Presidential Preparation: The Influence of Military Service on the Management Styles and Policy Decisions of U.S. Presidents Timothy R. Schulte Prepared in History 192.02 for Dean Gerald Wilson May 5, 2012 Schulte 2 Schulte 3 Table of Contents 1. Introduction 5 The effects of military service 2. Dwight David Eisenhower 9 Career soldier who rose to the top of the Army's hierarchy 3. John Fitzgerald Kennedy 47 Naval lieutenant who served valiantly for less than four years 4. William Jefferson Clinton 101 Academic & career politician who actively avoided military service 5. Conclusion 149 Trends and tendencies of military veterans who have been elected President 6. Bibliography 167 Schulte 4 Schulte 5 Introduction The effects of military service In his 1690 piece of literature entitled, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, philosopher John Locke addressed the age-old question concerning the influence of nature versus nurture. Locke clearly articulated his belief that one's environment and experiences are instrumental in shaping a person's character and decisions and stated: Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper void of all characters, without any ideas. How comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store which the busy and boundless fancy of man has painted on it with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of reason and knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from experience.1 Locke argues that people are inherently blank slates and are shaped by the world around them. While nature likely also plays an important factor, it is inarguable that one's experiences in life impact the person he later becomes. People are shaped by their experiences and backgrounds, and military service is arguably one of the most impactful experiences in which one can partake. Thirty-one of America's forty- 1 Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Book II, Chapter 1, Part 2. Print. Schulte 6 three different Presidents have served in the armed forces (twenty-one having seen combat). Like all other veterans, the service of these men impacted the rest of their lives — the decisions they made; the ways they interacted with others; and their views of America, its allies, and its enemies. Through critical analysis of the Public Papers of the Presidents, memos, letters, and personal reflections, along with the support of secondary sources, the impact of military service on the management styles and policy decisions of United States Presidents becomes evident. To examine the impact of military service on the Presidents, the following American Presidents are used to frame the analysis: • Dwight D. Eisenhower, a career soldier who rose to the top of the Army's hierarchy • John F. Kennedy, a Naval lieutenant who served valiantly for less than four years • William J. Clinton, an academic and career politician who actively avoided military service These three men were chosen as the focus because of their diverse backgrounds and political tendencies. They cover the spectrum of military service — ranging in length of service, rank attained, branch of the military, etc. Politically, liberal and conservative Presidents are both represented, and their family upbringings are equally diverse — with great differences in family structure and size, wealth, and education. Nevertheless, despite their unique upbringings, clear trends emerge as a result of their military service. Many of the decisions made by these men while they presided over the White House can be tied directly to their service (or lack there of) to the military. Service in the military influences one's outlook on the world and one's character. It impacts a person's priorities and the manner in which he relates to other people. Analysis of the management styles and policies of Dwight Eisenhower, John Kennedy, and Bill Clinton illustrates stark differences between their presidencies which cannot be explained by their upbringings and/or political leanings. Rather, Schulte 7 differences in their service to the military is a key factor which directly shaped their actions as Presidents. Schulte 8 Schulte 9 Dwight David Eisenhower Career soldier who rose to the top of the Army's hierarchy Prior to being elected President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower had a distinguished career in the U.S. Army. Beginning as a West Point 'plebe' in August of 1911, he went on to dedicate the next forty-one years of his life to the military. This experience serving his country transformed him. It shaped his values; it defined his leadership style; and it catapulted him into the White House where his management style and policy decisions would be a clear reflection of his time in the U.S. Army. Ike's service in the military would shape both the decisions he made as President as well as the processes that he used to make these decisions. First and foremost, the Army taught Eisenhower how to manage. He entered West Point as a disorderly cadet, but by the time Ike graduated, he understood the importance of setting a structure for his life and his decisions. In his early Army days, Ike became known for his tremendous organizational skills, and because of this, he was assigned to train troops instead of fighting in World War I. Though this was not his first choice, it gave Eisenhower his first meaningful opportunity to formally mentor subordinates. His organizational skills would prove to be invaluable throughout his time in the military — Schulte 10 particularly while working in Washington and during the D-Day invasion — and these skills would also define his hierarchical approach to management as President. Management Style Role of the President Eisenhower's service in the U.S. Army was instrumental in shaping his approach to the presidency. It influenced both the way he did his job once elected to the Oval Office and affected his interpretation of his role as Commander in Chief. Much of his time in the Army was spent planning and orchestrating the execution of American strategy, and Eisenhower saw his role as President to be quite similar. Ike was not the best student in his class at West Point. In his memoirs, he states, "As I recall, there were about 162 men who finally graduated in my class, and in this list I stood 125th in discipline. My success in compiling a staggering catalogue of demerits was largely due to a lack of motivation in almost everything other than athletics, except for the simple and stark resolve to get a college education."2 Athletics would prove to be his saving grace. As a first year 'plebe,' Ike was too small to become a member of the Academy's football team. However, before he graduated, he would become one of the school's best football players and a member of the baseball team. He said that, “In no game or practice session could the coaches claim I lacked pugnacity and combativeness," but his career, unfortunately, would be cut short by a series of knee injuries.3 Initially devastated by his misfortune, Ike's injury proved to be a blessing in disguise. Until this time, he had not pushed himself to assume positions of leadership although 2 Eisenhower, Dwight D. At Ease: Stories I Tell to Friends. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1967. p. 12. Print. 3 Eisenhower, Dwight D. At Ease: Stories I Tell to Friends. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1967. p. 14. Print. Schulte 11 he was, in fact, a natural leader. His post-injury selection as JV football coach was the result of his unparalleled grasp of on-the-field strategy and his drive to out-maneuver and out-work his opponents. This position would be pivotal in Ike's career — both for the skills it taught him and the doors it would open. Going forward, Ike would receive numerous assignments because he was wanted as a football coach first and as a soldier second. West Point athletics first illuminated Eisenhower's gift as a strategist, and this skill would directly relate his role in the Army to his role as President. While serving in Panama, Eisenhower reported to Fox Conner, a man who taught Ike that one must understand the past in order to make the right decisions for the future. After returning from Panama, Ike was admitted into the Army's highly competitive and prestigious graduate school at the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, KS thanks largely in part to Fox Conner. Just like he had done with Conner in Panama, Ike was pushed to combine historical analysis with strategic planning while working through case studies. Ike disagreed with his classmate, George Patton, that prominent leadership was the key to success and argued that, “You do not lead by hitting people over the head—that's assault, not leadership."4 He described the method of instruction by saying, "The school consists essentially of a corps of instructors whose primary duty is to assist you in absorbing the subject matter of the course."5 Their role was not to lecture students, but rather to assist and direct them in their quest for knowledge. As a result, while at Fort Leavenworth, Eisenhower whole-heartedly adopted this 4 Butt, Jr., Howard E. "Eisenhower on Leadership." The High Calling. 28 Sep. 2008. Web. 1 Oct. 2011. <http://www.thehighcalling.org/audio/leadership/eisenhower-leadership>. 5 Eisenhower, Dwight D. (edited by Daniel D. Holt and James W. Leyerzapf). "NARA, Command and General Staff College Files, 'On the Command and General Staff School.' Aug. 1926." Eisenhower: The Prewar Diaries and Selected Papers, 1905-1941.