464 15 −63 −178 Dominant atmospheric gas CO2 N2, O2 CO2 N2, CH4 Atmospheric density (kg m−3) 64 1.25 0.02 5.4 Dynamic viscosity (10−6 Pa‐s) 35 17 13 6 Planetary boundary layer (km) 0.2? 0.3–3 >10 2–3 Total topographic relief (km) 13.7 19.8 29.4 ~0.5 Minimum threshold friction speed (ms−1)a 0.02 0.2 2.0 0.04 Dune field cover (x106 km2)b 0.0183 5 0.9 10 Dune field cover (% land and ocean surface area)c 0.004 0.98 0.62 12.5 aGreeley and Iverson (1985). bEstimates from Greeley et al. (1995), Livingstone and Warren (1996), Fenton and Hayward (2010), Le Gall et al. (2011). cSource: After Fenton et al. (2013). Hadley circulation during the southern sum- springtime sublimation of these seasonal caps, mer than in the northern. Thus, the largest off-cap katabatic winds are generated. dust storms on Mars occur during the south- There is significant difference in the eleva- ern summer. tion of the southern hemisphere on Mars to However, it should be noted that there is the lower (by several kilometres) northern also a significant variability of atmospheric hemisphere. Atmospheric pressure and den- pressure on Mars at the seasonal scale. sity vary considerable across these topo- During the Martian winter, atmospheric graphic heights on Mars. For example, temperatures move below the condensation atmospheric pressure at the base of the point of CO2. This results in a drop of atmos- Tharsis Volcanoes is 6mb, and this drops by a pheric pressure by 30% over a Mars year as factor of almost 6 at the 22 km high summit of the seasonal CO2 ice cap forms. These peri- the volcanoes. This is reflected in the larger ods of low pressure depress the conditions wavelength of bedforms on the volcanic peaks for saltation globally while the aeolian depos- (Lorenz et al. 2014). Topographic forcing at its are sequestered under their seasonal ice canyon walls, crater rims, and volcanic peaks caps at the poles. The seasonal ice caps are produces geomorphologically significant deposited down to approximately 55°N and slope winds that can generate net upslope 50°S. Wintertime jet streams that generate flow during the day and downslope flow dur- westerly winds and fronts are produced by ing the night. The enhanced wind velocities the strong thermal contrasts at the edges of generated by topographic forcing may create these polar caps. These are particularly effec- areas of enhanced sediment transport on tive in areas of low topographic roughness Mars (Bourke et al. 2004; Jackson et al. 2015). such as the northern plains. During the On a diurnal scale, surf ace heating leads 11.3 Planetary Sediment Transport (Mars, Titan, Venus) 263 to convective generation of wind gusts 11.3 ­Planetary Sediment and dust devils (see Section 11.6.1). Transport (Mars, Titan, Venus) 11.2.2 Titan Saturn dominates the global circulation pat- Sediment transport is responsible for a terns, length of year, and seasons on its moon, broad range of geophysical phenomena, Titan. A year on Titan is 29.46 terrestrial including dust storms on Earth and Mars years, and the small rotation rate of Titan and the formation and migration of dunes (1 Titan day = 15.95 Earth days) inhibits mid on both planetary bodies, as well as on Venus and high‐latitude baroclinic instability. The and Titan (Bourke et al. 2010; Kok et al. eccentric orbit (0.056) induces shorter and 2012). In particular, the shape and migration more intense southern hemisphere summers of dunes provide excellent proxies for the (similar to Mars). Titan’s atmosphere super‐ characteristics of sediment transport across rotates at altitude but this flow does not dom- the surface of planetary bodies (Lorenz and inate surface wind patterns. Near‐surface Zimbelman 2014). This section aims briefly circulation on Titan is dominated by solar to discuss these characteristics, as well as heating that induces Hadley cell formation, presenting open questions on planetary sed- with the winds generated by the return flow iment transport that need to be addressed to of each cell. The cells rise either side of the improve our understanding of planetary ITCZ (Flasar et al. 2010) and extend to high geomorphology, with emphasis on dune latitudes. At each solstice a single Hadley cell formation and migration. rises in the high latitudes in the summer hem- Indeed, there are important differences in isphere and sinks at the winter pole. These the scale and dynamics between dunes on produce northerly surface winds during the Earth and their extra‐terrestrial counter- southern summer and southerly winds dur- parts. A considerable body of research in ing the northern summer. The Coriolis force the last two decades has been devoted to causes westerly components in the mid‐lati- the understanding of these differences. This tudes and an easterly deflection close to the has helped us to identify characteristics of equator. A modelled strong westerly sediment transport that are particular to 1–1.5 ms−1 at the equinoxes may orient the each distinct physical environment, and has linear equatorial dunefields (Tokano 2010). pushed forward our understanding of the sediment transport on our own planet 11.2.3 Venus (Kok et al. 2012). As discussed in Chapter 2, the transport of The atmosphere on Venus is the densest of sediments along the surface occurs mainly the four bodies (Table 11.1). As a conse- through saltation, which starts when the quence, an extreme greenhouse effect traps wind shear velocity u* exceeds a minimal heat and reduces spatial and temporal sur- threshold u*ft – called the fluid threshold – face temperature variability. Hadley cell cir- for initiating transport (Bagnold 1941; culation rises at the equator and descends at Iverson and White 1982). Once transport the poles, with southern hemisphere winds begins, particles move in nearly ballistic deflected to the west by topography (as plan- trajectories close to the ground thereby etary rotation rate is very low (1 Venus ejecting new particles upon collisions with day = 116.8 Earth days) (Table 11.1). Global the bed (splash). Because of the contribution circulation is generally towards the equator. of splash to grain entrainment, saltation can Very little data is available on the atmos- be sustained at a wind velocity that is less pheric circulation of Venus. Similar to Mars, than the one required to lift sand grains. slope winds may be important on Venus. The associated threshold shear velocity is 264 11 Planetary Aeolian Geomorphology called the impact threshold u* t, which for observations. Arvidson et al. (1983) reported aeolian transport on Earth is about 80% of enthusiastically: u* ft. However, the relation between u* t and u* ft is not the same for Earth, Mars, Venus, (…) The movement of the rock, the and Titan, as the characteristics of sediment alternations of the conical piles, clods, transport differ substantially among the trenches, and other features, and the four planetary bodies as shown in increase in scene contrast, demonstrate Table 11.2.
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