On the verge of disappearing? Common grazing lands and bāth āns in ,

Dinamani Bhagawati

Introduction:

Land is an important natural resource, which provides food, fibre, biomass and perform functions that are important for sustaining biodiversity. Population pressure and technological advances have led to significant changes in the pattern of land use and the nature of land cover in recent decades (Sikka, 2002). This modification of land cover by human activity has been identified as a prominent contributing factor to global environmental changes in multiple realms (Turner et. al. 1997). Flint (2002) has worked out the changes in land use and land cover in the Gangetic plain over the last century wherein, high input technologies had to be introduced to increase food production to meet the demand of an exponentially growing population. As a result, in the Gangetic valley there have been significant changes in land use and associated biophysical and socio-economic elements (Abrol et. al. 2002). Such changes have not occurred everywhere in the world with the same intensity. Land use in long settled areas has been a primary concern for the degree of sustainability of land use changes (Li et. al. 1999). Though land use pattern and its consequences on natural ecosystem has been a matter of global concern, it has become most alarming in developing countries like India (Kurma et. al. 2000). The rapid changes of land cover due to rapid population growth have ultimately degraded soil quality, which is the ‘stomach of the plant’, and due to the degradation of soil quality, the productivity of land also decreases (Venkateswarlu, 1997). As a result, the study of the land use/land cover changes has been the matter of concern for social scientists all over in the world. Ioffe et. al. (2001) made a study of the land use changes in the environs of Moscow and examined the effect of the urbanization in the Moscow area on changes in the spatial pattern of agriculture. The rapid growth of population has resulted in the fragmentation of forests. Species loss as a result of tropical forest fragmentation has been described as the greatest single threat to biodiversity (Myers, 1989; Turner, 1996). In a region of particularly high population density, where settlements commenced at an early date, the degree of association of the various woodland structure is very high (Backes,1999). Such areas have suffered significant losses, not only in terms of trees species diversity and density of the various vegetation structures- the agro-biological diversity of crop cultivation, but also in another important way in that the accompanying species also are reduced (Backes,1997). Land use- land cover changes are often adversely affected in diverse high population density contexts and how these unfold in the in India is the focus of this paper.

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The Area: Extending between 26 010 ΄N and 26 0 47 ΄N latitudes and 90 015 ΄E and 91 038 ΄E longitudes, the Nalbari district is bounded by Bhutan on the north, on the south and east and district on the west. The district has a geographical area of 2031.76 sq km with a total population of 11,38,148 (2001 census) living in 803 villages and only in two urban centers. 3

Population Density in Nalbari District: Nalbari district has a total population of 11,48,824 as per 2001 Census with a density of 562 per km 2 much higher than the state average. This indicates the high pressure of the rural population in the district since 1971 as also currently.

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Population Density in Nalbari District, 1971-2001 Year Nalbari district 1971 342 187 1991 497 286 2001 562 340 Source: Census of India, 2001

Proportionate Pressure of Population on Cultivated Land (PPPC): The computation of a proportionate pressure of population has been used as a handy indicator to measure population pressure on agricultural land resources in an area (Chetri, 2000). It is particularly meaningful in an area like Nalbari district, where almost 98.00 per cent of the population is rural and predominantly based on agriculture. The proportionate pressure of population on cultivated land (PPPC) is defined as Where Pi = Population in each unit  Pi  Pt = Total population of all units  x100  Pt  CLi= Cultivated land in each unit PPPC = CLt= Total cultivated land of all units CLi   x100  Population pressure on cultivated land increases CLt   as per capita land availability decreases. This relation seems to exist in the study area and pressure of population is very high in the Pub-Nalbari, Barbhag and Paschim Nalbari blocks. The proportionate pressure is much higher in these blocks, which varies from 1.51 to 1.71. The per capita share of cultivated land is also poor with 0.06 and 0.07 hectares only. Barkhetri and Madhupur blocks show high proportionate pressure of 1.26 and 1.18, which are above the average. The scenario of cultivated land in the Barkhetri block is rapidly changing. It has already been shown that, the fast growing population in the Barkhetri block has caused a large area of marshy lands being brought under cultivation.

Proportionate Pressure of Population on Cultivated Land in Nalbari District, 2001 C.D. Populati Are Cultiv Cultiv Populati Cultiv Prop. Rema Perca Block/Dist/ on a ated ated on (% of ated Pressur rks pita State (census (hec area land the land e of share 2001) t) (hect) (%) total) (% to populati of the on on cultiva total) cultivate ted d land land Pub - 11285 1247 725 58.13 10.06 5.88 1.71 Very 0.06 Nalbari 8 2 0* high Barbhag 58613 7365 412 55.97 5.23 3.34 1.56 Very 0.07 2 high Paschim 11292 1366 823 60.29 10.07 6.68 1.51 Very 0.07 Nalbari 8 6 9 high 5

Barkhetri 16318 3244 142 43.89 14.55 11.55 1.26 High 0.09 8 8 40 Madhupur 45968 7386 429 58.19 4.10 3.48 1.18 High 0.09 8 Barigog - 94654 1549 968 62.47 8.44 7.85 1.08 Normal 0.10 banbhag 8 1 58402 9604 704 73.40 5.21 5.72 0.91 Normal 0.12 9 Tamulpu r 12632 2613 164 63.05 11.27 13.36 0.84 Normal 0.13 9 0 74 Baska 10347 2416 1438 59.52 9.23 11.66 0.79 Low 0.14 9 0 0 Dhamdha 81062 1916 1940 59.50 7.23 9.25 0.78 Low 0.14 ma 4 3 Tihu - 75384 1466 1192 81.32 6.72 9.67 0.70 Low 0.16 Barama 7 7 Nagrijuli 88473 2047 1426 69.68 7.89 11.57 0.68 Low 0.16 7 9 District - 112133 2030 1233 60.74 100.00 100.0 1.00 Normal 0.11 Nalbari 8 37 32 0 Source: Census of India and Office of Dy. Director, Economics & Statistic Department, Nalbari. • Excluding the extended area of Nalbari Development Authority (NDA).

The proportionate pressure of population in Barigog-Banbhag, Tihu and Tamulpur are almost normal (close to 1.0). The per capita cultivated lands are 0.10 to 0.13 hectare in these blocks. Apart from Tamulpur, all the blocks located in the northernmost part of the district show a low proportionate pressure of population. The Baska and Dhamdhama block have 0.79 and 0.78 pressure respectively and per capita cultivated land is relatively good at 0.14 hectares each. The Tihu-Barama and Nagrijuli blocks fare best with per capita cultivated land of 0.16 hectare each, compared to the district average of 0.11hectare. As a result, the pressure is also lower in these two blocks with 0.70 and 0.68 respectively. The relationship between population and cultivated area have been established by fitting three types of regression equations namely- a) the linear model of arithmetic relationship as y= a+bx b) the power function regression model of extreme variability as y= ax b, and c) the exponential regression model of extreme variability in one variable in relation to arithmetic change in another y= a.e bx

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Proportionate Pressure of Population on Cultivated Land By Linear Regression Model y = -10.123x + 2.2145 R2 = 0.9457 1.80 1.60 1.40 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 Population

Pressure of Pressure 0.40 Proportionate 0.20 - - 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 Per Capita Share of Cultivated Land (in Hectares)

Proportionate Pressure of Population on Cultivated Land y = 2.9322e -9.3501x 2 By Exponential Regression Model R = 0.9862

1.80 1.60 1.40 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 Population

Pressure of Pressure 0.20 Proportionate - - 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 Per Capita Share of Cultivated Land (in Hectares)

Proportionate Pressure of Population on Cutivated Land Expon. (Proportionate Pressure of Population on Cutivated Land)

It is clear from the established relationship between the variables under consideration that, the power function regression model provides the best fit among all the models used in this study in explaining areal variability of the share of per capita cultivated land (Y) in relation to proportionate pressure of population on this category represented by the variable (X).

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Proportionate Pressure of Population on Cultivated Land -1 By Power Function Regression Model y = 0.11x R2 = 1

2.00 1.50 1.00

Pressure Pressure 0.50 - ProportionatePopulation - 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 Per Capita share of Cultivated Land (in hectare)

Though all the models have some explanatory capacity, the linear regression model has the least capacity to explain the situation with an R 2 value of 0.9457. The exponential regression model with its R 2 value 0.9862 is slightly more useful.

Model type Equation R2 Linear regression model Y= -10.123 x + 2.2145 0.9457 Power function regression model Y = 0.11x -1 1 Exponential regression model Y = 2.9322e -9.3501x 0.9862

Physiographic Zone-wise Density Indices C.D. Arithmet Physiologi Agricultur PPPC Physiograp Density Block/Dist/Sta ic cal density al hic zone zone te density density Pub -Nalbari 991 1641 1361 1.71 Built-up Very high Dhamdhama 423 711 711 0.78 Submonta Low ne Barigog - 611 978 978 1.08 Built-up Normal Banbhag Barbhag 796 1422 1422 1.56 Built-up Very high Paschim 826 1371 1371 1.51 Built-up Very Nalbari high Madhupur 622 1070 1070 1.31 Built-up High 8 Tihu -Barama 511 632 632 0.70 Built-up Low Tihu 644 853 795 0.91 Built-up Normal 8

Tamulpur 484 769 769 0.84 Submonta Normal ne Nagrijuli 432 605 605 0.68 Submonta Low ne Baska 428 720 720 079 Submonta Low ne Barkhetri 503 1146 1146 1.26 Southern High zone District - 552 919 897 1.00 -- -- Source: Office of the Deputy Director of Economics & Statistics Dept., Nalbari

It has been found that, in all the four measures employed for the measurement of population density show a similar pressure scenario in different physiographic zones. The high density indices are found in the blocks Pub- Nalbari, Barbhag, Paschim-Nalbari, Madhupur, Barigog-Banbhag, Tihu and Tihu- Barama which are located in the middle built-up zone. On the other hand, the blocks Dhamdhama, Tamulpur, Nagrijuli and Baska located at the sub-montane zone exhibit lower density indices. The only block covering the southern part of the district also shows high density indices.

Land Use/Land Cover Change in Nalbari District:

There is a wide variation in the change of land use pattern in the district in different land use categories. The area under forest decreased from 18000 hectares in 1993-94 to 13088.10 hectares in 2004-05, which was a decline of 27.29 per cent. This can be attributed mainly to the growth of built-up area as well as the reckless exploitation of forests resources predominantly by the extremists groups to earn easy money to procure arms and ammunitions. In the ‘Land put to non agricultural uses’ category a gradual increase occurred. While only 7.53 per cent of the total land of the district was under non-agricultural use in 1993-94, it has increased to 9.19 per cent in 2004-05 covering an area of 20750.80 hectares of land. During this period there has been an increase of 22.06 per cent of land under non-agricultural use. The effect of the urbanization, construction and expansion of new road networks, coverage of new built-up areas have been identified as the factors for the increase of land under this category.

Land use/ Land Cover Change in Nalbari District (area in hectares) Category of use 1993 -94 1997 -98 1999 - 2004-05 Variation 2000 1993 -94 to 2004 -05 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total Geographical Area 226000 22570 225700 225700 (Professional survey) 0 9

Total Reporting Area 208000 20808 208086 203129. 6 29 1. Forest 18000 17616 17616 13088.1 -27.29 (7.98) (7.81) (7.81) 0 (5.80) 2. Land put to non 17000 16981 17066 20750.8 +22.06 agricultural uses (7.53) (7.52) (7.56) 0 (9.14) 3. Barren and uncultivable 7000 6911 6911 9134.58 +30.49 land (3.10) (3.06) (3.06) (4.05) 4. Permanent Pasture and 11000 11286 11286 7182.82 -34.70 Grazing land (4.87) (5.00) (5.00) (3.18) 5. Misc. tree crops and 2000 1586 1586 5180.12 +159.06 groves not included in net (0.89) (0.70) (0.70) (2.30) area sown 6. Cultivable waste 1000 1406 1188 1312.15 +31.22 (0.44) (0.62) (0.53) (.58) 7. Fallows other than 1000 1207 1210 2648.45 +164.85 current fallows (0.44) (0.53) (0.54) (1.17) 8. Current fallows 1000 1009 1950 4650.07 +365.00 (0.44) (0.45) (0.86) (2.06) 9. Net area sown 150000 15008 149273 123332. -7.21 (66.46) 4 (66.14) 53 (66.50 (60.74) ) 10. Area sown more than 48000 53261 53650 61855.8 -28.87 once (21.77) (23.60 (23.77) 2 ) (27.46) 11. Total cropped area 198000 20334 202923 171045. -0.48 (87.73) 5 (89.91) 35 (90.10 (88.15) ) Source: Statistical Hand Book, Assam, 2005. (Figures in the brackets are the percentage of the total area)

Barren and uncultivated land: The southern part of the district is mostly swampy and consists of waterlogged areas. As a result, most of these uncultivable lands remain barren. In 1993-94, an amount of 3.10 per cent of the total land of the district was barren and in 2004-05 it increased to 4.05 per cent. The increase/decrease of this category of land depends mainly upon seasonal attributes such as rainfall and flood water extents.

Permanent pasture and grazing land: Nalbari district has been suffering from the acute shortage of grazing lands. In 1993-94, 11000 hectares of pasture and grazing land accounting for 4.87 per cent of the total area was under this category. However the amount of grazing land has gradually declined. Except in 10 some small patches in the northern part of Nalbari, grazing lands are on the verge of disappearing. In 2004-05, only 3.18 per cent grazing lands have been recorded denoting a decrease of 34.70 per cent during 1993-94 and 2004-05. This has affected the cattle population in particular.

Land under tree crops and groves: The area under tree crops and groves has increased from 2000 hectares in 1993-94 to 5180.12 hectares in 2004-05. The land under this category is spatially concentrated in the middle built-up zone of the district.

Cultivable waste land: The amount of cultivable waste land in the district (0.53%) is less in comparison to the State (0.80%). It was only 0.44 per cent in 1993-94. As almost 98.00 per cent of the total population of the district is rural, the demand for cultivable land is very high leaving only 0.58 per cent land as cultivable waste in 2004-05. Among other reasons, the inherited ownership of the cultivated land may be the chief cause for this cultivable waste land. Absentee landlords residing in the urban areas possess a good amount of cultivated land in their native villages and such cultivated lands are often lying vacant, this is a trend that was found during fieldwork.

Fallows other than current fallows: A very small amount of land is found in the district under this category. This category of land, which is often called old fallow is mostly found in the middle zone of the district. These old fallows mainly occur due to the sand casting by the flood waters on agricultural lands. Due to the breaching of the river embankments of Pagladiya, Nona, Puthimari, Mora- Pagladiya, Kanaikhunda etc. many fertile lands are covered by sand and ultimately turn into fallows. In 2004-05, an amount of 2648.45 hectares of land, which is 1.17 per cent of the district, existed as old fallow land.

Current fallows: The area under current fallows is nominal. It ranges from 0.44 to 0.86 per cent during 1993-94 and 1999-2000. However in 2004-05, it increased to 2.06 per cent as the district was severely affected by drought in that year and conditions had aggravated due to the lack of irrigation facilities.

Net sown area: The net sown area (NSA) in the district has decreased from 66.46 per cent in 1993-94 to 60.74 per cent in 2004-05. It decreased by 7.21 per cent during the period. Along with the drought condition in the district during the session 2004-05, the conversion of agricultural land to built-up area may be identified as the cause of decrease of NSA.

Area sown more than once: There is no scope of further spatial spread of NSA in the district. Almost all the possible lands have been reclaimed and converted to either NSA or as built-up area. As a result, permanent grazing land (PGR) and wetlands etc. of the district are on the verge of disappearing. The only way to increase the food production in the district is to increase the area sown more 11 than once. As a result, during the period this category of land has increased by 28.87 per cent.

Total cropped area: The total cropped area in the district has remained almost the same during the period 1993-94 and 2004-05 with a slight increase of 0.48 per cent. However, in reality agricultural lands are gradually being converted to non agricultural uses, and the cropped area has decreased substantially.

These LULC changes are corroborated by another study carried out by the Assam Remote Sensing Application Centre (ARSAC) on the visual interpretation of Landsat-TM data of 1986-87. Land use/Land Cover in Nalbari District

Category Area in (hectares) Percentage to total geographical area 1. Built-up land 250.00 0.11 2. Agricultural land 189518.67 85.62 3. Forest Land 13693.90 6.19 4. Waste land 3435.00 1.55 5. Water bodies 11070.29 5.00 6. Others (Grass land/Grazing 3376.80 1.53 land) Total 221344.66 100.00 Source: ARSAC Report on LULC, Nalbari District, Jan, 1990.

However, given that data and interpretation of satellite imageries has its constraints, as also that of methodological constraints involved into visual interpretation. It has been found from the report that the built-up land and agricultural lands were not clearly delineated.

Inter Categorical Land Use/Land Cover Changes: There has been an inter-categorical change in land use and land cover pattern in the district. The conflicts over the uses of the limited land resources of the district have ultimately led to the inter-category changes of land cover. In the recent years, development programmes are being promptly introduced in the district as a result of which construction of roads and railways have continued, if not accelerated. As a result, 9690 hectares cultivated land has been converted to built-up area in the period 1993-2004. The forest land, particularly located in the northern Terai zone has been reclaimed and converted to built-up land (3713 hectares) and cultivated land (1199 hectares).

Inter Categorical LULC Changes in Nalbari District, 1993- 2004

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Type of changes Area of change (in hectares) From cultivated land to built-up area 9690 From forest grass land to built-up area 3713 From forest and grass lands to cultivated 1199 area From wetlands to cultivated area 2257 From cultivated area to sand casting fallow 3492 area From agricultural plantation to built-up area 977 From wetland to built-up area 2069 From char grass lands to built-up area 2010 From char/grass land to cultivated area 1306 Sources: (i) Dy. Director, Economics and Statistics Department, Nalbari, 2005 (ii) Field Survey, 2004.

The wetlands, located in the southern part of the district have also been converted to built-up land (2069 hectares) and cultivated land (2257 hectares) during the period. The agricultural plantation lands, which are mainly confined to the basti land, are cleared and new houses were constructed in 977 hectares areas. In the true sense, the entire district has been suffering from frequent and severe floods. As a result, frequent breaching of river embankments is a common phenomenon during summer season. This resulted in the damage of fertile cultivated areas in the district due to deposition of silt and sand in as much as 3492 hectares. The haphazard growth of settlements, unplanned growth of roads and railways along with the rapid deforestation has increased the flood intensity causing much damage to human life and property.

Decreasing Grazing Ground and its Effects on Livestock Population: The grazing lands of the district are on the verge of disappearing due to conversion to built up area or agricultural land.

There has been a fall of 38.54 per cent of the PGR in the district in between 1984-2004. The encroachment of the grazing lands has badly affected the livestock population of the district, particularly the cattle and the buffalo population. The livestock have not been increasing proportionate to population growth.

The indigenous cattle, which are reared mainly in the grazing grounds, have increased by only 30.23 per cent during 1994-95 and 2003-04. On the other hand, the crossbred varieties increased by 173.23 per cent during the same period. The buffaloes, which have been the most important livestock of the district, have decreased by 42.30 per cent in between 1994-95 and 2003-04. 13

During 1984-85 and 2003-04, the horses and ponies decreased by 64.58 per cent. The indigenous ducks also decreased by 15.41 per cent in this period.

Livestock Population in Nalbari District

Sl. Livestock Livestock Census No Species 1984- 1994-95 2003-04 P.C. of . 85 variation 1. Cattle 302370 *6648 *1816 *173.23 +2468 25345 4 33958 +30.23 12.31 07 5 +3214 9 25 2. Buffaloes 6078 20497 *3834 11826 - 42.30 (1194- +7992 2003) 3. Sheep 3398 12645 272.13 4. Goats 144908 20520 173177 19.51 5. Pigs 31991 81014 153.24 6. Horses and 144 51 -64.58 Ponies 7. Fowls 373285 26869 400899 7.40 0 8. Ducks 251288 11606 212555 -15.41 3 District Total 111345 1231756 10.62 7 P.G.R 1993 -94 1999 - 2003 -04 -38.54 (District) 11698 2000 7190 hect. 11286 hect. hect. Source: Statistical Hand Book, 2004 Assam Livestock Census, 2003 * Crossed bred + Indigenous

The Conspicuous B āth āns:

The b āth āns are the most conspicuous rural features of Assam particularly in Nalbari district. A b āth ān is defined as “a camp of flock of buffaloes located in a grazing area away from home. Such camps are generally owned by a rich family for milk production” (Das, 1980). The term bāth ān seems to be originated from the term ‘bash’ (dwelling) and ‘sth ān’ (place). This b āth ān can be likened to transhumance. The areas where the cattle or buffaloes are kept for grazing are called b āth ān. These are the features associated with sparse populated areas. Bāth āns are a herd of cattle ( gö-bāth ān) or buffaloes ( mahar b āth ān). These 14 bāth āns are seasonally migrating entities. In the summer season when the wetlands are flooded with water, these b āth āns are transferred to highland. In winter, when the wetlands gradually dry-up, the b āth āns are shifted to the low lands. In Assam, these b āth āns are also called “khüti”. The cattle b āth ān is called “garu khüti” and buffalo b āth āns are called “ mahar khüti”. In both the areas of lowland and highland, which are used in different seasons, some temporary sheds are built and from these sheds milk is marketed. These sheds are called “khüti”. There are some conditions to be fulfilled to qualify as a b āth ān. A mere hard of cattle or buffalo does not constitute a b āth ān. To qualify as a b āth ān a) total numbers of cattle/buffalo should be at least 25 numbers, b) be a seasonally shifting camp, c) have a khüti for marketing milk. This significant rural feature is on the verge of disappearance from rural areas. There is no accurate source of information regarding b āth ān records. Das (1980) has acknowledged the contribution of b āth ān to the rural . However, by interviewing village elders who are/were associated with bāth ān, the following was derived:

Changes in Number of B āth āns in Nalbari District

Year Cattle b āth ān Buffalo b āth ān Seasonal Seasonal No. of Average No. of Average migration migration bāth ān no. of bāth ān no. of for cattle for cattle/ baffalo/ (in Km) bafallo bāth ān bāth ān (in Km) 1960 185 40 335 52 20 40 1980 140 28 160 31 15 28 2000 40 25 65 28 10 20 Source: Field Survey, 2004

The cattle b āth āns have decreased by 362.05 per cent in the last 40 years. In the same period buffalo b āth āns have decreased by 415.38 per cent. As a result, the rural economy as well as rural employment has also been affected. The sudden decrease of cattle/buffalo b āth āns may be attributed to a) scarcity of grazing land, b) scarcity of wet lands for buffaloes, c) lack of security in the process of seasonal migration from theft as well as livestock being forcibly taken away by tribal extremists for consumption, d) lack of interest in this practice by local people etc. In the southern part of the district, particularly in the char areas, the bāth āns were common features some 40 years back, but these have become a rarity today. This is perhaps because the then sparsely populated char areas are today occupied by a dense concentration of population. The same scenario has occurred in the northern part of the district as well. It has also been observed that the has taken up some schemes to increase the buffalo 15 population in the district through subsidies and certain incentives. The ‘ Merri ’ variety of buffalo which are brought particularly from Gujarat and Bihar are being reared in 3 to 4 numbers per family. However, these can not be classified as bāth ān. Summary: The land use pattern and land cover nature of the district has been severely affected by its dense population. For food and shelter requirements of the increased population, the forests and grazing lands were encroached upon and as a result, these categories decreased to 27.29 and 34.70 per cent of the total land respectively during 1993-94 and 2004-05. Agricultural land is also decreasing and as a result, the area sown more than once is increasing. Several inter-categorical changes in land use pattern in the district have occurred. More areas have been converted to agricultural and basti -land in the district. There has been a perceptible decrease in some cropped areas like sugarcane and tobacco and some socio-economic and cultural factors are behind the decrease of the acreage under these crops. The different social groups are exercising their own socio-cultural and traditional systems in their homelands and these have been reflected in their distinctive land use patterns. The direct effects of the loss of grazing lands are discernible in the case of certain livestock species, which are decreasing at a rapid rate. Such effects are also found in the b āth āns, which are decreasing rapidly. The wetlands and water bodies have been reclaimed and has converted to the agricultural or basti-lands particularly in the southern part of the district. As a result, in the last two decades, there has been a reduction of 31.20 per cent of water bodies and marshy lands in the district. In the last two decades, thatch plantation reduced by 331.26 per cent which has significantly impacted certain bovine species in the district. From the ongoing analysis, the following conclusions can be drawn- i) Other than the basti -land, there has been a decrease of area in all categories of land in Assam during 1965-66 to 1999-2000. ii) The forest area decreased by 27.29 per cent in Nalbari district during 1993-94 to 2004-05. iii) In inter-categorical conversion of land use, the forest land and wetlands were the worst sufferers with these being converted to built- up land. iv) Some traditional crops like tobacco, gram, and sugarcane have been replaced by food crops in the district at a faster rate. v) The changes in land use are more prominent in the middle built-up zone and in the southern zone in comparison to the northern part of the district. vi) The indigenous livestock species have been replaced by cross bred species. Some livestock like horses and ponies are on the verge of disappearing. vii) Some important socio-economic and cultural features like bāth āns are disappearing because of the decreasing availability of grass land and increasing population. 16

viii) Marshy lands and water bodies of the district are rapidly decreasing. ix) Due to the socio-eco-cultural factors, some plantations like thatch are rapidly disappearing.

References:

Abrol. P. Yash, et. al., 2002: Land Use/Land Cover in Indo-Gangatic Plains- History of Changes, Present Concerns and Future Approaches. In Yash. P. Abrol et al. (eds), Land-Use-Historical Perspectives- Focus on Indo- Gangetic Plains. pp. 1-25. Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata. ARSAC (ASTEC), 1990: District Report on Land Use and Land Cover. Nalbari District, Assam, . Backes, M. M.. 1999: Floristic and Bio-cultural Landscape Diversity in Autochthonous Agro-forestry Systems- A Case Study From Western Kenya. Applied Geography and Development, Vol. 54, pp. 7-26. Chetri, N. 2000: Impact of Population Pressure on Agricultural Land use Pattern in Kathiatoli Development Block, Assam. Hill Geographer, Vol. XVI, No. 1 & 2. pp. 5-15. Das, M. M. 1980: Structural Analysis of Peasant Agriculture in Assam. A Ph. D. Thesis submitted to , Guwahati-Assam. Ioffe, G. and Nefedova, T. 2001: Land Use Changes in The Environs of Moscow. Area, 33.3. 273-286, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow. Li. X. et al. 2001: Assessing Regional Sustainability: The case of Land Use and Land Cover Change in The Middle Yiluo Catchments of The Yellow River Basin, China. Applied Geography, 21, 87-106. Kumra, V. K. et al. 2000: Land Use Pattern and Its Environmental Consequences. in Nag et. al. (eds) Environment, Population and Development, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. Myers, N. 1991: The World’s Forest and Human Populations: The Environmental Interconnections. in Kingsley Davis (ed) Resources, Environment and Population: Present Knowledge and Future Trends, Supplement to Population and Development Review, 16. Sikka, D.R. 2002: Incidence of Excess (Flood) and Deficient (Drought) Summer Monsoon Rainfall During 1871-1995 Over The Indo-Gangetic Plain. In Yash. P. Abrol et al. (eds). Land Use-Historical Perspectives- Focus on Indo-Gangetic Plains pp.1-23, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi. Turner, B. L., Hanham, R. B. and Portararo, A. V. 1977: Population Pressure and Agricultural Intensity. Annals, Association of American Geographers.Vol. 67.3.384-396. 17

Venkateswarlu, J. 1997: Productivity of Land and Water: A Retrospect and Prospect. Productivity of Land and Water. Patil et al. (eds) New Age International Publishers.