Japanese Journal of Human Geography 62―6（2010）

Research Trends in the Geography of Tourism in

KUREHA Masaaki University of Tsukuba

Abstract This study attempts to examine the problems and prospects of geographical research on by reviewing the trends of previous studies on this topic. Geographical research on tourism has been developing in Japan since the 1920s. Most initial studies aimed to clarify the relationship between regional characteristics and tourism ―related phenomena. Since the 1960s, however, researchers have analyzed tourism from various viewpoints, parallel to the development of mass tourism and the subsequent diversification of tourism in Japan. This research is classified into the following four major fields. First, most tourism research has been conducted in the context of regional geography in Japan or in foreign countries. Research in this field investigates tourism as an important factor of regional change in certain districts and discusses the changing image of tourist resorts and tourist destinations. Other research in this field examines the regional characteristics of tourism on the national scale, namely the locations of tourist destinations, tourist―related facilities, and the tourist industry. Second, researchers have analyzed the regional dimension of tourist activities to evaluate the spatial extent of leisure behavior, tourist movements, etc. Some researchers have applied imported models to Japanese tourist behavior. Third, there are an increasing number of studies on new forms of tourism or alternative tourism, such as rural tourism, ecotourism, urban tourism, and so on. Fourth, research on international tourism has been expanding since around 2000, when the promotion of inbound tourism began in Japan. Most geographical research on tourism is analyzed within the framework of case studies. The other serious problem concerns the definitions of tourism ― related terms. A clear differentiation is required for the following terms : Tourism, recreation, leisure activity, and sightseeing. This problem relates to Japanese tourist activities, which used to be characterized as sightseeing rather than tourism.

Keywords : tourism, geography, Japan, region, perspective

I Introduction

Tourism is an intensely geographic phenomenon（ Williams 2009）. If we view human geography as being concerned essentially with the patterns and consequences of the economic, social, cultural, and political relationship between people, and between people and the spaces and places that comprise their environment, then the annual migration of millions of travelers worldwide within the activity that we label as tourism is a process that human geographers should not ignore （Ibid）. Therefore, the amount of geographical research on tourism has been increasing worldwide. This study attempts to examine the problems and prospects of geographical research on tourism in Japan by reviewing the trends of previous studies on this topic. There have been too ― 54 ― Research Trends in the Geography of Tourism in Japan（KUREHA） 559 many studies on the geography of tourism in Japan to list here. This study fundamentally limits its research to studies published in refereed geographical journals that are mainly written by Japanese researchers. Since some geographers have already written review articles on the 1 geography of tourism in Japan, this study mainly examines material from the last 2―3 decades. In the last 2―3 decades, global tourism research has seen dramatic growth and a new range of topics in geographical studies on tourism have emerged（ Butler 2004）. Since most earlier reviews were published in Japanese, the general trends they have followed have been explained in this study. Aoki and Yamamura reviewed geographical research on tourism up to 1975（ Aoki and Yamamura 1976）. They found from the first studies from the mid― 1920s that sightseeing became popular among the Japanese because of the improved transpor­ tation network and the new national park design. By the end of World War II, some dozen studies had been conducted on sightseeing phenomena and regional features. Since the 1960s, however, researchers have analyzed tourism from viewpoints that parallel the development of mass tourism and the subsequent diversification of tourism in Japan. Takeuchi reviewed the research in English according to the typology of past studies, namely economic geography, cultural geography, and international tourism（ Takeuchi 1984）. He indicated that geographical studies on tourism had been strongly influenced by general trends and the conception of geography in Japan. Ishii and Shirasaka, however, categorized geographical works on recreation and tourism into studies of spatial organization, landscape formation, and other topics（ landscape evaluation and perception of recreational resources）（ Ishii and Shirasaka 1988）. They pointed out that more studies had been conducted in the field of landscape formation than in that of spatial organi­zation. Tsuruta discussed the differences between geographical studies on tourism in Japan and in Anglo―America and pointed out the necessity for the geography of tourism to have a social science framework（ Tsuruta 1994a）. On the whole, geographical research on tourism has developed in Japan since the 1920s. Most initial studies aimed to clarify the relationship between regional characteristics and tourism ― related phenomena. Since then, however, Japanese geographers have produced much research on tourism, which can be classified into the following four major fields of regional context, tourist behavior, alternative tourism, and international tourism. Next, this study will examine the trends in tourism research according to these classifications.

II Geographical Research on Tourism in the Regional Context

First, most tourism research in Japan or in foreign countries has been conducted in the context of regional geography. This type of research investigates tourism as an important factor of regional change in certain districts and discusses the changing image of tourist resorts and tourist destinations. Other research in this field examines the regional characteristics of tourism on a national scale, namely, the locations of tourist destinations, tourist―related facilities, and the tourist industry. This research is divided into the following sub―classifications.

Research on Hot―spring Resorts Visits to hot―spring resorts have been very important to the Japanese for the last few centuries, 2 much like visits to religious places. During the , hot―spring destinations were fundamentally health resorts. After the 1870s, however, some hot―spring resorts near large cities were developed into amusement destinations for eating, drinking alcohol, entertainment, staying ― 55 ― 560 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 62―6（2010） overnight, and so on. Hot―spring resorts also became the only places where people could stay overnight on circuit travel because the transport system of the Edo era（ with the posting stations） became weaker after the period. Therefore, hot―spring resorts became the subject of geographical studies. Yamamura played a central role in the development of this research, by analyzing not only the changing processes and land use of many hot―spring resorts, but also the geographical features in terms of visitors（ Yamamura 1969a, 1969b, 1976）. Although these studies were characterized as case studies, Yamamura also examined the typology of hot―spring resorts in Japan, based on both the seasonality of visitors and the evolution of these resorts ; he indicated their accessibility from metropolises as their regional differences （Yamamura 1967, 1980）. Because hot―spring resorts generally have long histories, there has been much historical geographic research conducted on them. In addition to Yamamura’s traditional studies, Kanda examined the development process of Nanki ―Shirahama Onsen, , analyzing concept related to image of other places in tourism space（ Kanda 2001）. Some large hot ―spring resorts have experienced problems recently that have reduced the number of guests. On the other hand, traditional small resorts are beginning to be viewed as quiet places where people can genuinely relax. In this context, McMorran examined the case of Kurokawa Onsen in Kyushu（ McMorran 2005）. Bathing facilities have also become popular in areas neighboring large cities due to changes in tourist preferences and technological improvements that allow hot springs to be dug deep（ Yamamura and Kobori 2000）.

Research on Mountain and Seaside Resorts In Japan, various sports and recreational activities have become popular since the Meiji era, when foreigners played a part in introducing leisure activities in areas along the sea or in the mountains. Even before World War II, some researchers investigated seaside and ski resorts in terms of the integration of cheap accommodation（ Minshuku） managed by farmers or fishermen. However, in the 1960s and 1970s, the number of these lodging facilities increased remarkably because of the growing trend of leisure travel that consisted predominantly of short stays. Ishii regarded the growth of these accommodations as an important component in a region（ Ishii 1970, 1977）. He examined the development process of the Minshuku regions from the viewpoint of regional ecology and the location patterns of Minshuku in Japan. Another study analyzed the significance of Minshuku in the social context（ Konishi 1980）. Taking a similar position, Shirasaka focused on ski settlements in which ski fields played an important role in the evolution process of the settlement（ Shirasaka 1976, 1982, 1984 ; Ichikawa and Shirasaka 1978）. He clarified the typology of the ski settlements, discussing their previous functions, and investigated some case studies up to the 1970s. In the short period between approximately 1985 and 1992, when staying at resorts was booming, the development of many new resorts resulted in plentiful recreational facilities in the mountainous and seaside regions of Japan. The bubble economy encouraged this boom through political promotion based on the so ―called Resort Law, Act on the Development of Comprehensive Resort Areas. Many geographers were interested in this trend and analyzed the appearance of new resorts, real estate development（ vacation condominiums）, the environmental problems caused by the construction of all these facilities, etc. （Mizoo 1991 ; Tsuruta 1994b ; Uezu 2001）. During this resort boom, skiing as a recreational activity in Japan changed remarkably. A study analyzed the process of the opening of new ski fields and compared ski travel in Japan to that in ― 56 ― Research Trends in the Geography of Tourism in Japan（KUREHA） 561

the European Alps（ Kureha 1995）. Other studies examined the distribution of ski runs in Tohoku region, focusing on their location and size（ Yagi et al. 1991）, and investigated the development of ski resorts through case studies（ Kureha 1991）. After the extraordinary growth of ski tourism in the resort boom phase, this tourism experi­ enced a serious decline. Kureha et al. highlighted this trend in terms of the decrease in the number of visitors and accommodation and investigated the attempts of these resorts to shift towards alternative tourism development, namely, summer rugby sports camps in Sugadaira, Prefecture（ Kureha et al. 2003）. Kureha examined the contemporary management problems of ski fields and the regional patterns of those that had closed, indicating the possibility of a change to ecotourism（ Kureha 2008, 2009）. Another study dealt with the impact of air temperature change on ski area management and estimated the decrease in the number of ski areas that resulted from this probable warming（ et al. 2002）. Some districts in Japanese mountainous areas also became summering resorts in which many villas or second homes were constructed and sold to upper―class Japanese. As a result, the development of these buildings with their various facilities became a significant topic of investigation. The construction of summer resorts and changes in land use and land ownership were examined in Tateshina and Karuizawa, well―known summering places（ Ike 1986 ; Sato and Saito 2004）. Another study also investigated Karuizawa in order to draw a picture of a summering place for high society（ Uchida 1989）. Investment in real estate had primarily been focused on second homes until the 1970s ; the construction of vacation condominiums, however, created a new form of investment in some regions around 1990, during the resort boom phase. The factors and problems of these condominiums were analyzed in a case study in Yuzawa, （Kawaguchi 1997）, where 58 buildings with about 15,000 units were constructed over five years. In addition, some studies were conducted on the equipping of tourist facilities through public investment by official bodies（ Kamiya 1993 ; Nakayama 2000）. Seaside resorts have also become a subject of geographical research. As shown above, research on the accumulation of Minshuku was originally the main topic（ Birukawa et al. 1974 ; Tanno 1985）. Recently, Nakajo investigated the sustainability of Minshuku in the face of the shortage of successors in Izu Peninsula（ Nakajo 2009）. In the 1980s, the construction of a resort complex using capital from a metropolis was examined in ; this study clarified the relationship between the resort and the surrounding region（ Tanno 1986）. There are some studies on scuba diving tourism and destinations that have a stable number of annual tourists（ Ike 2001 ; Ike and Ariga 1999）. Sato focused on the regional development of marinas around Tokyo（ Sato 2001, 2003）. He indicated that the types of marina facilities differed according to their historical backgrounds and locations. The origin of sea bathing in Japan was also historically examined（ Oguchi 1985）. While national parks have also become significant areas of study, little research has been conducted on them. In an exception, a study examined the original characteristics of Japan’s national parks with regard to the authenticity of Japanese culture（ Arayama 1995）.

Research on Overseas Tourist Destinations During the 1990s, Japanese geographers began to investigate tourism in foreign countries, especially in the European Alps. At first, ski resorts in the Tyrolean Alps were analyzed in comparison with Japan with regard to the development of ski fields, accommodation, and tourist activities（ Kureha 1995）. The following study indicated the further development of Austrian ski resorts through an increase of skiers from Eastern Europe（ Kureha 2004）. ― 57 ― 562 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 62―6（2010）

When rural tourism began to gain popularity in Japan at the beginning of the 1990s, many geographers became interested in the forms of coexistence between tourism and agriculture in the Alps. For example, three researchers examined rural tourism in a commune（ Gemeinde Bad― Hindelang） in the Bavarian Alps. They discussed the significance of the coexistence, the rural restructuring, and the management of rural pensions, respectively （Kureha 2002 ; Obara 2005 ; Tomikawa 2005）. Various rural areas in Austria and Switzerland have also been investigated from similar angles, as shown above（ Ikenaga 1999, 2001, 2003 ; Kureha 2001 ; Ishihara 2009）. A study was also conducted on the spatial organization of the Palatine（ Pfalz） in Germany for the development of tourism in rural areas（ Funck and Tanno 1997）. There have been recent studies on tourism in some regions in Asian countries. Some studies have analyzed the development of international tourism in areas such as Pokhara in Nepal and Gojal in Pakistan（ Morimoto 1998 ; Ochiai and Mizushima 2004）. As backpacker tourism has become important in Southeast Asia, Yokoyama described the detailed features of a backpacker enclave in Laos（ Yokoyama 2007）.

III Geographical Research on Tourist Behavior

Some researchers have analyzed the regional dimensions of tourist activities to evaluate the spatial extent of leisure behavior, tourist movements, etc. In the 1960s, Koike examined the spatial features of tourist activities in comparison to trade areas of commercial activities （Koike 1960,1961）. In general, however, only the geographical extent of visitors’ residences was investi­ gated to clarify the distinctiveness of tourist resorts within the framework of case studies. In the 1990s, Takinami applied some imported models to Japanese tourist behavior. He examined Japanese tourist behavior based on the Miossec Model and the Plog Model（ Takinami 1994, 1996）. Furthermore, he investigated tourist experiences using Japanese travel narratives （Takinami 1998）. Funck and Kureha, on the other hand, discussed tourist behavior in order to examine resort development in peripheral areas. Funck investigated the problems that existed between tourism and regional development in peripheral Japanese areas, using a time budget analysis of tourists（ Funck 1999）. Kureha explained that the difference in tourist activities between Japan and German ―speaking regions caused the landscape difference in ski resorts between Japan and the Austrian Alps（ Kureha 1995）. As mentioned earlier, tourist activities related to religion hold an important position in Japan. Although there are various forms of religious tourism in Japan, Mori focused on pilgrimages by examining the contemporary religious meaning of the traditional pilgrimage route, Henro, and the changes it has experienced as a result of tourism development（ Mori 2001a, 2002）. Furthermore he discussed the authenticity of a sacred place in Kochi Prefecture（ Mori 2001b） in terms of tourist gaze（ which is closely associated with tourist activities）（ Urry 2002）. Arayama focused on the relationship between the initial diffusion of mountaineering in Japan and westerners’ gaze （Arayama 1989）.

IV Geographical Research on New Tourism

Because contemporary tourism is globally diversified, we must have diversified viewpoints for geographical research on tourism. Therefore, there are an increasing number of studies on new forms of tourism or alternative tourism, such as rural tourism, ecotourism, urban tourism, and ― 58 ― Research Trends in the Geography of Tourism in Japan（KUREHA） 563

so on. In particular, many researchers have investigated various destinations in terms of rural tourism since 1992, when the Japanese government began to promote this form of tourism（ also known in Japanese as green tourism）. While Ohashi discussed the possibilities of rural tourism for the sustainable development of disadvantaged areas in a case study of Akiyama―go in （ Ohashi 2002）, Hayashi examined the regional conditions necessary for the development of rural areas in which many tourist farms were located in Prefecture （Hayashi 2007）. Some studies indicated that rural tourism plays an important role in the commodification of rural spaces（ Iguchi et al. 2008 ; Tabayashi et al. 2008） Although the central districts of urban areas have received many tourists, it is only recently that these places have become subjects of tourism research. Although it is difficult to investigate urban tourism in huge cities such as Tokyo, there are some exceptions. Suzuki and Wakabayashi analyzed the spatial distribution of the tourist attractions described in guidebooks written for Japanese― and English―speaking readers and investigated the differences between two guidebooks based on the different interests and behavioral patterns of tourists（ Suzuki and Wakabayashi 2008）. The locational pattern of hotels has also become a significant research subject in urban areas, especially in local cities（ Ishizawa and Kobayashi 1991 ; Matsumura 1996 ; Asano et al. 2005）. Most Japanese tourists prefer to visit historical streets with traditional buildings, such as old post towns, various quarters of castle towns, or streets in front of temples（ shrines）. In many cases, such historical districts have been conserved in terms of landscape planning. Some research focuses on the features of the conservation of these traditional landscapes or on landscape changes（ Mizoo and Sugawara 2000 ; Suyama 2003 ; Fukuda 1996）. An interesting study analyzed residents’ perceptions of landscape conservation on a historical street in （Nakao 2006）. More studies are necessary in order to research learning tourism（ Funck 2008）. It is expected that more research on ecotourism and geotourism will be conducted in the future.

V Geographical Research on International Tourism

Since the beginning of the Meiji era in Japan, foreigners have introduced new forms of tourism involving outdoor recreation, such as golf, skiing, mountaineering, and sailing. Moreover, resident people before World War II played an important role in the development of international tourism, indicating that many foreigners visited mountainous areas in the summer and seaside areas in the winter. Karuizawa in Nagano Prefecture, which is mentioned earlier, became one of the most famous summering resorts in Japan. The development of this resort was analyzed using the register of land owned by foreign residents of Japan（ Sato and Saito 2004）. Since Japanese domestic tourism was widespread during the 1960s, inbound tourism declined in importance and political promotion was only carried out on a small scale. Conversely, outbound tourism was popularized through an increasing number of Japanese overseas travelers. Since most travelers used package tours, some studies have analyzed the itineraries of these package tours （Pearce 1999）. Therefore, travel agencies in Japan formed a specific tourism production system（ Yamamoto and Gill 2004）. In this context, Kojima examined the changing supply system of Japanese tourism, as in the case of Canada（ Kojima 2009）. After the collapse of Japan’s overheated stock and real estate markets in the beginning of the 1990s, the Japanese government began to formulate a policy for the development of international tourism. Due to an improvement in unbalanced international tourism in Japan, which was based on an increasing number of Japanese overseas travelers, various projects were implemented to ― 59 ― 564 Japanese Journal of Human Geography 62―6（2010） promote the development of inbound tourism. The number of international tourists, mainly from Korea, Taiwan, and China, is increasing today. Jin analyzed Chinese tourist activities using package tour data and showed that destinations were remarkably concentrated in metropolitan areas such as Tokyo and Osaka（ Jin 2009）. A study has also been conducted on the satisfaction of foreign tourists in Yamagata（ Yamaguchi 2008）

VI Discussion and Conclusion

It is clear from the review above that most geographical research on tourism has been conducted within a framework of case studies over the last 60 ―80 years. This has been mentioned in previous review articles（ Ishii and Shirasaka 1988 ; Tsuruta 1994a）. Even though alternative tourism is becoming a popular tourist activity today as compared to traditional mass tourism, case studies continue to be the main research form. For example, hot―spring resorts were characterized as a main study area because of their typical land use and the distinctive activities of Japanese visitors. Similarly, skiing destinations and bathing at beaches have also been analyzed because these tourist activities at these locations are limited to recreation. Furthermore, destinations with a high number of lodging facilities also tend to be analyzed because they are regarded as important components of landscape change. However, this trend means that tourism（ or sightseeing） plays an indispensable role in the spatial structure of Japan on various regional scales. It must be emphasized that the high number of these studies can contribute to the development of the regional . The increasing number of studies on tourism in foreign countries could also help capture the regional distinctiveness of Japan through comparative points of view. Second, not much Japanese research is referenced in internationally well ―known textbooks on the geography of tourism（ Pearce 1995 ; Hall and Page 1999 ; Williams 2009）, with a few exceptions. No Japanese research has been mentioned in the latest reviews of tourism geography in tourism textbooks（ Nepel 2009）. The main reason for this is that most research is published in Japanese. Another reason could be the distinctiveness of the travel forms of Japanese people. With regard to this trend, it is important to list the definitions of tourism―related terms. We also need a clear differentiation between the meanings of the following terms : tourism, recreation, leisure activity, and sightseeing. Most Japanese tourist activity is generally characterized as sightseeing rather than tourism. Traditionally, in the Edo era, Japanese travel mostly involved pilgrimages to famous sacred places and relaxation at hot ―springs. After the 1870s, however, European forms of travel and tourism were introduced in Japan and Japan’s own tourism developed to include various other activities. The most distinctive features of Japanese tourism are the short length of travel and the predominance of circuit travel. The social customs of tourism in Japan are different from those in European and American societies. To travel for tourism or sightseeing is traditionally viewed as an enjoyable time off work. While working is considered a virtue, absence from work for travel is considered a vice. Therefore, short―term travel is popular in Japan. The tradition of circuit travel derives from the short length of travels and the old travel form of pilgrimages to famous sacred places. Third, although tourism is an important activity, with spatial movement on various regional scales, there are only a few geographical studies on this topic. In recent years, however, the amount of research on tourist activities has been increasing in other fields. These studies tend to ― 60 ― Research Trends in the Geography of Tourism in Japan（KUREHA） 565

be affected by discussions on sociology and anthropology. The academic interrelation should develop more deeply, because an interdisciplinary approach is not always active, in spite of the fact that there have been some academic associations on tourism in Japan. In this situation, we have to emphasize the advantages for geographers in tourism research, as indicated by Nepel （2009）. Research on tourist activities may also become indispensable to studies on the increasing trend of inbound tourism in Japan. Fourth, as a prospect for future research, the Japan Tourism Agency is now trying to set up a collecting system for statistics on tourist numbers, based on overnight guests at accommodations with 10 or more employees. There is currently a lack of statistics on tourist accommodation, the number of tourists, and overnight stays. This may be closely related to the above ―mentioned fact that most geographical studies are analyzed within the framework of case studies. Previously, because each prefecture had an individual counting system to estimate tourist numbers, we could not compare the numbers of tourist destinations in one prefecture with numbers in other prefectures. The Japanese form of travel has a bearing on this problem because the Japanese tend to take one―day trips without staying overnight. Geographical research on tourism will become more intensive with the standardization of statistics. Finally, in terms of tourism, this study examined geographical studies published in refereed geographical journals. There are other geographical studies on tourism, however. Although Japanese geographers have published many reports on tourism, more than 90 percent of these publications are in Japanese. Therefore, very few of these studies are recognized internationally. Because Japanese tourism is now notable worldwide, we have to distribute our results globally to emphasize the distinctiveness of Japan’s tourism.

Notes 1. There are a limited number of review articles that cannot be mentioned in the text, as follows : Yamamura（ 1974）, Shirasaka（ 2002） and Kikuchi（ 2008）. 2. There has been some research on tourism from the approach of the geography of religion. The following studies analyze the development of sacred places : Iwahana（ 1981, 1999）.

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