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V OICES of Hmong American Students on Their PAO LOR

Introduction and ceremonies, day-to-day life activities, American educational attainment. The progress and prosperity, cultural challeng- reports revealed that Hmong American Hmong are originally a es, social media, and the many anecdotal educational attainment was lagging preliterate, seminomadic, and agrarian life stories that are shared throughout the behind that of other groups in the U.S. ethnic hill tribe from Southeast Asia and global Hmong communities. Other areas of research on the have now been in the United States for the According to the 2010 U.S. Census, Hmong American students’ experiences last four decades. From the 1960s to the mid- there were at that time 260,073 Hmong include their perceptions about their 1970s, the Hmong joined forces with the U.S. residing in the 50 states, the District of family environment (Dung, Deenanath, during the Secret War in . After the U.S. Colombia, and Puerto Rico (Hoeffel, Ras- & Xiong, 2012), Hmong student clubs or pulled out of Laos in 1975, the new Laotian togi, Kim, & Shahid, 2012). Of the 260,073 associations affecting their cultural and regime began persecuting the Hmong for Hmong, Hmong American students, ages political identities (Ngo, 2015), nutrition having supported the Americans. From 5–24 years, make up 49.4% (Pfeifer, Sulli- and health (Voorhees, Goto, Bianco-Si- 1975 to 2014, the American government van, Yang, & Yang, 2012). meral, & Wolff, 2011; Voorhees, Goto, & cooperated in relocating several waves of In the mid-1980s, researchers began Wolff, 2014), cultural assimilation (Lee, Hmong refugees to the U.S. to examine Hmong American students’ ex- 2002), intergenerational family conflict The Hmong American diaspora can periences. The most studied area was their (Su, Lee, & Vang, 2005), social well-being be categorized into three distinctive life education. In 1985, Goldstein examined (Lee, 2007), and language and cultural stages: life in Laos, life in , and the cultural challenges that Hmong boys identity (Bosher, 1997). life in the U.S. These three life stages and girls endured as they transitioned to More recently, researchers have started entail the transition and transformation American high schools. In 1997, Hutchison to study Hmong American students’ edu- of an ancient and agrarian way of life to used several categories of academic data cational experiences in higher education. a modernized one. Research and books by and interviews and reports on Hmong In particular, researchers have examined Hendricks, Downing, and Deinard (1986), students’ academic performance in the variables or factors that influence Hmong D. Yang (1993), Long (1993), Koltyk (1997), preK–12 educational system in , American students’ college matriculation, Hamilton-Merritt (1999), K. K. Yang asserting that for most Hmong students, retention, and graduation. Some of the vari- (2008), Lor (2009), Vang (2010), Fadiman their academic performance was on par ables or factors studied have included life (2012), and Hillmer (2015) have captured with that of their peers. experiences (Lor, 2008; Saloka, 2014; Thao, some of the dynamics of the essence of the Vang (2001, 2003, 2004, 2005) 2015), institutional policies and culture (De- Hmong American diaspora. has provided critical insights into the Pouw, 2003, 2006, 2012), gender (Lee, 1997; More important, it is best captured by cultural and academic experiences of Lor, 2013; Vue, 2008), and other challenges traditional chanting, storytelling, rituals Hmong students in ’s preK–11 (Ngo, 2000; Xiong, 2012; Xiong & Lam, 2013). educational system, reporting that cultural Often missing from the existing re- Pao Lor is an associate professor factors continue to affect Hmong students’ search are the “voices” of Hmong American in the College of Health, Education, achievement. In 2003 and 2013, Hmong students; more specifically, how do they and Social Welfare National Development generated two come to understand, interpret, and make at the University of Wisconsin-Green Bay, reports that provided an historical context meaning of their Hmong American diaspo- Green Bay, Wisconsin. for the Hmong American educational ra? It is this question that gave impetus to © 2018 by Caddo Gap Press experience and the status of Hmong this study.

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 2 Feature

In this study, I analyzed 31 autobiog- Thailand; and three were born in the U.S. Limitations raphies written in the 1990s by Hmong One participant was married and had two The study had limitations. The study American middle and high school students children. For those participants who were focused on the 31 autobiographies. Voices to get a better understanding of how they born in Laos and Thailand, the number of from other Hmong American middle and had come to understand, interpret, and years they had been in the United States high school students, even from the 1990s, make meaning of their diaspora, and in ranged from two to more than 10. might yield different results. My analysis particular, their families’ journey, their of the data was limited by what the partici- lives and education, and their future hopes Data pants had shared in their autobiographies. and dreams (Northern Lake Winnebago The data analyzed included expe- Additionally, the themes I generated Private Industry Council Inc., 1999). riences the participants shared in their and the depth of my analysis were limited autobiographies. Each autobiography con- by my understanding and interpretations Methodology tained all or some aspects of the writer’s of the autobiographies; other researchers The study is descriptive and explor- (a) family dynamics and circumstances, might arrive at different themes and in- atory. It is descriptive in that I described (b) life in Laos, (c) escape to Thailand, (d) terpretations. and analyzed a collection of student au- life, (e) journey to the U.S., tobiographies. It is exploratory in that I (f) religious and cultural influences, (g) Findings variations in educational experiences, and hope my analysis of the autobiographies I broke down my analysis into the provides a good starting point for further (h) future goals in life. Some autobiographies were thorough eight themes. For each theme, except for studies on the life of Hmong American updates on several of the participants, I middle and high school students and and detailed, whereas some were at times terse, fragmented, and lacking in context. shared key findings and used passages and also that the analysis might lead to new quotes from the autobiographies to capture discoveries about and connections among their essence. the different variables that affect Hmong Analysis of Data

American middle and high school students’ I used the following steps in my analy- Profile of Participants’ Families life experiences. sis of the 31 autobiographies. First, before The study was guided by the following thoroughly reading each autobiography, I In generating a profile of the partici- questions: skimmed through each and took notes on pants’ families, I looked at three key areas: (a) their family compositions, (b) their How have Hmong American middle and gender and on where the writer was born (Laos, Thailand, or the U.S). families’ cultural and religious practices, high school students come to understand, and (c) the transformation of their families interpret, and make meaning of their Next, I carefully read each autobiogra- diaspora? phy several times and took notes with the from 1975 to the mid-1990s. goal of recognizing some common themes How have their families and lives changed Family Compositions because of the diaspora? among the 31 autobiographies. After the The compositions of the 31 partici- initial reading and note taking, and after I pants’ families were diverse, representa- What are their experiences navigating had reached saturation by sifting and win- tive of the many types of families in the three vastly different cultures: life in Laos, nowing, I settled on the following common Hmong community. Most participants’ life in Thailand, and life in the U.S.? themes among the 31 autobiographies: families had two parents and siblings of How do they view their educational ex- Profile of participants’ families, four or more, along with grandparents at periences? Life in Laos, times. Other participants, at different stag- What are their hopes and dreams for their Escape to Thailand, es in their lives, grew up with families with future? How will they go about achieving Refugee camp life, one parent (father or mother) that were these hopes and dreams? What challenges, Coming to the United States, polygamous or were absent of parents. if any, do they foresee in such life pursuits? Life in the United States, and One participant shared his conun- Future: hopes and dreams. Where are some of these Hmong students drum of growing up with his father: today? Because I knew some of the partici- I was born on June 15, 1979 in Laos in the pants personally and was aware of some small village called Noom Kuas. My parents Sampling of their past and present circumstances, I raised me there six months, and then we added one more theme: moved to a small village called Naj Saim The sampling was purposeful. It includ- where we could grow vegetables, fruits, and ed 31 autobiographies in which participants Updates on several of the participants. farm. We lived there for five years and we shared their perspectives on how they had had a good life there. A year after that my come to understand, interpret, and make Guided by the established themes, parent got a divorce because of my dad. He meaning of the Hmong American diaspora. I read each autobiography several more was so sick and my mom did not want to live They wrote the autobiographies as a part times, repeatedly flushing out relevant with him. Even when my Mom and Dad got of their involvement in the Summer Youth information and aggregating it into the a divorce, I still loved them very much. My Education and Employment Program appropriate theme. mom always came to feed me because my dad did not know how to feed me. I was so (SYEP) that was sponsored by the Appleton, Finally, for each theme, I provided a summary and used passages or quotes sad that my parents got divorced, but there Wisconsin, YMCA. Twenty of the autobiog- was nothing I could do to help them because from the autobiographies to support it raphies were written by men, and 11 were I was only a baby. If [I knew] I was [going] written by women. Eighteen of the partic- to grow up like this, I would never let them ipants were born in Laos; 10 were born in get a divorce. I would tell them how much I loved them, and I needed both of them.

FALL 2018 3 Feature

The following participant grew up the shores. My family had a little ceremo- my dad to get on his knees and ask to be with her mother and pointed out their ny for him, and then they made their way forgiven. “That is not enough!” the shaman family situation after her father had died: to the camp of Ban Vinai. said. He told my dad to let somebody adopt me. My father agreed. Then this Thao After my father passed away, my family One participant pondered the effects family adopted me and they called Mai struggled daily to survive. We didn’t have of growing up without her parents: Thao Xiong. They made me their godchild anyone to look after us, lead and guide us, and they became my godparents. They are By being a child without the guidance of and direct my family. Besides, we didn’t still alive and living in California. parents, I always wonder, “What is life? have any money to buy food or other Can life be fair for me as for everyone things that my family needed. We were too Another common ceremony a partici- else? Is there a solution somewhere that young to be able to help my mother. . . . To pant alluded to was hus plig or soul calling I will be able to see?” I miss my parents survive in a third world country, like Laos, ceremony: very much, especially my mother and my without a father figure was worse than other brother and sister, who still live in hell. Life for my family was like playing When my sister and I came back home my Laos today. I wish I could see them again a football game without the quarterback. father and my three sisters were very mad someday and live together once more. because they couldn’t find us. My mother Years later, her mother remarried. Her asked why do you and your sister Ka look Cultural/Religious Practices remarriage once again changed the fami- all wet and so dirty. Then my sister said of Participants’ Families ly’s living situation. Her siblings and she when the rain came, dad said I had to take For many participants’ families, their Ka home but when Ka and I went home were separated to live with different clan ancestral cultural and religious practices we came to the bridge we just fell in the members. Her mother was a widow and (/animism) continued to play river. Then my father and mother went to remarrying was typical in the Hmong critical roles in defining their daily lives. ask my grandpa to come to the river where communities back then but is less common A few participants’ families practiced my sister and I fell. They went to Hu Plig today. . (a ceremony to get rid of bad luck) at the river, and my grandpa took a duck, cup of A couple of participants had fathers These two participants illuminated who had multiple wives. At times, the rice (ib tug xyab) and (ib rab kuam neeb) the impact that these cultural/religious and went to the river. polygamy affected some of families’ deci- practices had on them: sions and circumstances. One participant Two significant ceremonies missing My name is Da Neng Chang, I was born in explained their situation while they were from the autobiographies were the “baci” still living in a refugee camp in Thailand: Thailand. My real name that my parents call me is Cha, but in school my friends ceremony (khis tes) or shamanistic ritual In 1987 my dad had two wives. In 1988 my call me Da Neng. I don’t care what they that is usually conducted to bless a family family wanted to go Australia, but my dad call me as long as they call me either one. as they are about to embark on their jour- had two wives so we didn’t have a chance After I was infected by a disease, I also got ney to the U.S. go to Australia. We just lived in Thailand. very sick and my father did all he could At the other end of the continuum but still got sick. Then my grandpa said to of the participants’ cultural/religious Another participant provided another try to get me a new name, they did gave practices was Christianity. Several partic- polygamous example: me a new name call Cha. From that time ipants mentioned various church-related on I didn’t get sick anymore and they also Ai is my brother too, but he has a different called me the new name from that time on. activities. These two participants specifi- mother because my father married two cally conveyed the powerful influence that wives. His mother passed away when he When I was about one year old, I was very Christianity had on them: was still little. sick. My grandpa gave me medicine to make me well but it did not work. I was In we found a home near by my For some of the participants, the sick for a year. One day he decided to give sister and her husband and we lived there. makeup of their families also included me a new name. After he name me Pao Ye We started going to church. My whole grandparents. One participant gave this then I feel better each day. My grandpa family got baptized as Christians in the fond memory of his grandfather: saved my life. church called “Our Savior.” I don’t know what cause me to do the things I did but When I was one year old, my dad got me a Another participant was more specific I stood up and walked to the front of the dog. The dog was twice my size and twice about the ceremony performed to change chapel and asked God to forgive me for all my weight. He was a reddish-brown dog. her name: the bad things I have done, and to come When the dog got hungry, my grandfather and be my Shepard and lead me to the and I usually fed the dog. When I was After living in that village for a couple of good path. When I said those few words, it two years old, my families move to Paws months I got very sick, I cried a lot and seem as though my whole body had been Luam. In Paws Luam, I love to go out I went to the bathroom a lot. My father clean away and I had a new beginning. into the woods to gather firewood. Some asked a shaman over to see what was Now I have become active in my church days my grandfather took me out into the wrong with me. The shaman said, “Your youth group, have found the true meaning fields to gather sugar cane, corn, pumpkin daughter is depressed. You must know of a family and have become a child of and wheat. what you did wrong.” My dad then told Jesus, Christ. the story to the shaman that when my For another participant, how he came mom had me in her stomach my dad had The greatest thing that has changed my to learn of his grandfather was rather an affair with another woman. My dad life forever is when I came back to Jesus tragic (this was the participant’s family’s threatened my mom that he was going Christ and God. For all long time I have experience crossing the Mekong River): to kill her so I wouldn’t be alive. I don’t been like a lost sheep wandering through think he really meant that, but that’s what the fields without a Shepard to guide me My dad had to disband his AK-47 for fear he said. Everyday when my dad told my in the right path. I have always knew that of Thai officials. Now all that they had was mom to go to the garden my mom always Jesus was there for me if I wanted him the clothes on their backs. My grandpa refused and stayed home. The shaman told in my life, but somehow I just never had was in serious condition, and he died on time for him. I was always running around

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acting hard and tough that no one could state], my parents tried to find a job but One participant’s memories of his hurt me. I did not care about anything, or couldn’t find any jobs so they decided to childhood in Laos were still profound and anyone especially my family which have move back and live with my cousins [back compelling. He shared memories of grow- supported and tried so hard to raise me up in Appleton where they lived before]. My ing up in his parents’ village, where they right. I can still remember the day when I uncle [in another state] tried to stop them ask God and Jesus to come back into my but couldn’t so he told my parents to visit had lived for many years: seeing his par- life and be my Shepard and guide me to them but we haven’t visited them in four- ents going to the farm, seeing other family the right path. teen years. We are planning to visit them members leaving their village because of in two years. I don’t want to visit them diminishing resources and the military Transformation of Participants’ Families since they made fun of me they said that instability in Laos, and their family’s even- From 1975 to the mid-1990s, the I had small ears and that I was ugly, so tual departure from his parents’ village. transformation of many participants’ that why I don’t want to visit my uncle. From there, he described their journey families was extreme because of their di- When we moved backed to Appleton, we to Thailand, which included several brief aspora, having gone from an agrarian and got back on welfare and my dad went stays with other family members while preliterate way of living in the highlands to Fox Valley Technical College to study they waited for the right time to leave and of Laos to trying to reestablish a new life printing. After two years, he finished and then discretely fleeing in the middle of the in a modernized world. The participants got a job at Bower Printing. And my mom, she worked at Valley Packing. night to reach Thailand. This is how he understood that the transformation was poignantly remembered some of his more out of necessity. Their families were being This participant’s family tenacity eluci- innocent moments: persecuted by the new Laotian government dates the resiliency shown by all of the after the Secret War. They had to endure participants and their families. My family moved to Han Thai after the the harsh refugee camp conditions with end of the . Han Thai is lo- limited options (stay in Thailand, return Life in Laos cated about thirty-five miles from Xiengk- to Laos, or go to the U.S.).Their families houang City which we called Phonsavan. Several factors affected the partici- Han Thai was surrounded by high moun- had to make the difficult but necessary pants’ knowledge and understanding of tains on three sides and covered with decision to come to the U.S. and then their their families’ lives in Laos: how long they trees and plants. There was a small river families had to adapt to a new world with lived in Laos, the memories they still had of that flowed through the village; so, people which they were not familiar. their lives there, how old they were when built their homes along the river banks. Through the two disparaging decades Our home was located on the east side of they left Laos, what they had come to learn of diaspora, one key positive factor was the village. Most of the villagers lived in from family members about life in Laos, or that many participants’ parents, siblings, Han Thai were all our relatives. Most of a combination of these. and extended family members managed to them moved with my father from the same Several themes of their lives in Laos place. Most of the villagers farmed on the stay intact as a family. If there were any emerged out of these factors: an agrarian east of the river. separations of family members, they were lifestyle, moving from tribal village to When I stood in front of our front door due to normal life patterns, including older tribal village, playing with friends and in the morning, between seven and eight siblings getting married and moving out, cousins, changing family dynamics, lacking o’clock, I could see people going to the tragedies, or other extreme circumstances. farm. Some of them carried a basket on and diminishing resources, going to school, The participants realized that a life their back. There was mother who had a parents and families facing ethnic persecu- in America offered their families new baby on her back, and there was a father tion for having been involved in the Secret opportunities for a better life, but they who carried a child on one of his shoulders. War (some of the participants called it “the It was very fun to watch people going to were not oblivious to the reality that the Vietnam War” instead of “the Secret War”), the farm. opportunities came with new challenges: making their way to the Mekong River, and learning English, assimilating into Amer- Several participants shared life expe- crossing the Mekong River to Thailand. ica, getting an education, and getting a riences that provided keen insights into Each participant’s details or lack job, among others. They also realized that the Hmong’s sophisticated, ancient, and thereof supporting these themes varied. whoever could successfully navigate this spiritual world in Laos. Two participants Some participants, given their English pro- uncharted territory would have a greater mentioned that after they were born, they ficiency, were more compelling and more chance at a better future. were very sick. After consulting with a profound in their recollections of their and This participant pointed out some of family member or a shaman, it was de- their parents’ lives in Laos. these new challenges: termined that to cure their sickness, they Nevertheless, the majority of partici- must change their birth names. After they We landed in about three or four pants shared that their lives in Laos had got their new names, they were not sick days later. My parents and other Hmong become like a distant dream: discovered that life in the U.S. was not as anymore. easy as they had thought. There wasn’t My life in Laos seems like a dream. I This is one participant’s perspective on anyone to take care of us. To go to hospital remember a big rice field on a hillside. the influences of the Hmong’s preliterate or stores took about a quarter of a mile to I remember coming home at night from and spiritual world: walk. The distance was not a problem, but that rice field. And I remember climbing the snow was. The snow was a couple of a high mountain to pick strawberries and About one or two years later, my sister was feet high and we did not have any boots. raspberries. A picture vividly appears in cursed by an evil man then she died. It all my mind of my mom holding my hand got started when my father’s brother came Another participant painted their and carrying my baby brother with a from Laos and my father told the Thai family’s early challenges and then shared big basket on her back as she is picking people to go across the Mekong River to how they navigated them; cucumbers and delicious little bananas all help my uncle get to Thailand. at the same time. After they crossed the Mekong River, the Also there [after relocating to another Thai people robbed all their money and

FALL 2018 5 Feature

abandoned them. Then my father told the The Vietnamese came to live in the Me- seeing people arguing about food prices evil man to find my father’s brother and he kong River and whoever tried to pass the being too high. The camps were very run will pay the evil man money. The evil man Mekong River to Thailand would get killed down and people were catching sicknesses did not find my father’s brother but the by the Vietnamese. My family crossed the from everyone. Diseases were very wide- evil man wanted his money, so my father Mekong River at 10:00 p.m. A lot people spread and there were many different paid him anyway. The evil man wanted Hmong died in the Mekong River because kinds of illnesses. Typhus was a very my father to pay him five thousand dollars many people were know how to swim, so common disease. The people couldn’t be but my father did not had that much so they drown in the Mekong River. Some treated quickly enough because the doc- he said he will only pay the evil man two shot by the Vietnamese at the time as they tors were very limited. The food that was thousand dollars. Then he did his magic tried to cross the Mekong River. given to us was not very fresh but we had and killed my sister. When my sister died to take it because we didn’t have enough my father went to kill the evil man. Refugee Camp Life money to buy the food from the stores. Again, the participants’ knowledge Many families did not ration their food Escape to Thailand and understanding of their lives in refugee supply very well. This became a problem camps were affected by the same factors because then the family would have to go The participants’ knowledge and un- as their lives in Laos and their escape to for days without food, go ask some friends derstanding of their escape to Thailand Thailand: how old they were when they for handouts, or go and talk to the Thai were shaped by the same factors as their were in camp, how long they stayed in the and ask for more food. knowledge and understanding of their refugee camp(s), the memories they still A most devastating memory was a lives in Laos: the memories they still had had of their time there, what they had of the escape, how old they were, what they participant witnessing her grandmother come to learn from family members, or a being staked in the backyard of the police had come to learn from family members, combination of these. or a combination of these. Common themes station and then burned. She still remem- For those who were old enough to bered that horrific, terrifying experience: from their escape to Thailand included why remember, their memories were quite they were leaving, the preparation they conflicting. They had fond memories and As soon as our family came to the [police] took for the escape, the challenges they devastating and tragic ones. Their fond station, they took Grandma out into the courtyard and brought out a stake. They faced along the way, and how they crossed memories included fishing, hunting, play- then tied her and started a fire around her. the Mekong. ing with friends, roaming the market, The same factors as in the life in Laos I was still small and didn’t really know going to school, sewing, doing house chores, what was happening but my dad did. He theme affected each participant’s level of de- and their enthusiasm learning that they cried and shouted for them to stop but tail supporting the theme. One participant were coming to America. Their devastating they kept on throwing gasoline on her and described why they were leaving Laos: and tragic ones included lack of food, the then they lit a match. They killed her right in front of my dad and his family. There Laos was not worth it, and many of our poor conditions of the camps, losing loved were many people from the village there. relatives were in Thailand and in the ones, and not having loved ones around U.S. Escaping to Thailand was not easy because they died or were captured on the As expected, the participants’ genders at all. Many Hmong families were killed way out of Laos. greatly influenced and defined many of on the way by the Laos communist sol- The longest a participant’s family their daily life activities and chores while diers because to escape the country like stayed in one of the camps was 18 years. that meant betraying the country and its they were living in the refugee camp. Male government. It was an embarrassment His family was one of the first families to participants’ daily life activities entailed for them. It made the communist look live in Ban Vinai. His description of those going to school, fishing, hunting, playing bad. The Laotian government ordered the early years, sports and games with friends, and going soldiers to look for those who planned to One of the most critical things that we to the New Year. Female participants’ daily escape. Whoever got caught would surely faced were the “Thai soldiers” who were life activities entailed sewing, doing house not be alive. My family was very scared. sent to the camp site by the Thai Govern- chores, going to school, and going to the But, you just had to take your chances, ment to protect and supervise the refugee and it was a fifty/fifty chance. New Year. camp boundary. Their mission was to The same participant elaborated on make sure that all the refugees were safe Coming to the U.S. the challenges they faced: and secure, but instead of protecting the refugees, they were the ones that robbed For the participants’ journeys to the We left all of our belongings behind. We the refugees, stole their belongings, espe- U.S., I identified “as they were leaving their traveled for three weeks through the cially their silver and gold, raped their refugee camp and were making their way jungle with two other families. On the wives and daughters, and killed whoever to Phanatnikhom” as the starting point, way, I was very scared. We could smell the they wanted to. The refugees couldn’t and “as they officially landed at their des- retaliated or even dare to speak out. Thai dead human flesh and saw the skeletons tination in the United States” as the end of people who had died while trying to soldiers were armed and they had the escape, like us. It was very dark when we authority and power to conquer the camp. point. Phanatnikhom was their final stay got near the Mekong River. We could hear Refugees had to obey the soldiers’ orders; before their flight to the U.S. gunfire from the Laos communist soldiers. otherwise, we would be tortured, taken One participant remembered leaving I thought we were going to get killed. I away from our family, and easily be killed. their refugee camp for the last time: knew the soldiers were very close to us, and I was very frightened for my family. Another participant painted a gloomy When it was time for us to come to Amer- picture of camp conditions: ica, my grandpa, grandma, aunts, uncles, This participant revealed the danger and sisters were crying. They were crying and uncertainty of crossing the Mekong I remember people dying in the streets because they thought it was sad. I was because of starvation. I also remember River: sad too. In the morning when we were walking home one day with my dad and picked up, my grandma told me that she

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didn’t want me to go because she loves At the airport they were surprised U.S. (around two years for those who were me. I didn’t say anything to her because I and amazed, because none of them had born outside of the U.S. and around 14 for didn’t know what to say to her. My family previously seen a modernized airport or those who were born in the U.S.); and the other families that were going to a commercial airplane, and most of their America got on the bus. Their educational experience (some start- departing flights were at night. This partic- ed kindergarten, and a few started middle This participant captured the many ipant metaphorically captured the feeling or high school); activities on their way to Phanatnikhom: many Hmong had as they were leaving the Where they first lived in the U.S. (some did world they knew: When we are on our way to the camp not come directly to Appleton); (Phab Nab Nib Khoos), I saw many beau- When my family boarded the plane, we Where they were born in the U.S. (some tiful things like flowers, houses and birds. felt as if an old life had come to pass with were born outside of Wisconsin); I also saw many Thai people walking down a new one sprouting. the street. They were throwing water at Whether they were single or married each other. They were celebrating the New Their flights took them from Bangkok (one participant was married and had Years, and we were just passing by it. It to Hong Kong or Tokyo and then to one of children); took us one day to get there. the major U.S. airports, including Seattle, How well they adjusted to their new Honolulu, San Francisco, or Los Angeles. While at Phanatnikhom, the partic- world, that is, school, community, family, One participant remembered, ipants learned English in preparation and so on; for their new lives in the U.S. The stay at I remember when I was in the airplane Even for participants who had lived in the Phanatnikhom was typically six months; flying over to America. I saw many big (Appleton, Neenah, Menasha, for some, it was longer. All portrayed life and small airplanes outside the airport. I Kaukuana, Hortonville, etc.) all their lives, in Phanatnikhom as being different and saw many mountains when I looked out how widely their lives varied. the window. I saw long rivers, lakes, and worse than life in prior camp(s). Life in beautiful clouds. Our first landing was in Participants who were not born in the Phanatnikhom was more strict and con- Japan. I saw many Japanese people, and I U.S. shared many common life experiences: fined. As one participant put it, thought why they have black hair like us living with relatives before moving out, too. I thought that they were Hmong, but In that camp, I went fishing and hunting. the strange experiences of their families they were not. I was so confused about it, I went to watch TV, and play marbles with now living in a new place, the discomfort that I didn’t know where we were. I asked friends for money. Outside of that camp it my dad where we were and my dad said and uncertainty of going to school because was very dangerous so people could not we were in Japan. That is how I knew that they did not speak English, the challenges go out of it. You could not even buy things we were in Japan. they faced in school, and their adjustment from the outsider. If the security saw you buy stuff from the outsider, he would catch to their new lives. With a few exceptions (Los Angeles One participant provided a vivid snap- you, and punish you for breaking the rules. and ), all involved then took a I saw many people get punished like that shot of his family’s first experiences: for leaving the camp or buying stuff from connecting domestic flight to Chicago or When my family reached Appleton, many the outsider. One day I went hunting with , and finally, those whose des- of our cousins came to pick us up at the my sling shot outside the camp. I do not tination was not Chicago or Minneapolis/ airport. Our first month in Appleton was know how it happened, but one security St. Paul took another connecting flight to the best; we stayed in a different house saw me out there. He came and chased me. their final destinations, most of which were every day and slept in a different house He held a long knife with a long rope. I ran in Wisconsin. This participant shared their every night. When we were living on our about one half mile. I jumped over the long family’s welcome at their destination: own house, it was the most difficult and fence and over the small river to get away scariest time for everyone in the family, from him. I was very lucky that he did not When we landed in Appleton airport, it because we did not know how to get from catch me. I was scared to death. After that was very dark outside and it was probably place to place. One time when my sister I never went outside the camp again. ten o’clock. It was in the summer of June, and I were going for a walk around the 1989. All my cousins, and all my uncles block we got lost. We did not know what After learning that they were on their came to pick us up there. They were crying to do except to keep on walking and see way to the U.S., the participants then told and crying because it was so long since we where we would end up. It was getting of how they were bussed to the airport. saw each other during the Vietnam War. dark and then a bus passed by. I think One participant briefly described the ex- Not all participants initially came to that the bus diver knew my sister, be- perience: Wisconsin or were born in Wisconsin. One cause he took us to the police station and There were six buses coming to pick up was born in , and two in Illinois. then the police took us home. I don’t know the ones that had been picked to come to how the policeman knew where we lived, Others lived in California, , and because we did not mentioned where the U.S. We were on the third bus. It took Michigan before moving to Wisconsin. us a half day to reach the airport. we lived to him. After this, I have never gotten lost again. When winter came, my Another participant shed more light Life in the U.S. family was in deep trouble, because we did not know to prepare for the winter. on the last stretch of their journey: The participants’ life experiences in All of my sisters and brothers just wore We took the bus to Bangkok [the capital the U.S. varied widely. The variations in the same clothes that they wore in the city of Thailand]. We left the camp at mid- their lives were affected by the following summer. night. By the time we got there, it was six factors: in the morning. We waited for the airplane Many participants mentioned that for two hours. Then the Thai people told Where they were born (Laos, Thailand, their lives in the U.S. are much better or the U.S.); us that our plane was here, so we went up than their lives in Laos and Thailand, the elevator and to the airplane. The length of time they had been in the but they were not oblivious to the racism,

FALL 2018 7 Feature discrimination, and prejudice they must day visit Laos and Thailand again; and go this book. And if this book keeps on going face at school and in the community. into a specific profession, such as business, year after year, they can look back and One participant gave advice on how to communications, or education. say that these people are the ones that deal with racism and discrimination: This participant already had his fu- started this job. ture planned out: Now, life runs smoother than back in As for the participant who was a Thailand. But there are many problems For my future plan, I would like to gradu- father, his future had shifted to how to I still face today, like racism, hatred, and ate from high school and go to college. The provide a better future for his two children discrimination against me or my people. college I would like to attend is UW-Os- and family: In the world, we all should be treated the hkosh. I would like to take an academy Now, my life is my children and my children same. It doesn’t matter if you are black class because I want to be a detective. I are my life. I try to teach them what I have or white or yellow or all sources of colors. might go to college for four years or more. learned about the rights and wrongs in life. Why do some people think they are better I don’t want to be a police officer because I show them and teach them to love, to care, than others? This are things we have to I don’t want to wear the heavy utilities and to respect other people because there find for ourselves in the future in order to and equipment. live peacefully among each other. might not be a tomorrow, for life is short, A participant who had struggled to and time is forever…. My children and wife For those who were born in the U.S., make the best of his educational experience are everything to me. They are my life, my adjustment to their new world was not any and the best choices in life imparted these hope, my dreams, and my future. easier: learned life lessons: Two Decades Later: I was born on September 28, 1980 at Lou- Right now, I’m still going to school. I could Where Are They Today? ise A. Weiss Hospital in Chicago, Illinois. have finished high school by now, but We moved around a lot in Illinois: from I goofed off too much in the beginning. Over two decades later, where are Chicago to Wheaton to probably some- Now, I regret everything that I did. I some of these participants, many of whom where else. Then we moved to Kaukauna, wish that I never did that, but if I had a are now in their mid- to late 30s? As a Wisconsin. chance to change my past, I would do it member of the same community in the It was a dark night on June 3, 1979. My all over again, because I needed to learn. 1990s as these participants, I knew some mother was having pain. The pain was be- Though I learned the hard way, it doesn’t of them. Today, I am aware of some of their cause she was having contractions. My fa- mean that everybody else should learn it past and present circumstances: ther and relative rushed my mother to the that way, too. One graduated from college and went on Denver General Hospital. There she went For another participant, his future through two hours of painful labor, and to serve the Hmong community in several was greatly influenced by his renewed finally at 12:29 I was born into the world. leadership capacities. commitment to God: It was hard for my parents to care for me Another graduated from college and is as a baby. This was because they had only The greatest thing that has changed my currently working for a local company been in the country for a couple of months life forever is when I came back to Jesus in the area. and did not have a place to stay. They then Christ and God. For a long time, I have slept and practically lived in the basement been like a lost sheep wandering through Two graduated from college and moved on of the church. It was both my parents, my the fields without a Shepard to guide me to establish their careers in Minnesota. six brothers, two sisters, and me. in the right path. I have always knew that One is currently an insurance sales agent This participant captured all the par- Jesus was there for me if I wanted him in the area. in my life, but somehow I just never had ticipants’ realities of life in the U.S.: time for him. I was always running around One moved around, worked in various As I think back though, I see how lucky I acting hard and tough that no one could business sectors, and is now back in town was to be born in the U.S., to get an educa- hurt me. I did not care about anything, or to be closer to his parents and other family tion at an early age, and to know English anyone especially my family which have members. fluently since my family did not have that supported and tried so hard to raise me up right. I can still remember the day when I One took over his parents’ business in sort of opportunity, but life in the U.S. is the area. also filled with hardships and troubles too. ask God and Jesus to come back into my life and be my Shepard and guide me to Except for one, all are married and raising Future: Hopes and Dreams the right path. a family. In my dream and in my life, it seems like The same participant also shared that Of the seven, four remained in the area. it is going to be hard for me in all my life. his renewed commitment to God did not mean giving up on his cultural identity: Except for this participant, who ex- Conclusion pressed an expectation for and seemed to As I look at my future and my plans I The participants’ voices about how hope that I will stay in close touch with accept a rather pessimistic future, many they had come to understand, interpret, participants envisioned a future that in- my Hmong culture and friends, who have greatly affected me. and make meaning of their journey (life volves hard work, doing the best they can, in Laos, life in Thailand, life in the U.S., learning from their mistakes and success- One participant mentioned how their challenges, successes, and future hopes es, and preserving their cultural identity published autobiographies could one day be and dreams) add to and shed more light as Hmong. These life principles are aligned used as a resource by others to learn more on the many existing anecdotal stories in with those of prior Hmong generations. about the Hmong American experience: the Hmong communities, documentaries Some of the participants were specific Just to think, if this book is a success, I (Levine, 1982; Taggert & McSilver, 2001), in what they were going to do with their would be one of the 12 people who produce and books (Hamilton-Merritt, 1999; Hill- future: go to college; become successful; one mer, 2015; Long, 1993; Pfeifer, Chiu, &

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 8 Feature

Yang, 2013; Quincy, 2011; D. Yang, 1993) their pasts from their parents and from perspectives and dimensions to the about the Hmong American diaspora. the interviews they conducted through the Hmong American middle and high school The depth and quality of each partici- YMCA’s SYEP. None mentioned learning student life experienced, in particular, a pant’s autobiography seem to be affected by about their history in a formal education- phenomenological, qualitative study that examines and combines the voices of mul- several variables: how long the participant al setting. Over the last several decades, tiple groups of Hmong American middle has been in the U.S., their academic skills, proponents and advocates for establishing and high school students. their communication skills, and how much state legislation to require preK–12 school they are willing to disclose their life story. districts to teach Hmong history and cul- Lastly, longitudinal studies could be done In other words, the literary substance ture and the Secret War have not been with other, similar samplings. For exam- ple, a longitudinal study following similar of the autobiographies vastly differs: some successful. samplings of Hmong American middle are detailed and thorough; some are terse; The emergence of technology, partic- and high school students for a period of some are fragmented; and some lack con- ularly social media, along with Hmong 5, 10, 15, and 20 years, examining vari- textual meaning. Nevertheless, these vari- charter schools, and Hmong community ous aspects and dynamics of their lives, ations in the participants’ autobiographies organizations continue to carry on this could provide more critical insights into are representative of the diversity that critical responsibility. Giving the recent the transformation of Hmong American exists among Hmong American middle violence of non-Hmong against Hmong in- middle and high school students’ diaspora. and high school students’ life and academic dividuals (recent shooting in Junction City, Findings from these additional studies experiences. Wisconsin) and vice versa (Chia Vang and would add more humanity to and further Many participants were thankful to Nengmy Vang), the need to infuse Hmong legitimize the essence of Hmong American have been a part of the Appleton YMCA’s culture and history in the preK–12 school students’ life experiences. SYEP. They had learned more about them- curriculum is critical and urgent. selves and about their culture, history, Several participants mentioned how and heritage. They had also learned many their families’ cultural and religious References valuable life skills, including interviewing practices (shamanism/animism and Chris- Bosher, S. (1997). Language and cultural skills, writing skills, and socialization tianity) affected them. More than two identity: A study of Hmong students at the skills. Some hoped that SYEP would decades later, from personal observations post-secondary level. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 593–603. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587843 continue for many more years to come. and anecdotal stories, both cultural and DePouw, C. (2003). Familiar foreign: Hmong Unfortunately, the program ended after religious practices will continue to play American students engaging and resisting three cohorts. critical roles in the Hmong communities. America. Champaign, IL: University of Illi- Would continuation of the SYEP pro- More recently emerging and competing nois at Urbana-Champaign. gram have helped other Hmong American cultural and religious movements (atheism DePouw, C. (2006). Negotiating race, navigating students in a similar fashion? Today, com- to Kev Ntseeg Leej Niam) have also started school: Situating Hmong American university ponents of the SYEP can be found imple- to influence the Hmong community, adding student experiences (Unpublished doctoral mented into various Hmong charter school more dynamics to the Hmong American dissertation). University of Illinois at Urba- na-Champaign. programs and curricula or are a part of diaspora. DePouw, C. (2012). When culture implies defi- many Hmong and non-Hmong community Looking at the participants’ hopes and cit: Placing race at the center of Hmong organizations. dreams, it is intriguing to find out where American education. Race, Ethnicity, and Several participants shared how everyone is today and to get their perspec- Education, 15, 223–229. https://doi.org/10.1 many of their responsibilities, expecta- tives on how their lives had unfolded over 080/13613324.2011.624505 tions, and daily life chores and activities the last two decades. The few participants Dung, M., Deenanath, V., & Xiong, Z. (2012). were defined by their gender. Lor (2012, I knew and had recently come across seem Hmong students’ perceptions of their fam- 2013) and Lee (1997) explored these in- to be doing well; they have established ily environment: A consensual qualitative analysis of family photos. Hmong Studies fluences and how they have changed over careers and families and are involved in Journal, 13(1), 1–27. the last four decades. efforts to advance their communities. Fadiman, A. (2012). The spirt catches you and The achievements of (the Finally, the study, exploratory and you fall down: A Hmong child, her American first Hmong American state senator in descriptive in nature and with limitations, doctors, and the collision of two cultures. New Minnesota), Dia Cha (former St. Cloud raises several opportunities for future re- York, NY: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux. University associate professor), Bao Vang search, including qualitative, quantitative, Goldstein, B. L. (1985). Schooling for cultural (executive director of Hmong American or mixed studies, such as the following: transitions: Hmong girls and boys in Ameri- Partnership in Minnesota), Chou Yee can high schools (Unpublished doctoral dis- One research opportunity arises from the Vang (associate professor at University sertation). University of Wisconsin, Madison. fact that, because the data came from one Hamilton-Merritt, J. (1999). Tragic mountains: of Wisconsin-), May See Yang group of Hmong American middle and The Hmong, the Americans, and the secret (associate professor at University of Wis- high school students, the study protocols wars for Laos, 1942–1992. Bloomington, IN: consin–Stevens Point), Kristy Yang (re- can be duplicated or modified to study Indiana University Press. cently elected judge to Milwaukee County other Hmong American middle and high Hendricks, G. L., Downing, B. T., & Deinard, A. S. Circuit Court in Wisconsin), among many school students in different cities, states, (1986). The Hmong in transition. New York, other well-accomplished Hmong profes- and types of educational environments NY: Center for Migration Studies. sional women, are evidence of the roles (charter schools, private schools, religious Hillmer, P. (2015). A people’s history of the schools, etc.). and responsibilities Hmong women have Hmong. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press. Another research opportunity is to exam- expanded beyond the cultural parameters Hmong National Development. (2003). Hmong ine variables beyond the autobiographies shared by the participants and the past. 2000 census publication: Data and analysis. in the study that could offer different Many participants came to learn of Washington, DC: Author.

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