Research on the Typology and Design of Roof As Well As Prayer Hall of Mosques in Malaysia

International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology Vol. 29, No. 9s, (2020), pp. 1885 - 1899

Research on the Typology and Design of Roof as Well as Prayer Hall of Mosques in Malaysia

Muhammad Zaki Bin Abd Manaf 1, Mohd Farid Bin Mohamed 2, Wardah Fatimah Mohammad Yusoff 3 and Mohd Khairul Azhar Mat Sulaiman 4 1,2,3 & 4 Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, National University of Malaysia, 1 [email protected] / [email protected], 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected] and 4 [email protected]

Abstract Mosques in Malaysia are synonymous with their dominant roof character, which are of either domed or ‘meru’ roof. The domed roof design is a product of the Middle Eastern architecture heritage, which has become a symbol and landmark of Muslims’ place of worship all over the world. On the other hand, the ‘meru’ roof is said to be the original design in the Malay Archipelago, even before the arrival of Islam in the region. The objective of this research is to discuss issues related to the design of roof and prayer hall, as they are seen as the essence to the formation of a mosque. Based on literature review method, it will touch on the aspects of mosques, places of worship, hot and humid climate, as well as response to climate in general. This research is aimed at providing a basic understanding and a holistic picture on its criteria, design effects and potentials.

Keywords: Mosque Typology, Domed Roof, ‘Meru’ Roof, Prayer Hall

Introduction A mosque can be defined as a place of worship for the Muslim community, and is also a place for performing prayers and religious activities (DBP, 2010). To be more specific, it is the place for the weekly Friday congregational prayers and other prayers, as well as all the activities permissible according to Islam (Majlis Agama Islam Selangor, 2017). The basic scope of a mosque’s existence include a prayer hall, niche, pulpit, minaret, ablution area, toilet, corridor and a multipurpose area. There are four classifications of mosques, namely national mosque, state mosque, district mosque and village mosque (JPBD, 1997). The classification of each mosque is dependent upon the local capacity, however, its design is based on the maximum number of congregation, emphasizing on its importance and size of institution (Khan, 1990). Basically, a mosque plays an important role in the development of the culture and civilization of the local Muslim community (Ezad Azraai Jamsari, Siti Noorasikin Tumiran, Kaseh Abu Bakar, & Zamri Arifin, 2010). According to Hajeedar Abdul Majid, a mosque is a physical manifestation of the essence of prayer, and is also an earthly symbol that leads people to the path of truth (Norwina Mohd Nawawi, Shireen Jahnkassim, 2016). In an urban context, a mosque is considered as an urban identity, due to its dominant appearance, majestic characteristics, being symmetrical, a symbol of unity, harmony, central and balanced (Ali & Qadir, 2015). It is also recognized as national monument, representing the historical artefact and local culture, while becoming a tourist attraction (Kong, 1993). The variation in the design of mosques today is an evident of the adaptability of Islam to the different cultures and beliefs that are not against the nature of worshipping The One God (Mohamad Rasdi, 2007). Mosque has always been a controversial issue, and a subject of debate in academic and theoretical writings, as well as in design statements and interpretations (John, Bukhari, Frazer, & Drogemuller, 2010). This subject is considered as a movement and experimentation of the combination of Islamic values that are still ambiguous in the context of the Muslim community in Malaysia. Current mosque designs provide the interpretation of Islam with declining culture, non-

International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology Vol. 29, No. 9s, (2020), pp. 1885 - 1899 creativity, being arrogant, a ‘white elephant’ in characteristics and not being used to the optimum (Mohamad Tajuddin Mohamad Rasdi, 2012). The attitude of taking things for granted, coupled with a poor basic understanding among designers, has led to the misinterpretation of symbolism in mosque designs, such as the dome being associated with a symbol from the heaven, number of columns to represent certain number in Islam, ornamentation reflecting the infinity of God’s power, and many others (Atik Hosiah, 2012).

Problem Statement There are no recommendations made in the Koran or the Prophet’s teachings, of the style of a mosque. There are also no symbolism form to represent the worship rituals in Islam, except for faith and submission of the soul, explaining the prohibition of symbolism icons on manmade structures, for fear of becoming a basis of idolatry or polytheism (Kahera, Abdulmalik, & Anz, 2009). The interpretation of dome by the pioneers of Islamic architecture, is a form of replication of the Roman Civilization architecture, which was adapted with the local architecture (M. Surat, M.T.M. Rasdi, A.R. Musa, N. Utaberta, 2011). Replication of the early Islamic architecture concept is considered as a crisis stemming from the feeling of utmost humbleness towards the greatness of ancient architecture (Utaberta & Othman, 2011), in fact, it is also not a good response that needs modification to suit prevailing circumstances (Mahmood Feizabadi, Anahita Sal Msolehian, 2017). Looking at the current scenario of the demand from Muslim community, domed roof component as well as minarets, are a must for a mosque, and any objection is considered as going against Islam (Avcioglu & Rabat, 2007). This issue is foreseen to have a great impact on the development of mosque design in the future, in terms of the design effectiveness on local climate, when in fact there is a variety of mosque designs in Malaysia that can be considered and to choose from.

Research Objective The variation in mosque architecture in Malaysia is unique, and rich in contextual influence. This design variation has been acknowledged and preserved in recognizing the importance of the country’s historical values, and looking at new mosque development, it will be injected with the continuity of the existing mosque design. The objective of this writing is to study mosque typology in Malaysia, and the basis of the discussion will touch on the roof element as well as the praying hall, considering that both are seen as the essence in the formation of the mosque institution. There is no denying that it is easy to make comparisons in terms of the physical aspects and characteristics of a mosque, just by looking at these two components. Therefore, this research was carried out with the purpose to provide a basic understanding and a holistic picture on the criteria, design impact on the local climate, as well as its potential.

Methodology This research is focused on the typology of mosques in Malaysia, particularly on the roof and praying hall in general. Therefore, the methodology is based on literature review, in order to scrutinize previous studies with similarities as the current study, while identifying the expectations and findings. The context of place of worship, hot and humid climate, and response to nature, are the essence of this research.

Literature Review A. Design principles of a mosque The notion of the difference in creative thinking has existed throughout architecture history (Gür & Durmuş, 2012). It is supported by the use of various architectural language on the proposals, that are holistic in nature, autonomous, controlled and evolving (Liddament, 1996). Apart from that, religious belief as well as the way religious duties are carried out, have led to the creation of the various mosque designs that we have today (Esfahani, 2015). There are instances when the

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confusion between idea and the image of mosque designs has resulted in the global visual becoming a priority and separated from the basic essence of Islam (Kahera et al., 2009). According to Achmad Noemandi [21], the true design principles of mosque must be based on its rationale and functionality in accordance to Islamic integrity, honesty in its expression exemplified by a modern design, simple and not boastful in nature, as well as anti-traditional towards impractical elements such as domed roof and excessive ornamentation. Elements of replication should be totally rejected, as through borrowing of ideas, physical memories or foreign image mind, may lead to the confusion on the basic principles of Islam (Kahera et al., 2009). In reality, Islamic architecture is everlasting in nature and flexible in response to prevailing circumstances and time, even when it is manifested in certain styles (Bhakti Alamsyah, 2011).

B. Mosque typology in Malaysia Mosque is a place of worship that is very much influenced by creative movements, and Islam has no objection towards this freedom (Gür & Durmuş, 2012). Islam is a civilization that embrace openness towards adaptability and tolerance, therefore the current typology difference is enough to indicate the situation where the foundation of Islam is based on the upholding of cultural values and the local living system, resulting in the creation of a flexible ideology of Islam. It has to also be accompanied with an understanding of Islamic doctrines, a balance in the current socio-political condition, environmental sustainability, functionality and theory, as well as the basic value of architecture (Bhakti Alamsyah, 2011). Thus, the existence of a mosque is a tangible cultural property that is the result of the legacy of the past (RAHMAN, 2010). Basically, mosque typology can be categorized into three approaches, namely global, local and details. The global approach is geared towards the comparison of the climate of the Muslim world, in which the architecture typology is different and complex (Ardalan, 1980). The mosques are developed from a generic gene, following the climatic chromosome ecology of a particular area (John et al., 2010). There are six global styles that can be clearly identified, namely the Arab ‘hypostyle’ (flat roofed with a combination of columns), Ottoman (central dome), Iran (large gateway for the ‘iwan’/rectangular hall and internal courtyard), Indian (onion dome, gateway and ‘sahn’/courtyard), Chinese (layered bargeboard roof system) and the Malay Archipelago world (pyramidal or pitched roof) (Mohamad Rasdi, 2007). The local approach on the other hand refers to the local condition influenced by the ethnic culture, colonization impacts, technology, as well as the current political environment, it also materializes the design, size and location setting (A. G. Ahmad, 1999). The combination of these aspects led to the creation of its uniqueness on eight local architectural style namely vernacular traditional styled mosque, Sino-electric, classical European, North Indian, vernacular modern, expressionism modern, post-modern revivalism and vernacular revivalism (Mastor Surat, Mohd Rasdi, Musa, Utaberta, & Tahir, 2011) as shown in Table 1. The difference in terms of understanding and mosque typology classification by previous researchers have made it difficult for a ruling to be made, therefore, a detailed approach on the space, materials, methods, ornamentation and visual components have been introduced in the identification of the characteristics of a mosque (Megat Ariff Shah, Ezrin Arbi, & Nila Inangda, 2014). It is regarded as a proof that refers to the physical aspects of an object that has many phenomena as well as the characteristics of an architectural thought movement (N. Utaberta, M. Surat, 2011).

Table 1: The Eight local architectural style in Malaysia, based on the authors’ understanding on the research by M. Surat et al. (Mastor Surat et al., 2011). 8 Local style Features Examples 1.Traditional i. Fundamental mosque Masjid Kampung Laut vernacular ii. Has 2 or 3 layers of ‘meru’ roof or ext ended roof iii. The prayer hall is square or rectangul

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ar shape.

2. Sino-eclectic i. Influence of Chinese architecture Masjid Kampung Hulu ii. Has 2 or 3 layers of ‘meru’ roof iii. The prayer hall is square.

3. Classical i. Influence of ‘renaissance’ Masjid Bandar Maharani Europe architecture, same architecture as the chu rch iii. Combination of flat roof and dome iii. The prayer hall is rectangular.

4. Northern i. Influence India Moghul architecture Masjid Jamek K. Lumpur India ii. Onion dome roof iii. The prayer hall is rectangular.

5. Modern i. Majority mosque in Malaysia. Masjid Kg. Batu Muda vernacular ii. Combination of vernacular mosque wit h dome component. iii. The prayer hall is square.

6. Modern i. A new and vibrant identity. Masjid Negara expressionism ii. Modernistic expressionism and structu ralism iii. The prayer hall is square.

7. Post-modern i. Overseas mosque and combined with lo Masjid Putrajaya revivalism cal vernacular architecture. ii. Large-scale and iconic iii. The prayer hall is square.

8. Vernacular i. Vernacular mosque in large scale Masjid Al-Azim revivalism ii. Has 3 layers of ‘meru’ roof iii. The prayer hall is square.

Based on the typological approach and research on the local design above, classification on the examples and mosque features can be summarized in Table 2. There are two dominant

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mosque roof forms, namely the domed and the ‘meru’ roof, with a similarity in the square prayer hall design. Table 2: Domination of domed and ‘meru’ roof, as well as the similarities in the square-shaped prayer hall based on the visual component details of the local style of architecture by the authors. Research by M. Surat Author findings (visual components) and others (2011 - 8 local style Shape of prayer hall Shape of roof 1.Traditional Square or rectangular shape ‘Meru’ roof or extended roof vernacular

2. Sino-eclectic ‘Meru’ roof

Square shape

3. Classical Rectangular shape Pitch roof (limas), small dome and Europe flat roof.

4. Northern Rectangular shape Big dome, small dome and flat India roof.

5. Modern Square shape Dome roof (majority mosque in vernacular Malaysia).

6. Modern Expressionism roof.

expressionism Square shape

7. Post-modern Square and hexagon shape Dome roof and big scale revivalism

8. Vernacular ‘Meru’ roof and big scale.

revivalism Square shape

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C. Domed and ‘meru’ roof of mosques Domed roof element is usually found on religious buildings of the Jewish, Christian and Muslim civilizations. It has been widely accepted by the Muslim community in most mosques, as one of the basic features of Islamic architecture (Hoteit, 2015)(M. Surat, M.T.M. Rasdi, A.R. Musa, N. Utaberta, 2011). The majority of the mosques in the world have the similarities in terms of the use of large patterned domes, minarets, and engraved ornaments as shown in Picture 1. The use of ‘Islamic’ elements can be clearly identified in the modern mosque architecture with the concept of ‘Pan-Islam’, which is a combination of traditional and popular Southeast Asian style (Khan, 1990).

Picture 1: Example of a domed roofed mosque building. Source: Author Narration through artefacts is important to connect the stories of the prophets, tradition, place and time, with ritual practice, therefore domed roofs and minarets are considered as artefacts or visual text in regaling important stories in Islam (Eimen, 2015). Research have shown that the concept of unity is effective in mosque architecture, where elements such as circle, symmetrical point, vertical axis and sphere are combined to enable the central dome to play its roles (Bemanian & Silvayeh, 2013). A mosque with a dome is not considered to have an authentic Islamic features, as it takes precedent from the Roman architecture that is very much rooted in the cosmology aspect of a worldly heaven [1]. Dome in is an element used following the influence of historical facts and the technological need at a particular time, and is not an element to indicate purity or a standard value in Islamic architecture (M. Surat, M.T.M. Rasdi, A.R. Musa, N. Utaberta, 2011). In the second half of the 18th century and the subsequent eras, domed mosques and minarets have been recognized as a style belonging to ‘other’ Muslims. It has become a leitmotif in what is known as ‘ex-exoticism’ or ‘turquerie’ in architecture (Avcioglu & Rabat, 2007). In reference to the research carried out by M. Surat et al. (Mastor Surat et al., 2011), it can be concluded that the existence of a dome is a ‘replica’ language from church typology or administrative buildings belonging to other cultures. It has been identified that dome was ignored and not recognized as the main element of a mosque in the formation of the Nusantara mosque in the traditional and colonial era until the 20th century. Dome has created a universal Islamic architectural language to unite all the Muslims in the world. Table 3 outlines the criteria and findings from previous research on domed roof.

Table 3: Criteria and findings from previous research on domed roof. Criteria Finding 1. Profile Shallow, simple and pointed (Ashkan, Ahmad, & Arbi, 2012). Arab, segmental, hemisphere and onion-shaped (Che Din & Anuar, 2019). 2. Metaphor According to Zarina Hussein (1993), dome represents the symbolism of divinity level, arch represents the nature and the ornamentations are equivalent to the stars (Yusof, 2011) 3. Construction 1, 2 or 3 layers depending on the thickness of the roof (Ashkan et al., 2012).

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structure The taller and the bigger is the roof geometry, the heavier is its load transfer (Al- Hashimi, Seibi, & Molki, 2010). Old and current technology for the coverage of a large area and being structure-free in the middle (Suharjanto, 2013). The supporting parts, drum and shell are its structural stability system (Ashkan et al., 2012). 4. Roof finishes Concrete, aluminium, rustproof steel and other metal-based materials. 5. Air pressure The height and width ratio is proportionate to the air pressure suction value at the (exterior) back of the roof and the nozzle effect at the top (Al-Hashimi et al., 2010). Wind direction and pressure are clear and smooth, as a result of a small wind shield as well as the minimum distribution of peak pressure as compared to in other roof forms (Chen, 2012). 6. Impact of A consistent average receipt on the exterior surface (roof geometry and form). solar Great impact on the solar intensity ability control in reducing the energy for cooling, radiation as well as for the interior thermal comfort effect (Ayoub & Elseragy, 2018). Has a relatively stable radiation temperature every month (Sugini, Fitriani, & Anggoman, 2017). The effect of shaded and sunlit on the domed roof is fully dependent on the sun’s altitude direction. The shading performance has a functional relationship with time throughout the day (0°- 180°) (Muhaisen, 2011). 7. Thermal The receipt of solar radiation is not holistic, consistent and heat is transferred effect proportionately on the whole surface (Sugini et al., 2017).

A mosque without a dome represents a modern religious monument and has an international excellence due to its unique design. There is no negative impact in becoming a mosque without a dome, and it gives the sense of openness, natural lighting and sufficient ventilation for the main prayer hall (Jamil, 2017) as shown in Picture 2 and 3. Innovative mosque designs that tend to move away from the use of dome and minaret are applauded by the architect community, as it is seen as a new explorative formula and different from the norm (Eimen, 2015).

Picture 2: An example of a ‘meru’ roofed mosque building Source: Author

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Picture 3: A ‘meru’ roof and its construction structure Source: [40] Typology research has shown that the pitched form is used in the traditional Malay architecture as a symbolism for the local mosque building, without the intention of building a mosque in the hypostyle or original Arab style (M. Surat, N.A.G.Abdullah, Usman, Tawil, & Ismail, 2011). In general, the roof of a traditional mosque is characterized by two or three layers of pitched roof (A. A. Ahmad, Ali @ Mat Zin, & Arbi, 2013). The intelligence of the vernacular design of steep roof lies in its function to hold the hot air at the topmost part of the roof, and releasing it the outside to allow for air circulation and thermal comfort to be achieved (Ramli, Kassim, Taib, & Masri, 2012). Table 4 presents the criteria and findings from previous research on ‘meru’ roof. Table 4: Criteria and findings from previous research on ‘meru’ roof. Criteria Finding 1. Profile Usually of 30°, 45° and 60° pitch (Al-Obaidi, Ismail, & Rahman, 2014). 2. Metaphor The holy mountain in Hinduism, it represents the recovery of Islamic values in order to remain loyal in the transcendence of faith, give up egoism, and strive to become a sincere person (Wiryomartono, 2009). 3. Construction Wind pressure on the roof of a low-rise building will result in a sudden increase of structure pressure at the top, while the structural system of the higher roof will be affected by the wind load (Chen, 2012). 4. Roof finishes Clay roof, concrete, corrugated metal, metal decking and insulated metal decking (Sadeghifam, Zahraee, Meynagh, & Kiani, 2015). 5. Air pressure For a roof angle of below 27°, the pressure will start to be controlled by vortex effects (exterior) occupying the cavity of the roof, and the turbulent effect will start to disappear (Sadeghifam et al., 2015). The negative pressure pattern and the drag coefficient on the roof surface may change in proportion with the angle of the roof. The roof angle of a building is proportionate to its height and the frontal area in contact with the wind, therefore, a roof with a pitch of 60° and above is considered to have a low aerodynamic effect, based on a 3 m/s wind velocity simulation (Amri & Syukur, 2017). 6. Impact of Has different variations of temperature every month (Sugini et al., 2017). solar Direct solar radiation on a uniform surface has resulted in the topmost part to be hot radiation (Sugini et al., 2017). 7. Thermal A roof pitch of 60° absorbs most solar radiation (23.37°C to 37.69°C) in comparison effect with the 0°, 30° and 45° pitch, even when using white-coloured roof (Al-Obaidi et al.,

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2014). A roof pitch of 10° and 20° will give a difference of 0.5°C in the interior temperature, and 0.79kWh or 4.13% in the energy use rate (Syiful Irwan, Ibrahim, Zain Ahmed, & Zakaria, 2009).

D. Mosque prayer hall The heart of a mosque is the prayer hall, in which all the main prayer activities as well as other supporting activities take place in turn, functionally (Iqbal, 2015) (Asif, Utaberta, Sabil, & Ismail, 2018). It should be able to bring to the congregation the feelings and thoughts on the existence of Allah The Almighty, in a harmonious and non-excessive ways (Kassim, Abdullah, & Taib, 2014). It also acts as a communication platform between the servants and their Lord, though according to human mind, there is no connection between the two (Dergisi, Khaki, Sadeghi, & Abad, 2015). A simple scenario would be by imagining a person in a negative situation or emptiness, who would use the space as a realm to speak to his Creator (Kerr, 1989). It would be more effective if the ritual is carried out whole-heartedly and earnestly (Supriyanta & Malik, 2016). The design of a mosque interior and the integration of its spaces, are a reflection of the social intent and ritual laws, therefore, it is perceived that these would be the same for different cultures (Aazam, 2005). The real design emphasis should be focused on the prayer hall and the additional prayer space, as the more space is allocated for praying, then the bigger is the size of the overall prayer area; and priority should not be given to the physical roof component design (Hassan & Mazloomi, 2010). The prayer hall is the place where most time is spent and most activities are carried out, and therefore, the comfort of the congregation is highly dependent on its volume (length, width and height), as well as the ventilation and lighting (Iqbal, 2015).

Picture 4: Example of a prayer hall layout. Source: Author

Orientation of the prayer hall towards the Kaabah is a basic fundamental, as it controls the space and building physically and conceptually. The principle of faith, order, hierarchy of space and form are a synthesis that should be refined for the determination of design composition and output (Kahera et al., 2009). The width and length of the prayer hall is very much dependent on the number of congregation as well as the distance between rows; the hall should be of a geometrical form and does not resemble the worship space belonging to other religions (Stegers & HAKIM, 2010). Most of the floor plans of early traditional mosques are of symmetrical geometrical or rectangular forms in their layout, as a way of solving practicality issue of the row layout while worshipping (Shah, Arbi, & Inangda, 2014). From data (Azizul Azli Ahmad, 2013), it was found that a majority of the prayer hall in traditional mosques in Peninsula Malaysia built around the 1700s and 1900s, are of square form in comparison to rectangular form, and are supported by four

International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology Vol. 29, No. 9s, (2020), pp. 1885 - 1899 main column structure as shown in Picture 4. It is classified as common to be found and the prayer hall is of a large scale. The design of a prayer hall must be clear and unobstructed in order to maximize the number of congregation at any given time; it is also the most important and spacious area as compared to others (Azizul Azli Ahmad, 2013). Apart from that, a prayer hall should be given the emphasis in terms of size, decoration, furniture and maintenance of the praying area, so that the congregation can view the community and the whole activity that is taking place (Najafi & Shariff, 2011). Zoning in a prayer hall is usually divided into two; 3/4 for male congregation, while the remaining 1/4 is for the female congregation; where the zones are separated using a permanent or temporary partition (Tarabieh, Nassar, Abu-Obied, & Malkawi, 2018). Table 5 shows the criteria and findings from previous research on prayer halls.

Table 5: Criteria and findings from previous research on prayer halls. Criteria Finding 1. Profile Repetition of the original design as those of the Prophet’s mosques (square or rectangular) (Elkhateeb, Attia, Balila, & Adas, 2018) A square-shaped plan is adopted to balance the roof structure as well as the domed or pitched roof (M. Surat et al., 2011) The recommended form is square and facing the Kiblah (Mokhtar, 2009)

2. Metaphor Axis of worship without differences among Muslim individuals with the same mentality setting (Kahera et al., 2009).

3. Basic A clear ratio between the length, width and height (Elkhateeb et al., 2018). dimension The best ratio for the plan of a prayer hall is 1:2 or 1.25 (Nazik J. Abdulhamid, Vian S. Qadir, 2016).

4. Physical image Monumental, stability, balanced and control (Elkhateeb et al., 2018).

5. Prayer rows The best solution is to optimize the number of congregation in the first row (Hoteit, 2015). The size of the prayer hall should be based on the number of congregation expected, in the most comfortable condition (standing 0.72 sqm/person, sitting 0.96 sqm/person). The distance between each prayer row is 120cm, and has to be longitudinal and not obstructed by columns. Separation of the male praying zone (75%) and female praying zone (25%), with the male zone located before the female zone (Mokhtar, 2009). 6. Orientation and The most important emphasis of a prayer hall is that it faces the Kiblah accurately. height While the height should have a spiritual impact during the act of worshipping (Hoteit, 2015).

7. Interior Must be simple in nature and not excessive, so that it does not interfere with the decoration congregations’ solemnity and focus (Hoteit, 2015).

8. Colour of the White is highly recommended as it enhances the feelings of purity and humbleness interior among the congregation (Hoteit, 2015).

9. Entrance The main entrance is from the wall at the back, the wall that is perpendicular to the direction of the niche and the Kiblah (Mokhtar, 2009). The in and out circulation access is on three other walls, apart from the wall of the space for the imam, at the niche and the pulpit (Suharjanto, 2013).

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Discussions The design principles of a mosque are subjective, depending on the designer’s understanding, faith and acceptance from the local community. It has become a continuous challenge in designing a perfect mosque style. Therefore, the expression of the form of a mosque must be transparent, simple, easily read and sustainable, as well as must be able to communicate positively with the local climate and the natural resources. Islam as a religion is not represented by a specific ritual or object style. Looking at the current mosque designs, which comprise of different styles, it is evident that each mosque has their own uniqueness and the ability to portray its local identity. Therefore, the visual image of a mosque within its zone range has led to the creation of a symbolism towards the mental image and memory for specific Muslim community. The variation in mosque styles calls for the context of the typology to be studied through its details and local approach, to form a basis for future decisions. Basically, the typology of the global and local approach has shown some similarities, where global styles such as the Arab ‘hypostyles’, Ottoman, Indian, Chinese and the Malay Archipelago, have been clearly interpreted into local style. Historical records on the Southeast Asia have shown that the thriving trade in the Malay World through the Straits of Malacca in the 7th century has made it a prime location, therefore, this was used as an opportunity for the Arab, Chinese and Indian traders to preach the teachings of Islam, and leave the Islamic architecture style influence on local architecture. On the other hand, the British colonization has left a strong classical European style on mosques, educational and administrative institutions, as well as other types of building. After independence, designers have started the quest of an identity that is synonymous with the self-esteem, history and symbol that can be used to unite the people. As a solution to the issue of having a mosque with a Malaysian identity, the vernacular style has been uphold and given a new life through the approach of vernacular modern style, expressionism vernacular, post-modern revivalism and vernacular revivalism. This is the style variation in mosque design that still remains until today. Typology research on visual details have shown the existence of hierarchy in domed or pitched roof, as well as square prayer hall, as the statement of the requirements by Malaysian Muslim community who recognize the best and exclusive form as compared to other forms. This has given the example that a place of worship must be made different from other buildings, and is dependent on the living quality of a part of the Muslim community. Some of the Muslim community can’t afford these designs due to limitations in terms of cost, technology and construction complexity, restricting their intentions. Looking at the current construction system and the fastest installation method, domed roof has been the popular choice for the main roof of a mosque, as compared to the pitched roof. The long span of the prayer hall, coupled with the barrier-free columns, the amount of load as well as the complexity of the roof structure construction, has put domed roof at an advantage. Nevertheless, there are differences in the characteristics and response towards the climate between the domed roof and the pitched roof, which will be felt by the congregation in due course. A square prayer hall is the best form where an optimum number of congregation at a particular time can be achieved through the systematic layout of the prayer rows, as well as a circulation access that can be controlled though the three parts of its walls. Openings on the walls for circulation at a size that is compatible with the number of congregation will be a means for interior thermal effect control, through a cost-saving natural ventilation. Among the additional factors that should be taken into consideration is the selection of the materials for the roof and wall of the façade, as it is the main contributor to the receipt and release of the solar thermal for the whole building.

Conclusion The design of a mosque is a product of the culture of the people, through a dynamic assimilation of Islamic culture with the local culture, resulting in a variety of unique typology. Through research on mosque typology based on the details of the visual building components, it was found that the pitched and domed roof, as well as the square prayer hall, are dominant forms, which are used

International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology Vol. 29, No. 9s, (2020), pp. 1885 - 1899 repeatedly in current mosque designs. Each of these roof forms will cover the prayer hall underneath them, and form a structural frame, taking into consideration an effective layout of the congregation rows. The design, size, volume and building materials for the combination of the roof component and the prayer hall are factors highly related to each other, in providing the experiential effects, response as well as comfort for the congregation. Design issue of a mosque is very subjective, in which there is no limitation on which variation to be used, bearing in mind the expected different effects from the selection. Of utmost importance is that the motif and architectural style should emphasize on the Oneness of Allah.

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Author’s contribution Muhammad Zaki conducted, wrote and revised the article. Mohd Farid conceptualized the overall research idea, provided a theoretical framework and monitored the progress. While Wardah Fatimah and Mohd Khairul assist, supervise, review and comment for improvement, supervised research studies; Mohd Farid anchored the review, revisions and approved the article submission.

Conflict of Interest Statement The authors agree that this research was conducted in the absence of any self-benefits, commercial or financial conflicts and declare absence of conflicting interests with the funders.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their gratitude and thankfulness to the National University of Malaysia (UKM) for the support by providing Geran Penyelidikan Universiti (GUP-2017-111) and Dana Cabaran Perdana (DCP-2017-008/5).