WE ARE NOT US: INTRA-ETHNIC DIFFERENTIATION AMONG LATVIANS

Mari-Ann Herloff-Mortensen University of Copenhagen

In "transitional" Eastern Europe, ethnic and national the West and (3) Latvian deportees returning from the identity are intimately tied to the restructuring of the former Soviet Union. I begin by describing the historical relations of power. Usually, the problem is one of background for the fragmentation of the Latvian exclusion or inclusion of certain segments of the population into the three groups. I then analyze the population into political and economic life. In the case of relations between the three groups by looking at how they , most observers emphasize the necessity of articulate and negotiate their respective identities. Finally, integrating the sizable Russian minority -34% of the total these negotiations will be related to the larger context of population - into the new Latvian state. The Latvians try Latvian transitional society. to limit Russian influence, and the situation appears to be another example of a traditional" ethnic conflict: the Data for this paper is based on 3 months of fieldwork in majority dominating a minority within a multiethnic state. Riga during 1995 and represents a partial summary of my MA thesis in social anthropology. In such conflicts, a distinction between members and non- members of the nation is often made via the category of Latvia and the Latvians citizenship. This is also the case in Latvia, and the criteria Latvia's history has been linked to the domination of the for citizenship set by the new state is a major topic of two great Others of Latvian historical consciousness, discussion by both local and international experts. These and . As an independent nation-state, discussions operate on the implicit assumption that the Latvia was born only during The First Republic (1918- official divide between "Latvians" and "Others" exists 1940). Nevertheless, the notion of a historically unified solely between those who have Latvian citizenship and Latvian people or nation has been central in the those who have not, i.e., that all who are citizens are real restructuring process following the post-Soviet Latvians. Little attention is paid to the categorizing independence, as the existence of a Latvian "Volk" is the practices among the ethnic Latvian population itself. pillar from which is constructed an ethnocratic Latvian Closer examination of these practices, however, state. demonstrates that gaining the rights associated with citizenship does not in itself make one an accepted After being absorbed into the Soviet Union in 1944, member of the or nation. Latvian society experienced several waves of migration: an immigration of approximately 700,000 Soviet citizens, This paper will argue that Latvia's "ethnic identity" largely Russians; and the deportation of an estimated problems do not lie solely in the realm of Latvian-Russian 150,000 Latvians to Russia. Finally, 240,000 ethnic relations or in the question of citizenship, but are also tied Latvians escaped to the West to avoid the same to intra-ethnic divides among the Latvians themselves. deportations, and a large number were killed during The present study thus tries to extend the traditional World War II (Williams, 1992, Statistical Yearbook of perspective on ethnic boundaries by concentrating on Latvia 1994). These figures are discussed with great vigor what intra-ethnic categories of identification. I am in current attempts to re-construct Latvia's national especially interested in challenging the accepted notion history, a debate which will not be described in detail that the only problematic categorical divides in present here. In 1994, the Latvians were almost outnumbered by Latvian society are between citizens/non-citizens or non-Latvians: the balance resting at 54% Latvians and Latvians/Russians. 46% non-Latvians (most of whom are Russians and other My focus will be on the discourse of "authentic" versus Russian-speaking groups). Latvian historians call this a "partial" Latvians, as articulated by three groups within "national catastrophe". the officially homogenous "Latvian" ethnic group. These As Latvia gained independence in 1991, one of the main are (1) the local Latvians, (2) returned Latvian exiles from problems to be faced became that of "turning the demographic tide" and ensure a growing number of ethnic "There were hundreds of thousands of refugees from all Latvians living on Latvian territory. Apart from generally over the place, who had ended up in Germany - in the praying for an increased Latvian birth-rate and a Russian American zone. It was huge...basically a transplanted exodus, the return of the Latvians living abroad was seen Latvia, over 100,000 Latvians. They had their own as a means of preventing the ethnic minoritization of the publishing house. Apparently it was very difficult Latvians in Latvia. although...the people who left were basically the cream of the crop, all the cultural and political elite, so they made Latvians Abroad their own publishing house, theaters, choirs and such."

During our interviews and informal conversations, the The notion of being the "cream of the crop", the Latvians divided themselves into three separate intelligentsia, is frequently repeated in the stories told to categories: (1) "Local Latvians" , "Latvian Latvians" or me by the Western Latvians. "Latvians from here" (vieteije latviesi, Latvijas latviesi, latviesi no sejienes); (2) Western Latvians, who are From the DP camps, the Latvians scattered all over the mainly returnees from the U.S.A., , , world in more or less random fashion. The Western Germany, Great Britain and . The local Latvians Latvian diasporas maintained their high degree of formal call these people "exile Latvians", "American Latvians", social organization. From the outset, the "preservation of "emigrants" or "Latvians from there" (trimdas latviesi, Latvian culture" was regarded as imperative. The Amerikas latviesi, emigranti or latviesi no turienes). The networks created in the West had as their centers the Western Latvians call themselves "Free World Latvians" Latvian Lutheran Churches, through which were (brivas pasaules latviesi); and (3) "Eastern Latvians" who organized Latvian Sunday-schools (Svetdienas skolas), have returned from the former Soviet republics, choirs and Latvian summer camps (Vasaras nometnes). predominantly from Russia. The locals call them All the Western Latvians I interviewed have celebrated "Russia's Latvians" (austrumu or Krievijas Latvian Christmas (Ziemassvetki), Easter (Lieldienas), latviesi).(Readers will excuse the absence of Latvian Midsummer-festival (Jani), etc. Among the younger accented characters due to computer problems). The generation, some have attended the Latvian Gymnasium "Western Latvians" escaped the country during and in Mnster, Germany, and others the Latvian College at immediately after World War II. The life histories of a Western Michigan University, U.S.A. The extent to which number of these former exiles or their descendants the Western Latvians have worked to establish Latvian resemble those told by refugees all over the world: the communities cannot be discussed in detail in the present sudden uprooting of whole lives and families; the leaving context, but the existence of such networks has certainly behind of relatives and friends in the midst of war and been a major factor in communicating and reproducing a chaos; the immediate loss of social and material status; collective Latvian diasporic identity. insecurity concerning the future; and the pain and sorrow of leaving one's . Most of these Latvians were The majority of Western Latvians have retained the gathered in Displaced Persons' (DP) camps, mainly in citizenship of both Latvian and their adopted country. Germany and , for periods lasting up to 8 years They seldom express any wish to renounce their Western (1944/45- 1949/52. Karklis, Streips & Streips, 1974). The citizenship in order to become members of only one stories told about life in these camps are quite varied. nation. Most of them say that if ever forced to choose, Some informants talk of the suffering and humiliation of they would give up their Latvian citizenship. living together with thousands of other refugees, the The "Eastern Latvians" narratives focus on being brutally scarcity of food and other necessities, and the overall woken up in the middle of the night by the KGB; on the sense of losing personal dignity. Others emphasize that splitting of families; on tales of thousands of kilometers the refugees were mainly well-educated, middle class of long, horrible train-rides squeezed into cattle-cars, on intellectuals, who were quickly able to organize the repeated humiliations and dreadful experiences in the camps and get them functioning. One interviewee, Soviet prison camps. The deportees generally talk of "Gorbatchev", a 31-year old American Latvian, recalls facing a hostile environment: the harsh tundras of Siberia, how his parents and grandparents described their stay in a the prison conditions and struggles with the local DP camp in postwar Germany: authorities (Williams: 1992). Both the Western and the Eastern Latvians adapted to "Being Latvian means living on the territory defined as their surroundings over the years, although the Eastern the residence of the Latvian ethnic group". This definition Latvians experienced difficulties in preserving themselves is heard mostly from the local Latvians who are born and as an ethnic group: they did not have the opportunities to raised on Latvian territory. What is emphasized here is jus organize themselves to the degree characteristic of the soli: the right of the land, the right of the inhabitants of a Western Latvians. Eastern deportees often lived isolated territory to claim it as theirs and to make it the homeland from other Latvians, and their position in Stalin's U.S.S.R. of the nation defined by them as such. Ethnic identity is was under a cloud. The Latvians had been accused of regarded as being shaped by the historical habitat of the collaboration with Nazi Germany, which often made ethnic community, and in the eyes of the local Latvians, explicit signs of ethnic affiliation hazardous. Furthermore, as the non-resident Latvians lose "the sense of the land", the Eastern Latvians often lacked the possibility to speak they lose the very locus of their - Latvian - identity. My their native language. As the years passed, many of the hostess, "Anna", a 70-year-old Latvian woman, explains deportees married Russians or other non-Latvians and in her views: this process changed their surnames in order not to be too conspicuously Latvian. "Latvia might be the fatherland [Tevzeme] of [the Western Latvians] but it is not their homeland Only about half of the Eastern Latvian informants who I [Dzimtene]. It is not where they are born and have lived. interviewed have Latvian citizenship. The main hurdles It is the homeland of their forefathers! It is not the same, they face in order to obtain citizenship are their lack of and when you [i.e. they] are born in America, that is your language-skills or lack of sufficient documentation of homeland, and that makes you an American. That is Latvian descent. where you belong. Not in Latvia."

Conflicting Codes of Ethnic Membership "Kolja", a 24-years-old local Latvian man, says: "Well, we can't say anything They are Latvians, or so-called The process of restructuring the social and politico- Latvians. But in their nature they are not Latvian economic fields of Latvia, basically on a conception of anymore." the nation-state dominated by the titular ethnic group, has spurred desire for ethnic unity: a sense of sameness, of The view of many local Latvians with whom I have shared value-systems, of a common and essentially spoken is that a given culture is located . If you move undisputed perception of ancestry and history, of an away from a "cultural territory" for a given period, you ethnic identity on which the legitimacy of the nation-state are no longer a natural member of that culture. Obviously, rests safely. This need is explicit in several areas of Eastern or Western Latvians have difficulty using the Latvian community life: in political narratives, in public territorial criteria for evaluating Latvian ethnic and private discussions about "true" Latvian identity, in membership. They regard themselves as Latvian, although newspaper and magazine articles about the primordialism they have been living outside Latvian territory almost all of Latvian traditions and culture in relations between the their lives. What is essential to them is the fact that they Latvians and the Russian minority in Latvia, and in the are of Latvian origin, that they have "Latvian blood" in intra-ethnic relations among the Eastern, Western and their veins. They are affiliated to the nation, and their local Latvians. It is the latter field that will be described ethnic membership is defined by this filiation. They claim here. the "right of the blood", "jus sanguinis". Of course, the local or "native" Latvians also claim this right, but the As the diasporic Latvians return, reality seems to conflict diasporas have only this criteria for evaluating their own with the dream of a Latvian Volk with a single ethnic and membership of the Latvian ethnic nation. cultural identity. While all three groups consider themselves "Latvian", they do not share the same criteria In most writings on national and ethno-cultural identity, or codes with which they identify others and themselves the notion of common descent is central as a form of self- as members of the Latvian ethnic group (Borneman ascription by which people regard themselves as members 1991). of a specific ethnic group or nation. In the Latvian case, ethnic affiliation is the subject of negotiation: the locals tend to discredit the Latvian descent of the Eastern and Western Latvians and hence their membership in the socialized to behave within totally different social and Latvian ethnic group. If you can prove that you are of cultural fields. The Eastern Latvians have lived as isolated Latvian descent, you receive Latvian citizenship, but that households among Russians (or Ukrainians, does not necessarily make you a Latvian! "Vackins", a Byelorussians, etc.) , while the Western Latvians have 20-years-old local Latvian man, express the dilemma as been integrated into American, Australian, German or follows: other Western societies. The different behavioral traits of the Eastern and Western groups are sometimes used by It is the same with the Eastern Latvians. They have local Latvians to emphasize that the foreign Latvians are Latvian parents, but we can't say that they are Latvians. exactly that: foreigners! We can't be certain that they are. You have to live here and see what is going on and what is happening. Then you In response, the Western and Eastern Latvians reassert can understand. their claim that they have preserved Latvian culture which in their view is to a large extent inherent in customs, The family and the "continuity of the blood" is repeatedly traditions and folklore. The more culturally conscious emphasized by the "foreign" Latvians, even if they Western Latvians claim that present-day Latvian culture haven't set foot on Latvian soil before 1991. "Solvita", a is not "the real thing". It is a Soviet culture pervaded by a 42-year-old American-Latvian woman, responds to the habitus of bureaucracy , suspicion and general passivity, question, "Do you have any sense of belonging here?": cultural traits very unlike their memories or perceptions of ways of the Old Country. The most nationalistically- "Oh, certainly! It's the language, it's the relatives, the minded Western Latvians sometimes insinuate that the belonging has to do with relatives. I don't even have that locals have allowed the old traditions to be diluted and close a contact with my relatives, I have a couple of destroyed. Latvian culture has been contaminated through cousins here, whom I haven't been seeing because I don't contact with the Soviet culture. have any relationship with them... But the sense of belonging...it almost has to do with just knowing that my Language is the most important national symbol in parents and grandparents have grown up here." Latvia. It "proves" that the Latvians are an ethnic group, a nation with a common language. Because language has The Eastern Latvians have serious bureaucratic problems played a major role in "re-Latvianizing" Latvia, it is a when t comes to proving their Latvian ancestry and heavily politicized subject. Hence, inability to speak affinity. Many of the Eastern Latvians who were born in Latvian is one of the primary criteria for being Russia or married Russians chose Russian as the ethnic disqualified as a loyal member of the nation. The local designation in their passports in order to improve their Latvians tend to discredit the Latvian spoken by the own or their children's opportunities in Russia. The local Western Latvians as being old-fashioned", an outdated Latvians often express skepticism, when it comes to the language spoken in a time-void far from Latvia. They claimed affinity of the Eastern Latvians with the Latvian emphasize that the Western Latvians speak with Western, nation: "The attitude toward the Western Latvians is mostly American, accents and that their Latvian has been better than the attitude toward the Eastern Latvians, who heavily Anglicized. Local Latvians claim that the local are considered mostly as Russians", says my local dialect is more authentic and therefore more legitimate, as informant Vackins. it has been spoken continuously over the years. In other Cultural Capital and Language Proficiency words, they speak the real Latvian.

Local Latvians do not shy away from describing the The Western Latvians seem embarrassed by their own differences between them and their titular ethnic brethren: accents, often stating that they work hard on improving "It's not just the accent," says my informant Vackins, their pronunciation. However, they do not accept the "they are absolutely different people. They have become discrediting of their Latvian. Instead, they discredit the accustomed to different things, to other ways of living." local language as being Russified, as having been destroyed by too much contact with Russians. Some Since the three groups described here have been living in returned Latvians even claim that Western Latvian is the completely different environments, they have been original language that was spoken in the First Republic. The discussion about language competence is hardly evaluate others as members or non-members of the academic. In the emigré communities in the West, Latvian nation is a powerful tool. Gaining control of such learning and speaking Latvian functioned as a key a tool is an important activity in all societies, but marker, differentiating those who were "loyal" to the especially those societies undergoing massive socio- Latvian cause and those who were "disloyal". "Krista", a economic "transition". The struggles over which criteria 35-year-old Canadian-Latvian woman, says: "My family to use when judging ethnic membership are struggles for was more or less ostracized from the Latvian community power, just as the criteria for citizenship can be regarded because we didn't learn Latvian, God forbid! We didn't as a way of controlling the access to power and influence. learn Latvian and that's the biggest no-no of all!". The function of language in the diasporic communities makes Western Latvians possess skills regarded as necessary in the criticism by the local Latvians that much harder to the reconstruction of the democratic state (English skills accept for many Western Latvians. The same accusations important in international relations; knowledge of of language disloyalty they had used in the West against computers, of market economy, etc.). However, most others are now turned against them in the guise of local Latvians think that the foreign Latvians should limit language "incompetence", such that their loyalty to Latvia their activities to the role of advisors instead of occupying is called into question. key posts in Latvian society and political life. As few local Latvians have these type of skills, they see the A high degree of proficiency in Latvian is a key criteria if privileges of the Westerners and of the Western Latvians one applies for citizenship. Apart from being a way of as a threat to their re-claimed power over Latvia's keeping the resident Russians from gaining too much institutional infrastructure. The local Latvians have often influence (as in most other republics, the Russians seldom expressed to me their frustration over what they see as speak the native tongue), discussions about "true" Latvian arrogance and patronizing attitudes from Western experts language seem to be part of an ongoing struggle of intra- as regards their evaluation of local academic skills. They ethnic boundary-maintenance between the three feel that both Westerners in general and Western Latvians categories of Latvians: can you be a Latvian at all, if you in particular discredit their skills or dismiss these as being don't speak the language correctly? Are you less of a useless leftovers of the communist educational system. Latvian if you speak with an accent? And who has the right to define what is the authentic language: those who The local Latvians, furthermore, see the easy access of the speak an old-fashioned, Anglicized version or those who Western Latvians to high positions within the government speak an "updated", but Russified version? as a threat to their control over the direction of the state. Unable to question their professional competence, they The Politics of Identity attack their cultural pedigree. Subtle attempts are made to discredit the Western Latvians' claim to be "true" While the are grateful for [the diaspora's] Latvians: "Latvians from there," as they are called, might support, they view the diaspora with a certain disdain for have the necessary legal or constitutional knowledge, it is having been enticed by the fleshpots of capitalism and for admitted, but they do not know Latvian culture or retaining a vulgarized ethnic culture. This is among the "mentality" as it really is. True Latvianness can only lie reasons why homelands do not necessarily want to with "Latvian Latvians"! Dismissing or casting doubt on welcome their diasporas back from abroad. Returnees, the validity of the Western Latvians' claim to Latvianness particularly from host countries more advanced than the becomes a way of questioning their right to make policies homeland, might unsettle its political, social and on behalf of the "real" Latvians. Insofar that this strategy equilibrium (Safran 1991). is successful, local Latvians may gain power by acquiring the positions now occupied by Western Latvians. Discussions about who is the most authentic Latvian ramify into the larger political field. As the Latvians have Educational skills are a sore point for both local and created a nation-state based on (and named after) the Eastern Latvians. The latter mostly have their education Latvian ethnic group, defining the barriers of the same from the Russian universities. The locals tend to discredit ethnic group becomes co-terminus with defining the these as being inferior to their own, despite the fact that legitimate political actors. Controlling access to the during the Soviet period many local Latvians also studied political field by defining the criteria with which to at Universities in Leningrad and Moscow, where the Russia will all of a sudden decide to come to Latvia education was said to be very good. The discrediting of because things are better here. And that the people who the Soviet educational system, and the tendency to will come will be the ones who have it worse off over retrospectively emphasize Latvia's universities as being there, and they will need all kinds of assistance, so they superior to the main Soviet institutions, have left the will be just a burden on the government." Eastern Latvians bitter. One Eastern Latvian woman stated that the locals knew that the Russian universities In the discursive practices surrounding the issue of were better than the national ones, but that all the jobs education, there seems to be a subtle narrative were given to the Western Latvians anyway. The locals concentrating on the differences in class-affiliations did this because they thought they might gain something among the three groups. As the Western Latvians from it, not because the Western Latvians were better represent themselves as "the elite that left", some local qualified: and Eastern Latvians feel that those who stayed or got deported are indirectly categorized as "uneducated", as There is this book called "The Measuring Time of the "working-class", as never having been a threat to the Latvians" or something like that, and it says that if Soviet system, and therefore not quite loyal to the Latvian somebody is rich and is not a Latvian, if we are polite to nation. The subtle class-rhetoric inherent in the elitist them, maybe they will give us something, so we are remarks by the Western Latvians provokes strong feelings becoming more and more polite and doing everything for of resentment in both local and Eastern Latvians, for they them... If they come from the West, maybe they have see themselves opposed to everything Soviet (such as something...but not if they come from the East! being working-class"). That the Western Latvians now occupy positions in Latvian society which belong to what It is difficult to make contact with the Eastern Latvians in might be called the educated upper class (with incomes Latvia. Their organization in Riga, the Association of 10-100 times higher than the average local salaries) does Russia's Latvians, is quite anxious that too many little to remove the image of "the super-privileged who questions might "harm our cause". Their main goal is to left and came back". assist Eastern Latvians coming back from Russia to gain citizenship and to find housing, often by exchanging The economic differences between Western Latvians and apartments with Latvian Russians leaving for Russia. The the local/Eastern Latvians are immense, and the above Association runs a small language-school connected to discussions can thus also be seen as a struggle not only their offices and provides legal aid to people whose for influence and positions within the emerging political applications are mired in the citizenship bureaucracy. hierarchies, but also as attempts by the locals to gain According to their leader, the Eastern Latvians "somewhat access to high positions in the evolving political- suspicious attitude is a response to the constant pressure economic structures. from the locals, who "don't understand that we love Latvia." The difficulties of gaining citizenship described Conflict about who is really Latvian is also a means of by the Eastern Latvians, when combined with the determining who has the authority to represent and attitudes of the local and Western Latvians led me to articulate "Latvia" within and outside the country. A conclude that political struggles lay behind the Western Latvian informant states: discrediting of Eastern Latvians as "true" ethnic kin. [The Western Latvians] occupy important positions in Downgrading the Eastern Latvians was a means of different ministries, newspapers and so on, where they preventing their entry into the country as public charges, have a lot of contact with foreigners. They explain Latvia, and of blocking their path to even minimal political, they do translations, they are advisors. Basically they are social and economical influence. An elderly Western the transmission belt in the middle between Latvia and the Latvian man comments: West. Most local Latvians don't understand how to do " But this is a subject that no-one wants to talk about. that, they don't understand the West. Nothing is officially said or done about this in the The Western Latvians have a quite substantial influence government. But I suppose the government is worrying on the image of Latvia presented abroad, an image not over some sort of stampede... worried that people in always shared by the local population. Questioning the cultural expertise of the Western Latvians also casts doubt processes within this relationship both mirror and on their suitability to occupy positions in the field of influence the general attitude toward Westerners now international public relations. evolving among the Latvian population. These attitudes need further investigation as the flow of personnel capital Conclusions: Latvians and Other Latvians and images from the West into Eastern Europe increases. The negotiations of identity described above influence the The resourceful Western Latvians are a valuable asset in relationship toward the Western world and its experts on the Latvian transition, but they are also a foreign force in democracy, human rights and market economy, experts the eyes of many locals. Local interests see it necessary to who by many local Latvians are seen as being too dam up their influence on Latvian affairs. They do so by powerful. Latvia still needs the aid of Westerners- discussing the very criteria with which the Western claiming Latvian descent or not. The relationship to the Latvians evaluate themselves as members of the Latvian West, like so much else in the post-communist transition, ethnic community: cultural capital and language remains one of continuous ambivalence. proficiency. In this context, the articulation of national and ethnic identity takes on an instrumental character, References Cited defining the boundaries of the political community. 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Decatur, Michigan: returned "home" to Latvia with high hopes of finding Johnson Graphics. "one's own people" the one's they dreamed of while in the diaspora. They instead face a general exclusion within the social field, or stigmatization as "foreigner", some react with frustration, some with anger and some with sadness. Many return, disillusioned, to their former diaspora in the West. The diaspora has become "home", "home" has become foreign.

Apart from exploring the field of identity in a transitional society, the study of the relations between the locals and the Other Latvians has other implications. First, the