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Proceedings of the 3rd MoMoWo International Conference - Workshop. University of Oviedo, 2–4 October 2017, Oviedo

Original Proceedings of the 3rd MoMoWo International Conference - Workshop. University of Oviedo, 2–4 October 2017, Oviedo / GARDA, EMILIA MARIA; FRANCHINI, CATERINA; María Fernández García, Ana; Seražin, Helena. - ELETTRONICO. - (2018), pp. 1-181.

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24 September 2021

Proceedings of the 3rd MoMoWo International Conference - Workshop

University of Oviedo, 2–4 October 2017, Oviedo

Ljubljana 2018

Proceedings of the 3rd MoMoWo International Conference-Workshop University of Oviedo, 2–4 October 2017, Oviedo

Collected by Ana María Fernández García, Helena Seražin, Caterina Franchini and Emilia Garda

MoMoWo Scientific Committee: POLITO (Turin/Italy) Emilia GARDA, Caterina FRANCHINI IADE-U (Lisbon/Portugal) Maria Helena SOUTO UNIOVI (Oviedo/Spain) Ana María FERNÁNDEZ GARCÍA VU (Amsterdam/Netherlands) Marjan GROOT ZRC SAZU (Ljubljana /Slovenia) Helena SERAŽIN UGA (Grenoble/France) Alain BONNET SiTI (Turin/Italy) Sara LEVI SACERDOTTI

Issued by ZRC SAZU, France Stele Institute of Art History Represented by Barbara Murovec

Published by Založba ZRC Represented by Oto Luthar Editor-in-chief Aleš Pogačnik

Layout: Helena Seražin

The collected papers were submitted prior the 3rd MoMoWo International Conference-Workshop and written as preliminary versions of articles, which will be published in a separate, edited and peer- reviewed volume Women Designers, Architects and Enigneers betwwen 1969 and 1989 in the series Women’s Creativity. The collected papers have not been peer-reviewed. The authors hold responsibility for English language proof-reading. Abstracts are published at http://www.momowo.eu/momowos-3rd-international- conference-workshop/.

Publication of the Project MoMoWo (Women’s Creativity since the Modern Movement) http://www.momowo.eu

This project has been co-funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

This project is co-funded by Creative Europe programme of the European Union, Slovenian Research Agency and Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Slovenia.

Content

POLITICS, POLICIES AND POLITICAL REGIMES

6 Beyond Architecture: Politics, Feminism and Art as a Way of Life Social and Artistic Engagement of Giovanna De Sanctis Ricciardone Anna Riciputto

15 Ucelay and Careaga, Two Women during the Franco Regime Iñigo Galdeano Pérez

23 Modern Hospital Complexes by Architect Zoja Dumengjić in Croatia Zrinka Barišić Marenić

33 Paola Salmoni (1921–2003) in Postwar Italy. Politics in Action Monica Prencipe

42 Architect Bianca Ballestrero in Tuscany and Her Partnership with Gae Aulenti Daniela Turazza and Chiara Santi

52 Maria Teresa Parpagliolo: The Kabul Experiencie (1970–1972) Lucia Krasovec Lucas

RESEARCH AND INDUSTRIES

61 An Architectural Scanning: Women Abundance between 1969–1989 Beste Sabir

70 Contribution to Research of Late-modern Architecture in Croatia (1969–1989) Zrinka Barišić Marenić, Marina Bertina and Neda Mrinjek Kliska

83 Rosalia La Franca: Thought and Practice Starlight Vattano

93 In front of and behind the Mirror: Women in Italian Radical Design Elena Dellapiana and Annalisa B. Pesando

107 Experience of the Real: Franca Helg (1952–1989) Cristiana Eusepi

114 The Gender Bias on Craftsmanship and Industrial Production in Dutch Ceramics (1960–2015) Ilja S. Meijer

125 The Archives of a Professional: Maria Luisa Spineto, Civil Engineer and ‘Thorough Designer’ Roberta Spallone

EDUCATION AND PUBLISHING

134 Women in Slovenian Civil Engineering in the 1970s and 1980s: Education and Academia Barbara Vodopivec

147 The Choice of Design: The Production of Anna Maria Fundarò between Project and Graphic Expression Viviana Trapani and Vincenza Garofalo

155 Women Architects in Gipuzkoa Enkarni Gómez, Izaskun Aseguinolaza, Itziar Rodriguez and Koldo Telleria

165 Female Architects in Spanish Arquitecture Magazines: An Analytic Research (1975–1990) Lucía C. Pérez Moreno and Penélope Santamera

172 The Influence of the Architectural Association on Zaha Hadid´s Early Career Nuria Álvarez Lombardero

POLITICS, POLICIES AND POLITICAL REGIMES

Beyond Architecture: Politics, Feminism and Art as a Way of Life The Work of Giovanna De Sanctis Ricciardone

Anna Riciputo

Sixties: The Gorgon and the Praise of In 1963 in Valle Giulia, branch of the Betrayal Rome University’s Faculty of Architecture and Communism Architecture, broke out an inside revolution during which the students rose against “barocchetti” teachers and static- Noi eravamo chiaramente antiborghesi, e per modernist teachings. They questo d’altronde siamo stati i hunted Vincenzo Fasolo and Saverio primi post-moderni, o per meglio Muratori to welcome Bruno Zevi, Ludovico dire antimodernisti, poiché Quaroni and Luigi Piccinato. rigettavamo il potere In those days, was impossible to dell’establishment borghese be an architect and not to be involved in rappresentato dal moderno. La politics: the great ideals of nostra era una lotta politica, the left required great intellectual projects ideologica, che nulla aveva a che but they were: poised between persuasive vedere con aspetti formalistici. Non utopia and deterrent dystopia; uncertain combattevamo in difesa di un between the gigantism of the mega- “segno” ma contro i principi structure and the domestic dimension of borghesi della cultura modernista. the after-reconstruction style; hesitant Nonostante ciò, credevamo facing the historicism of the Post-modern fortemente nella figura and the brutalism of Louis dell’architetto e nelle sue armi. Una Kahn; fascinated by the noise of Pop Art figura mitologica, demiurgica, con and the silence of Arte Povera. Joining the la quale eravamo cresciuti e che Italian Communist Party was a rite of invece crollò davanti ai nostri passage, it marked the occhi.1 division between “being here and now” and not be at all. Among the students is active a group of young communists who 1 Giovanna de Sanctis Ricciardone, “Una gathered to devise new politic strategies storia di passioni”, in Alessandro Anselmi. writing them in pamphlets: their names Frammenti di Futuro, a cura di R. Angelini, E. Caramia, C. Moli, Quaderni del Dottorato di Ricerca were Alessandro Anselmi, Federico in Architettura – Teorea e Progetto, Diap, Genovese, Paolo Grassi, Mimmo Parlato, “Sapienza” Università di Roma, Editore Lulu.com, 2 Luciano Tombini. They studied and spread ed. 2015, pp. 18-23, in particolare p. 21 “We were clearly against the bougeois and for this reason we were the first postmodernists, or rather the bourgeois principles of modernist culture. antimodernists, as we re-energized the power of Nevertheless, we strongly believed in the figure of the bourgeois establishment represented by the the architect and his weapons. A mythological, modern. Ours was a political, ideological struggle, demiurgical figure with which we had grown up which had nothing to do with formalist aspects. and that instead collapsed in front of our eyes” We did not fight in defense of a "sign" but against (translation by the athor).

Marxism and post-Marxism in all their bring the landscape back to its natural forms, they were always updated and dignity, to relieve the rift between the careful to the outcomes of the Vietnam population and the bureaucracy are the War and the Cuban Revolution (the last clashes during the collective meetings. one seen as an alternative to the violent However, the reality to face is another: and militarized Soviet communism but there are two trunks of illegal building whose fragility became clear after Che activities. The first concerns the petty Guevara’s death in 1967). Despite the dwellings of the new poor, workers occupation of the Faculty in 1963, it still returning emigrants remained a bourgeois place, enrolling the from northern Europe, who live outside golden progeny of roman architects and the bourgeois luxuries and join the PCI builders; intellectualized and closed party as the right way to preserve on itself. The great revolution against the themselves. The second trunk was “barons of the fascist modernism” instead constituted by the speculations of revealed itself less violent from what will the big manufacturers, made of have happen in 1968 by a new megastructures and extended built areas. generation persuaded to destroy the At Giovanna’s eyes was impossible bourgeoisie in order to entirely restore the ethically to vacate the ones and ignore the “architectonic ethics”. 2 others, but that was what the PCI asked to Giovanna de Sanctis Ricciardone,3 her. In 1969, compromises and one of the few girls enrolled at the Faculty contradictions became unsustainables, of Architecture, had her PCI card and and de Sanctis resigned from the attended the headquarter in Viale Mazzini, institutional role and the Communist known to be the most intellectual one. Party. It’s the first great betrayal. She was active and controversial, fighting During the Sixties in Rome, despite to endorse the architects’ social role with the (forced) academic opening to the a committed self-engaging in class national and international revolutions (she decided, as many others, contemporary art issues, the to teach to the children of proletarians in true architectural experimentation began middle school). to take place in the "studios",4 After her official presentation in the independent research groups that, in the Communist Federation, Giovanna de next years, will have formed the bedrock Sanctis, just graduated from of Roman architectural intelligentsia. college in 1964, was elected city councilor Convinced that "the prospective for urban planning in Guidonia, a little could dominate the knowable town near the Italian capital city. She was reality",5 Giovanna de Sanctis engaged in a fierce fight against the illegal harnessed landscapes, forms and spaces construction recording, at that time, a in geometric patterns. Not even furious growth due to the expansion from graduated, she drew for several studios in Rome to Tivoli. The need to safely restore Rome, becoming an active part towards an architecture of precarious living, to the middle of the decade. During this

2 From a conversation between Giovanna de Sanctis and the author at Calvi dell’Umbria, August 4 Franco Purini et al., “La formazione degli 7th, 2017. architetti romani negli Anni Sessanta”, Rassegna di 3 For a detailed and intense interview see: architettura e urbanistica 112/113/114, (2004) Alessandra Muntoni, “Parlando con Giovanna de 5 From a conversation between Giovanna de Sanctis. Pieghe, frammenti, torsioni, trafissioni”, Sanctis and the author at Calvi dell’Umbria, August Metamorfosi 58, (2006): 14-23. 7th, 2017.

7 period, she designed the Tower (in 1964 at Archo (with Cellini and Cagnoni Studio Portoghesi) and the Pop-Mobili among others). The short-circuit came (“Pop Furniture”, fig.1) in 1967. The first soon: in 1967 she participates with GRAU project, realized on the occasion of a in the competition for the new wing contest but discarded eventually, brings of Parliament in Rome – with a project with it echoes of Futurists and called Determined Abstraction (fig.2) - and Constructivists. The centrifugal movement invented the "cubic perspective"6 but her of the plan rises upward through “rays” : name did not appear in the credits and in it’s the first step to an occupation of many of the publications to multidirectional space later performed come. The consolidated socio-professional with the sculptures Trafissioni (“Pierces”). device of "architectural duo" does not The Pop-Mobili designed in 1967 were allow it. The roles are clear: within the perfectly in line with the contemporary same group, the project architect is architectonic research about Radical the man, his female Design, following the path of Superstudio, partner (although architect) organizes, Archizoom, Studio 65 and UFO above all. follows, accompanies but not In Rome, a collective of Pop Artists decides. When the need for professional established the “School of Piazza del and intellectual independence of the Popolo”: they had investigated the female component is decisive, it manifests modernity of the classics, turning itself through hard choices: some decide historical characters into pop icons with a to teach at schools or at the university in "serious irony". Beyond the mystification other cities, others will specialize in of Dada, they regain the past through the disciplines "collateral" as history transposition of Italian artistic heritage or design, others will from the immortality of history to the leave definitively “the art banality of everyday life. Tano Festa, of building”. Giovanna De Sanctis decided Giosetta Fioroni, Mario Ceroli, used the for a third way: in the early 70s she leaved Botticelli's Venus, sublime example of the professional studios and in 1975 said female essence, by decomposing, “goodbye” to architecture. It is the great multiplying, redesigning, re-coloring, betrayal, but it is thanks to it that she will displacing, re-materializing her finalize her metamorphosis into an archi- figure. Although far from the area of the artist: the art, which always moved in the School and alien to the circuit of art rear, acquires intellectual priority but does galleries that supported its not forget the architecture as a space members, Giovanna de Sanctis modifier. Ricciardone also used the Venus as a The praise of betrayal is communicative pop icon, engaging an the only way not to succumb to higher level of interpretation of symbols ourselves.7 and myths. After drawing for Paolo Portoghesi, Carlo Aymonino and Luigi Pellegrin, Giovanna de Sanctis collaborated on occasion with GRAU 6 (which owns the mate and then husband A representative device based on the construction of a triple reversed perspective along Alessandro Anselmi), and became a the edges of a cube member of two studios: first at via 7 From a conversation between Giovanna de Nicotera and then at Sanctis and the author at Calvi dell’Umbria, August 7th, 2017.

Seventies: We Will Regain The Cut Head La contraddizione Art and Feminism UOMO-DONNA è dominante PER UNA DONNA Addio piani regolatori PROGETTARE è IMPOSSIBILE bocciati o non rispettati, casette È NECESSARIO PRIMA unifamiliari mai costruite o mal PROGETTARSI costruite, arredamenti per signore All’inizio della STORIA ricche e noiose, mobiletti di bambù, l’eroe maschio tagliò la testa al prospettive di mega-progetti fatti MOSTRO-FEMMINA da altri… Addio! L’EROE legò la testa al ESSI dimenticarono, proprio scudo e usò LO SGUARDO schiacciarono LA TERRA TERRIBILE per costruire i simboli LA TESTA TAGLIATA verticali che penetrassero IL Cielo. LA RIPRENDEREMO!8 ESSI HANNO VOLUTO: During the 60's, the architectural punta contro cerchio production of Giovanna de Sanctis penetrazione contro Ricciardone was feverish but unattainable: comprensione the promises of communism had failed grattacielo contro (causing the end of the Prague Spring by piazza Soviet invasion in 1968, the massacre of fuori contro dentro Piazza Fontana in Milan and the produttività contro defenestration of Giuseppe Pinelli, both in creatività 1969) marking, for the intellectual Roman tecnologia contro

natura 8 Giovanna de Sanctis Ricciardone, Addio città contro all’architettura, china e pastelli su cartoncino, campagna 1977, “Good-bye plans rejected or unreserved, Essi consumarono unstructured or badly built single-family houses, divorarono LA TERRA rich and boring ladies furnishings, bamboo cabinets, mega-projects prospects made by others ESSI HANNO VOLUTO: ... Goodbye! THEY (MEN) forgot, they crushed the verticale contro LAND to build the vertical symbols that would orizzontale penetrate Heaven. They HAVE WANTED: tip squilibrio contro against hoop, penetration against understanding, equilibrio skyscraper against the square, external against internal, productivity against creativity, technology divenire contro essere against nature, city against countryside. They obelisco contro consumed they devoured the EARTH. They HAVE anfiteatro WANTED: vertical against horizontal, imbalance azione contro against balance, become against being, obelisk meditazione against amphitheater, action against meditation, speed against stasis, sexuality against eros, power, velocità contro stasi competitiveness against love, violence. DESIGNING sessualità contro eros IN THEIR LOGIC IS DELETED! The MAN-WOMAN potere contradiction is dominant. FOR A WOMAN TO competitività contro DESIGN IS IMPOSSIBLE. IT IS NECESSARY BEFORE amore TO RE-DESIGN HERSELF. At the beginning of HISTORY the male hero cut THE head to the violenza MONSTER-FEMALE. The HERO tied his head to his PROGETTARE NELLA shield and used the TERRIBLE LOOK. WE WILL LORO LOGICA È DELITTO! REGAIN THE CUT HEAD! “ (translation by the author)

9 communists, the winning of the big cultural association self-managed, settled powers on the positive ideologies. The in the Flaminio district. It was due to it utopias are not over yet, but they no that she came in contact first with longer convince anyone. The drawings feminism (fig.4) and after with of 1972, entitled Utopie (fig.3), report - in professional artistry (in 1975 with her their dichotomy between the hieratic participation in the X Quadriennale of spatial Rome - New Generation). It was a period composition and the human organism in of a newfound lucidity: the feminist motion - the epic clash between reinterpretation of archetypes and architecture and man, construction mythologies acted on numerous levels. and society, geometry and body: Socially and politically, a new “female I always remained a "drawer of focused” thinking allowed to avoid the perspectives”, in my mind camouflage with the there is always a geometric armed (male juncture) of the communist structure that contained the struggle. Artistically, it established a bodies. For me, bodies and renewed study on the relationship geometry are two entities that between body and geometry, humanity conflict, encage and pierce and technology, the symbolism of themselves, always fighting in male and female through the distinction some way. The body is not between vertical and horizontal, free,but within a technological skyscraper and cave, nudity and cage.9 drapery. Personally, they let her to reach the awareness of motherhood as a tool for As Michelangelo used to, Giovanna understanding the inner and outer de Sanctis forces the bodies in torsions - in cosmos. This last level, became an the '80s “twisting” will become a inexorable and indispensable predominant theme, able to turn pictorial existential choice, culminated with the spaces into sculptural elements. The birth of Cecilia and Valentino - depicted in tension with the architecture, symmetrical the table In memoria dell’architettura (“In and rational, is not only intellectual but memory of architecture”), 1975. Giovanna also physical and mythological: the effort was a single mother, her partner was an to get rid of the postmodern man- adulterer liable to legal persecution, her architect also reflects the punishment of family did not understand: she addressed Atlas, responsible for supporting the both parts alone, in alienating conditions. entire sky as guilty of having rebelled. This traumatic experience imposed her to Rebellion is always punished: in early 70s act Giovanna de Sanctis is already paying for social commentary, through the produ- her betrayals by being excluded from the architecture practice - made of design and construction, roles conventional entourage of art museums, decide to settle their studios getting involved in and compromises, men and power. In experimental way of expressions. In particular, the 1974, she abandoned ARCHO’s team and first nucleus moved in the early 70's was devoted 10 entered at Politecnico, a multipurpose to the production of theater and film works, installing the first true independent cineclub in Rome. For further informations please refer to: “Il 9 Ibidem. Politecnico: una storia romana degli anni ’70”, a 10 The Politecnico was an extremely lively documentary by Amedeo Fago in partnership with artistic reality in which many artists of the capital, Diap – Dipartimento di Architettura Teorie a who were deliberately kept out from the Progetto, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy 2017.

10 ction, in 1975, of the illustrations fig.8): while denied as aim, architecture is Maternità e nascita (“Maternity and established as principle. birth”, fig.5) and Nascita tecnologica Female issues and graphic virtuosity (“Technological birth”). If the second return in Materiali per una messa in scena represents explicitly the human aspect of dell’estasi (“Materials for a staging of the child's suffering, the first cycle of ecstasy), 1979-81, anamorphic drawings of works expresses the social conflict the Beata Ludovica Albertoni. In those between women and their archetypes illustrations, Michelangelo’s echoes return through a "technological crucifixion": the with the unfinished style ancilla domini, chosen by God without and Gianlorenzo Bernini claims his asking her approval (she is shown without baroque teaching: among lines, the eyes: only the “look” could turn her lights, shades, torsions, tensions appears from being object into a subject11), the drapery that, while sailing the declares her capitulation through a “unknowable female”, opens to Giovanna gesture of surrender. The hand, isolated in de Sanctis’ great vocation, the sculpture. another sheet, is depicted as a fragment seen in its orthogonal projections. Birth and abortion occur within a cross-trellis Eighties: The Terrible Look and the that trap without embracing: architecture Sculpture is a celibate machine whose meaning Revolution as / is a project coincides with the signifier. The sterility of architecture, as a Viaggiare nel mito è discipline pursued professionally and un guardare indietro che è un culturally, is now clear: in 1975 Giovanna guardare dentro de Sanctis wrote and drew her own contemporaneamente, affondare Manifesto, the two panel Addio diagonalmente, staccandosi all’architettura (“Farewell to architecture”, dall’orizzontalità ad una fig.6) and In memoria dell’architettura dimensione su cui si spiaccica il (“In memory of architecture”, fig.7), in quotidiano, l’orizzontalità which the trio man-architecture-woman is dell’esistenza quando è solo expressed in all its tragic conflict: until the “destino”, mai scelta. Ecco perchè il woman-gorgon does not understand how mito, per noi, che con dolore e to redesign herself as a new primitive and fatica trasmutiamo rabbiosamente individual being, men will continue to rape da un vivere in cui siamo sempre land and sky in the constant practice of a 12 state “oggetti” di un destino, ad un violence they ancestrally were made for. vivere in cui diveniamo “soggetti” The architecture tools are now used in grado di scegliere. Ma scegliere è to study the body: plans, elevations and esistere anche come proiezione, sections work like x-rays; orthogonal simbolo, memoria, immagine, projections portrait profiles; clothes and specchio di sé: un “essere” che sia accessories are categorized as contemporaneamente un “sono archaeological finds. It is the time stata” e un “sarò”. Ecco perché il of Analisi di un prototipo giovanile mito, per noi del femminile (“Analysis of a youthful prototype”, 1977, tagliato, mostrificato o avvilito all’esistente puro del quotidiano; per noi a cui “simbolizzare”, 11 See note n.6. 12 prendere dall’oggetto quella Ibidem.

distanza che ci fa “soggetti”, è the definition of a deep artistic reflection stato sempre impedito. (…) Se in de Sanctis’ career: she found in baroque “rivoluzione” è “progetto” di un drapery the solution of the conflict insieme sociale (classe categoria between male and female. The series of razza sesso) che si pone per la drawings Orfeo ed Euridice (“Orpheus and prima volta come soggetto storico Eurydice” 1982/83, fig.9), was presented e intende lottare per esserlo, noi at the Temple University in 1984 with a abbiamo bisogno di questo further rejection of academicism from the progetto.13 author who denied any critical presentation. While Giovanna de Sanctis was Painting and myth met again in initiating to the feminist cognitive path, Icaro/Mediterraneo (“Icarus / the murder of Pierpaolo Pasolini in 1975 Mediterranean”, 1985), a project that marked in her mind the awareness about pays the last due with the “body theme”, the incommunicability between male and after which Giovanna de Sanctis turned to female, a “duo” that the Roman poet a sort of “architectonic art”. In the embodied with oxymoron and early 80s, the archi-artist de Sanctis did complexity. It’s all about the myth of participate in competitions for the design of a fountain and two squares Orpheus and Eurydice, in which the poet, 15 the “male”, was looking for his wife, the (fig.10) . The first project is post-modern “female”, although it’s forbidden for to him to see her. Besides the suggestion, the 14 the daily is spooked, horizontality of existence re-reading of that myth was decisive for when it is only "destiny", never chosen. That's why the myth, for us, who angrily transmute pain and 13 Giovanna de Sanctis Ricciardone, “Perché fatigue from a life in which we have always been il mito”, in Incontri sul mito. Disegni a china e "objects" of a destiny, a life in which we become incisioni di Alessia Fani, pamphlet del Politecnico – "subjects" are able to choose. But choosing to exist Arti Visive, ciclostilato in proprio, Roma 4 maggio also as a projection, symbol, memory, image, self- 1978, “Traveling through the myth is a look back mirroring: a "being" that is both "I have been" and and a glimpse at the same time, sinking diagonally, a "will". That's why the myth, for us the feminine moving away from horizons to a dimension on cut, or a monster of the existing pure dejected which daily life is spooked, the horizons of daily; For us to "symbolize", taking from the object existence when it is just a "destiny", never chosen. that distance that makes us "subjects", has always That is why the myth for us, with pain and fatigue, been prevented. (...) If "revolution" is "project" of a is angrily conveyed by a life in which we have social whole (class race category sex) that arises for always been "objects" of a destiny, a life in which the first time as a historical subject and intends to we become "subjects" able to choose. But fight to be, we need this project“, Giovanna de choosing to exist also as a projection, symbol, Sanctis Ricciardone, “Perché il mito”, Incontri sul memory, image, self-mirroring: a "being" that is mito. Disegni a china e incisioni di Alessia Fani, both "I have been" and a "I will be". That is why we Politecnico – Arti Visive (1978),5. use the myth, for us of the feminine cut, 15 In particolar, with Carlo Severati and overwhelmed or downplayed in the pure existence Stefania Bedoni, Piazza Cardinal Consalvi; with of everyday life; for us who were forbidden to Aldo Aymonino and his studio, the competition for "symbolize", taking from the object that distance “Cento Piazze”, in Decima neighborhood; the that makes us "subjects" (...) If "revolution" is the competitions “Meno è Più” for public services and "project" of a social group (class sex breed spaces in the department n.VI Comune di Roma, category) that is set for the first time as a historical directed by Gabriella Raggi. See Giovanna de subject and intends to fight for it, we need this Sanctis Ricciardone, " Inconsci cosmici ", in M. project” (translation by the author). Baldissara, M. Montori, TMM. Piccinno Roma | 14 “Traveling in the myth is a look back that Cosmo | Materia | Cultura. Proiezioni trasversali is a look at it simultaneously, sink in diagonally, per il progetto della città, (Roma:, Notebooks of detached from horizons to a dimension on which Architecture PhD - Theory and Design, Department

12 and metaphysical, a large head protruding of the environment - thanks to the new from the water is alienating because of "urban object" that puts the architecture- displacement and gigantism. In the other space-sculpture system into two, the spatiality reflected pop- crisis. The Fracta project, conceived influenced architectural echoes of 60s in between 1989 and 1990, worked on geometries, volumes and conflicts. The first one leads a physical massive decorations. In the project for conflict: the great stone is fractured Piazza Cardinal Consalvi in Rome, 1983 and mended by metallic wires that seem (realized in 2000), she materialized her to expand - rather than compress- in idea of a tridimensional painting: starting support of the effort. The second one tells from Torture, paintings on canvas about the artificial an natural dichotomy: mounted on twisted grooved the artistic artifact is "dropped" in a structures, she left the canvas using the naturalistic dimension of isolation in which metallic structures with three dimensional it appear uncommon and, at the same rays that pivot forming pyramids and time, complementary. It is the fight canopies. It is the beginning of a long and against the "terrible condemnation of profitable food for thought on public gravity" initiated by Icarus: 16 17 art over the next thirty years : the I have always thought that approach of Giovanna de Sanctis aims to from this archetypal passion- overcome the concept of “urban quality” imagination arise sculpture resetting the visual hierarchy of spaces, and architecture. Taking a creating micro-centrality through the serious crush on the ground appreciation of the environment and and drawing it up vertically by triggering, by the inhabitants, a re-reading exercising its own strength, the first act of human power, of Architecture and Design, Faculty of Architecture the result of a project, born of of "La Sapienza" University of Rome, 2016) 8-23. 16 a creative imagination in During the 60's and 70's many Italian governments turned their historic communication with cosmic centers in “museums” through temporary and forces . The fight against widespread installations of sculptures (not always gravity through a site-specific) and the creation of an exhibition on monolith (menhirs) is the first urban scale. Among the most successful occasions act of sculpture; through a are included: Sculptures in the city in Spoleto in 1962 (conceived and curated by trilithon (dolmen) is the first 18 Giovanni Carandente); City sculpture space in act of architecture. Rimini and Contemporary sculptures in the urban In 1989 the grooved structures acquired space both in Parma in 1973; the most complex depth with Galaxias, a series of high-relief exhibition Volterra 73; Sculpture in the city in Fano plaster in which the search for all previous years in 1974. In all these cases, the objectives pointed the approach to art of the inhabitants (through achieved accomplishment: surfaces in multiple the cracking of the museum system in order to curvature which close asymptotically creating achieve a sort of "democratization of art") and to a volumetric "negative" central prepare a strategic new dialectic between old and space , forerunner of a reflection on the fold and new. on the parameterization of the form - that will 17 The most important are: Fossils, via delle begin to materialize with Deconstructivism Chiese Rome 1998; Ophelia, via Sabatini, Rome during the 90s. 1999; Source, Piazza San Francesco, Terni 2000; Nike, installation in Piazza della Memoria near the New Palace of Justice, Palermo 2001; Stele, via Trionfale, Rome 2004, Sacred 18 Giovanna de Sanctis Ricciardone, furniture for the San Pio Church, Rome 2010. “Inconsci cosmici”, op.cit, 11.

The end of the 1980-89 decade for During her lifetime work, Giovanna Giovanna De De Sanctis Ricciardone always Sanctis Ricciardone established the distinguished "self-management" from fulfillment of the project of revolution "self-gating" of women within the art which had unconsciously started in the world, because there is no "feminine" art '60s and had irrevocably decided in the' but there are women who experience art 70s. In 1992, with a final betrayal, she through their being "females“. She teach leaved her studio at Politecnico to open us that art is revolution and both are her own studio, ProgettoArte, settled in female. The cut head had been regained Calvi dell’Umbria in which she still live and and now the terrible gaze of the Gorgon works in a sort of creative isolation. Still turns to stone what she sees: is the linked to the contemporary art scene in beginning of the sculpture work, Rome, Giovanna became the art curator cultivated over the next thirty years until for Politecnico XX ARTE, involving herself nowadays. in an endless search for new talents and But this is another myth. new inspiring art workers.

Ucelay and Careaga Two Women during the Franco Regime

Íñigo Galdeano Pérez

Historical documentary silence the political, economic, personal, and makes difficult the task of the biographical social rights for women, including equal study of women, including the pioneers educational and professional and illustrious one. This article analyses opportunities. the oppression suffered by two women of Each one suffered the vicissitudes of antagonist gender ideology. María del Pilar both different periods. When Matilde was Careaga Basabe (1908-1993) who was the awarded, Pilar was imprisoned. Then, first woman graduated in engineering, by when Pilar was released and awarded, the School of Engineers of Madrid in 1929, Matilde was sanctioned by a drumhead and Matilde Ucelay Maórtua (1912-2008) court-martial. who was the first one graduated in Nevertheless, fascists or liberals, architecture, by the School of Architecture inside or outside prisons, sanctioned or in of Madrid in 1936. full faculties, they could never escape from Set in a constantly changing Spain, an oppression generated by the fact of suffering the Dictatorship of Primo de being women, gender oppression. Rivera (1923-1931), the Second Republic (1931-1936), the Civil War (1936-1939), the Dictatorship of Francisco Franco (1939- Family and Environment 1975) and the so-called Democratic Transition (1975-1982); both protagonists Daughter of Concepción Basabe y had very different personal and public Zubiria and Pedro González de Careaga y experiences. Quintana, María del Pilar Careaga Basabe The first one, Pilar, was an award- was born in October 1908, in Madrid. Her winning Falangist protected by the siblings were María Begoña, María Franco’s Regime, which after the Concepción Rosario and Pedro María. Transition was separated from the public Pilar grew up in a wealthy and life and became target of the leftist armed influential family settled in Neguri, linked group ETA. On the other hand, the second to the financial and industrial bourgeoisie one, Matilde, during the dictatorship was of Biscay. Furthermore, her father was a sanctioned and separated from her renowned diplomatic Weekly Stewards of architecture profession and from the the king Alfonso XIII, who named him the public life, but after Transition she was first Count of Cadagua. Consequently, her awarded and her role as a pioneering brother, Pedro María, inherited the county, architect was widely recognized. María Begoña married the fifth Marquis of Pilar defended that women had to Lede, Luis Pérez de Guzmán y Sanjuan; and be good patriots, good wives, and good María Concepción Rosario married a Christians. She thought that women were purchasing powerful shipowner form inferior than men and they should remain Bilbao, Antonio Mechaca de la Bodega. subordinated to them. Marriage, children Nevertheless, that traditional and and housework were women´s main goals misogynous environment did not in life. On the contrary, Matilde defended prevented Pilar from studying what she

15 wanted, engineering. year when she coursed the subject of The second main character, daughter Railways. The obligatory practices of that of Purificación Maórtua Lombera and subject placed her to the control of the Enrique Ucelay Sanz, Matilde Ucelay 4.700 steam locomotive of the North Maórtua was born in October 1912, in Company from Madrid to Bilbao, Madrid. Her sister were Luz, Margarita and becoming the first woman driver of a Carmen. railroad, apart of obtaining in her spare Unlike the traditional and ancient time the title of Professional Pleasure Craft environment in which Pilar grew up, Skipper. Matilde lived her childhood in a liberal and In that year 1929, when Pilar open family, influenced by the fine arts, finished the degree, Matilde joined the music and literature. Her mother, Pura Higher Technical School of Architecture of Maórtua Lombera, was a revolutionary Madrid. She had already studied piano in woman in her time who founded in 1926 her childhood and while her mother Pura the first feminist association that fought Maórtua founded the “Liceum Club”, she for women´s rights, promoting their studied in the Free Educational Institute, cultural, educational and professional where men and women had fair development, the “Liceum Club”. In the treatment. same way, with the arrival of the Second In the first years she was a member Republic in 1931, she founded “The Civic”, of the “University Students Federation”, an association with the same goals, but that was an alternative group to the this time focused on middle and low class hegemonic “Catholic Students women. Association”. She fought against the This environment propitiated the Dictatorship of Primo the Rivera and academic formation of the sisters and against the Monarchy of Alfonso XIII. The although Carmen died prematurely due to Federation was dissolved in 1931 with the a meningitis, Luz studied music, Margarita arrival of the Second Republic when her literature and Matilde architecture. mother founded “The Civic”. Therefore, one traditional and In the following years she obtained another liberal, both family environments numerous outstandings, finishing the allowed the academic formation of their degree in 1936. Her generation of daughters. Despite of those two different architects were not “Matilde´s Promotion” but pioneering environments, they were but yes, they honored her in June at the the first women graduated in engineering National Hotel of Madrid. and architecture In summary, Pilar and Matilde during their youth were two women without complexes who faced the social barriers Studies and whose efforts and pioneer life plans were recognized at the end of their Pilar Careaga started in 1922 at the studies. Unfortunately, after that each one Higher School of Industrial Engineering of took different courses. Madrid. She obtained the title being only 21 years old in 1929, a fact recognized by giving “Pilar´s Promotion” name to her Second Republic generation of engineers. Her stay in the school caused a great During the Second Republic, from social disturbance, especially in her last 1931 to 1936 Pilar was beginning a

16 premature political career by which she “Winterhilfswerk”. gave up her engineering career, that she In 1936, Matilde was a member of finally never practiced. On the other hand, the Cabinet Meeting of the Official College Matilde was finishing architecture with the of Architects of Madrid that was closed determination of practicing it. with beginning of the Civil War. Pilar was a member of the “Spanish Unfortunately, in the same year, the Renovation”, that was a rightist and tribute received in the Official College monarchist political party, reaching to be after her graduation with the participation candidate in the General Elections of 1933. of republican figures like Amos Salvador, In addition, she promoted the anti-Semitic led her to a drumhead court-martial. and ultraconservative magazine “Spanish She was sanctioned and separated Action”, inspired by the far rightist Charles from her architecture profession and from Maurras. the public life. Specifically, she was Matilde finished her studies at the condemned to five years full age of 24 in 1936 and she became a disqualification of her career, to a member of the Cabinet Meeting of the permanent disqualification of a public Official College of Architects of Madrid. service position and to a fine of 30.000 Thus, in 1936 their vital courses pesetas. That circumstance and the were separated: Pilar opted for a political threats made to her family forced her to career and Matilde for an architectural move away from Madrid. In her private one, decisions that later conditioned life, in 1937, she married Jose Ruiz Castillo seriously their lives. Basala with whom she had her first son in 1938, Jose Enrique Ruiz Castillo Ucelay. But that sanction and family Civil War circumstances did not prevent her from working underground and from reopening Then in 1936, Pilar was imprisoned the College in 1937, although those by the republicans in the prison of actions had consequences on her Larrinaga, but in the same year she was professional future. transferred to the Convent of the Guardian Angels, where she and other 150 prisoners were exchanged for the children of the Franco’s Dictatorship colony school of La Guardia. Once exchanged, she moved away to In 1939 Franco won the war, and he the national area, Valladolid where she established a military dictatorship joined to the column in the front of proclaiming himself Head of State and Madrid as a delegate for “Assistance to Government. A dark HERstory of Spain Fronts and Hospitals of the Women´s which both characters faced in their adult Section”, section of the “Traditionalist stage, between the thirties and the sixties. Spanish Phalanx of the Committees of the Forty years of dictatorship that National Syndicalist Offensive”. marked their lives, while Pilar´s political There she organized the assistance career achieved a pompous trajectory to the fighting forces in the Country House thanks to the fascist regime, Matilde´s and in the University City of Madrid, and architectural career continued suffering its later she opened the first dining and oppressions. refuge centers of “Social Help”, an With the end of the Civil War in 1939 organization inspired by the Nazi Pilar was opening dining and refuge

17 centers of “Social Help”, but when the “Second Inter-Parliamentary Commission “Assistance to Fronts and Hospital” closed, of the Spanish Courts”. she moved to Bilbao. Thereafter settled in the Basque Country, in the forties and the But the mayoralty and the Courts did fifties she focused her work on charities not limit her to have numerous positions. and religiousness. She was President of the “Municipal She was Chair and Vice-president of Savings Bank of Bilbao”, President of the the “Provincial Board of Sub-normals of “International Fair of Samples Commission Biscay”, Chair of the “Board of of Bilbao”, President of the “Administrative Safeguarding Children”, Founding Corporation Executive Commission of the President of the “Board of Ladies Against Greater Bilbao”, President of the “Water Cancer”, Vice-president and President of Consortium, of the Greater Bilbao”, the “Diocesan Board of Pilgrimages”, Chair President of the “Charity Board of the of the “Board of the Marine Sanatorium of Generalissimo´s Civil Holy Hospital”, Gorliz”, President of the “Diocesan Board President of the “Charity Board of the of Parochial Temples Construction of Mercy Holy House”, President of the Bilbao”, President of the “Good Readings “Trustees Board of the Historical Museum Library”, and member of the “Royal of Biscay” and President of the “Trustees Basque Society of the Country Friends” Board of the Artistic Reproductions among other positions. Extensive Museum”. Vice-president of the “General curriculum for which she obtained the Council of the Administrative Corporation post of Chair of the “National Charity of the Greater Bilbao”, Vice-president of Council.” the “Administrative Board of the Water During that decades, in her private Supply Consortium of the Greater Bilbao”, life she married Enrique Lequerica Erquiza Chair of the “Government board of the in 1943, who was the brother of the Hydrographic Confederation of the North Mayor of Bilbao, and with whom she had of Spain”, Chair of the “Board of Port no children. Both moved to the Eguzkialde Works”, and Representative of the “Board Palace of Neguri in 1957. of Autonomous University Trustees”. A After 25 years of charitable and public positions excess from which she religious work from 1939 to 1964, in the resigned when Franco died in 1975, when sixties Pilar began to combine her activity Pilar left the mayoralty and the Basque whit a political career. In 1964 she was Country. named Councilor of the “Provincial Council Aforementioned, although Matilde of the National Movement”, becoming the was sanctioned since 1936 she was first female deputy of Biscay, President of determinate to practice the architecture. the “Charity and Social Works Condemned to five years full Commission”, and member of the disqualification of her career, to a Government Commission until 1969. permanent disqualification of a public After that in 1969 she became the service position and to a fine of 30.000 first woman Mayoress of Bilbao and the pesetas, the drumhead court-martial was first woman Mayoress of a provincial celebrated in 1942 when she and her capital. In 1970 and 1971 she was Lawyer family returned to Madrid. So the five in Courts occupying the posts of Vice- years full disqualification extended till presidency of the “Delegated Commission 1946, year in which finally she obtained of the Local Administration Lawyers the architecture title. Group”, and of Vice-presidency of the Between the two dates, in 1944, the

18 marriage had its second son, Jose Enrique Soon, she became the first woman Ucelay Maórtua. As has been mentioned target of the leftist armed group ETA. before her sanction and family Therefore, in 1979 she suffered an attack circumstances did not prevent her from when she returned to an act of “New working underground under the name of Force” in Bilbao. While she was parking her partners of profession Aurelio Botella her Seat 127 she was shot six times, and and Jose Maria Arrillaga, so until the 1951 although she survived, she had long term she did not officially register her first physical damages. Then she retired from project, the Guard´s House for Jose Arce in the public live and 14 years later, in 1993, the Iron Gate. That stage lasted from 1951 she died. to 1979. At the beginning she faced the In the same way, in 1975 with the situation of leaving a political end of the regime the long architectural disqualification and a lacking list of career of Matilde was concluding, but in customers, but she gradually began her that case by her advanced age. In 1979 she career thanks to foreign customers and finished her last project and in 1981 she women of the high bourgeoisie of Madrid. presented the request for old age benefit Most of her works were single-family in the Official College of Architects of residential houses because she had a adrid. permanent disqualification of public charges. Nevertheless 122 projects were Later her work was recognized by registered in the Historical Service of the numerous awards, acts and institutions, Official College of Architects of Madrid, a even receiving the “National Prize of numerous project which defined her Architecture”. Also in 2003 the extensive and prolonged architectural Government Board of the Official School career. absolved her of all the charges imposed by the regime, absolution that became official in 2004, when she was 92. Four Spanish Transition to Democracy yeas later, in 2008, she died.

After the death of Francisco Franco, That was the end of the careers of on 20 November 1975, began the Spanish the first women graduated in engineering transition to democracy, so Pilar being 71 and architecture. years old and Matilde being 63 years old faced the consequences of their actions during the fascist regime. Awards Whit the death of the dictator Pilar’s political career was seriously discussed by Previously mentioned, each one her fellow citizen, and she had to leave the suffered the vicissitudes of both different active politic and move from Basque periods, when one was awarded, the other Country to Madrid that was a less hostile one was oppressed. So, both careers were city. Pilar supported far rightist recognized, one by the Franco´s Regime organizations there and she participated in and the other by the democracy. the foundation of “New Force”, which was First, before 1936 during their youth, far rightist party that perpetuated a Pilar and Matilde’s efforts and pioneer life numerous attacks and murders in its short plans were recognized at the end of their history. studies. But afterward, while Matilde was

19 sanctioned, Pilar´s political career was gender oppression. awarded by the Fascist regime. Her work during the civil war was recognized with the “Medal of Sufferings for the Gender Oppression Fatherland”, the “Medal of Campaign” and the “Red Cross of Military Merits”. And From their childhood each one had among other awards her work during the very different education and environment, Franco´s Regime was recognized with the while Pilar was surrounded by the most “Silver Medal of the Excellency Council of select bourgeoisie of the country, Matilde Biscay”, the “First Class Cross with White was surrounded by the liberal and feminist Distinctive of the Charity Civil Order”, that new movement in which her mother was was raised to “First Class Big Cross of precursor. Charity”, the “Cross of Pope For Church”, Although Matilde lived the the “Commander with Star of the Health foundation of the feminist groups in her Civil Order”, that was raised to “Big Cross own home, “Liceum Club” and “The Civic”, of Health Service”, the “Sash of Alfonso X which led her in the university to fight the Wise´s Civil Order”, the “Big Cross of against the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera the Cisneros’s Order”, and the “Silver and against the monarchy, Pilar, four years Medal of Youth”. older, started at the university seven years In the same way in democracy, while before Matilde, a fact by which she had to Pilar was relegated form the active politic face a more misogynous university and while she was chased by an armed environment. group, Matilde’s architectural career was Both environments and academic awarded. Her architectural work was careers made aware them of the recognized in 1998 with “the woman discriminatory treatment suffered by the builds” honour in the Second Architectural fact of being women. After the ending of Meeting of the University of Alcala, and in their studies both protagonist were brave 2004 with the reparation honour by the women without complexes who did not Government Board of the Official College want any recognition for being pioneers in of Architects of Madrid, that absolved her the university field, and who defended of all the charges imposed by the regime. equal educational and professional In the same year she was awarded with opportunities for women. Unfortunately, the “National Prize of Architecture”. In life with the Spanish Civil War, when all the and postmortem, she received numerous advances obtained in the Second Republic tributes, and became the subject of were lost, each one took different courses. articles and exhibitions such as the Mussolini, Hitler, José Antonio and temporary showing “Building the parity” Franco rewrote a feminization speech to organized by the Andalusian Institute of gain the women’s support and to erect Women in 2006. them like a key element of their nation Although was proved that they were construction. The Mothers of the Nation. two pioneering women in their studies Pilar integrated in the “Women´s Section and in their political and architectural of the Traditionalist Spanish Phalanx of the careers, whose efforts and life plans were Committees of the National Syndicalist recognized and awarded by their Offensive”, section with a Catholic environments, fascist or liberal they could National Patriarchy ideology. There Pilar never escape from an oppression defended that women had to be good generated by the fact of being women, patriots, good wives, and good Christians.

Because she thought that women were defended the full incorporation of women inferior to men and they should remain to the university studies as well as subordinated to them, so marriage, legislative change to suppress their children and housework were women´s discriminations. main goals in life. She defended that But that ideology, opposed to Pilar’s women never discovered anything and values, did not prevented her to suffer her they could do no more than interpret what partners daily oppressions. As a working men said. woman and mother of two children, in the In the same way the increasing mornings she had to ride her car to the radicalism of the domestic women figure construction work and in the afternoons, was extrapolated to the tasks given by the she spent her time taking care of her Phalanx to the Women’s Section. It was children. Her career coincided with a conceived as an extension of the domestic fascist Spain where the Spanish customer role of women to the public sphere, said that women were not trustworthy in creating a “Social Service for Women” the architectural work, so most of her equivalent of the Franco´s military service initial ones were foreigners from countries but centeed in housework. which had more open ideologies. (fig.3) In her political career the numerous Later she obtained a great list of charges that she obtained were always customers formed by the initial for her related with tasks relegates to the women, architectural works. While the male usually charitable and religious ones. In architect figure was an individual one, that political environment, in which the Matilde opted for a cooperative work with woman was in a moral and intellectual her partners and with all the guilds inferiority roll, is not difficult to imagine involved in the project, detailing men and women’s power relationships. exquisitely the design of the home spaces Consciously or unconsciously she suffered destined to the women for their greater the oppressions of the Catholic National comfort and dignity. Sample of her Patriarchy, which she supported. commitment was her fight against the Proof of that was that being one of Architects Brotherhood to reach the same the few female models in the Franco widow’s pension for men and women. regime, as mayoress the only interest in Both Pilar’s political career and improving the women presence in the Matilde’s architectural career were public life was the incorporation of them pioneering routes in their respective areas in the local police, with the only duty of and environments. They suffered the ups guard the children and the urban and downs of a constantly changing Spain, aesthetics, and of course unarmed. but of fascist or liberal ideology, feminist On the other hand, Matilde or antifeminist, both, precursor or not, defended the political, economic, could never escape from the oppression personal, and social rights for women. suffered by the fact of being women. After the university she collaborated with Oppression that even today predominates the cultural aspect of the republic. She in the patriarchal society, factor and optics was a founder of the “Spanish University by which their careers were admirable, Women’s Association”, but in 1951 her and kept with the work of opening way to candidature to the directors board of the the later women. organization was vetoed by the Franco’s administration. That association in contrast to the Phalanx Women’s Section

Bibliography González Martín, F. J. “Pilar Careaga Agirreazkuenaga Zigorraga, J. et al. y Basabe (1908-1993): Feminismo católico “Bilbao desde sus alcaldes: Diccionario y militancia política en el franquismo.” biográfico de los alcaldes de Bilbao y Aportes 81 (2013): 159-189. gestión municipal en la Dictadura. Vol. 3: 1937-1979.” Bilbao: Bilbao Council’s Sánchez de Madariaga, I. “Matilde culture area, 2008. Ucelay Maórtua. Una vida en construcción. Premio Nacional de Aguado, A. and Otorga, T. M. Arquitectura.” Madrid: Ministry of Public “Feminismos y antifeminismos” Valencia: Works and Transport, 2012. Valencia University, 2011. Vílchez Luzón, J. “Matilde Ucelay. Fernández Jiménez, M. A. “Pilar Primera mujer arquitecta en España.” PhD Primo de Rivera: el falangismo femenino." diss., Granada University, 2013. Madrid: Editorial Síntesis, 2008.

Modern hospital complexes by architect Zoja Dumengjić in Croatia (1969-1981)

Zrinka Barišić Marenić

1.Introduction century Croatian Modern architecture. Her long life (1904-2000) spanned most of The architect Zoja Dumengjić1 made the 20th century while her active a significant contribution to the 20th professional career lasted from 1928 to 1981. She is widely considered a unique figure not only in Croatia, but in former 1 Born in 1904 in Odessa (Ukraine), died in Yugoslavia as well. Her leading role stems 2000 in Zagreb. Graduated in 1927 from the from several factors: she was a woman in Architectural Department of the Technical Faculty in architecture an emigrant, a specialist in Zagreb. Worked in I. Fischer´s studio from 1928- 1930. Chief architect in the Public Health School health care architectural design and the Institute 1930-1941. Worked as an architect in the first female architect in Croatia who Pliva State architectural office from 1941-1945, in achieved recognition culminating in the the Ministry of Health from 1945-1947 and in APZ Lifetime Achievement Awards "Viktor (Architectural Design Office of Croatia) from 1948- Kovačić" given to her by the Association 1954. She headed her own Architectural office Dumengjić from 1954-1975. Specialized in public of Croatian Architects in 1978 and health architecture. "Viktor Kovačić" (1979) and “Vladimir Nazor” given by the Parliament "Vladimir Nazor" (1995) Lifetime Achievement of Republic of Croatia in 1995. These Award Winner. Selection of projects: 1928-1931 pioneering aspects and the overall context Residential-business building Herzog and Harmica of her work were more extensively passage, Pod zidom 6 (reconstruction and addition to residential-business building Gavella, Ban Josip presented by the author at previous Jelačić Square 6), Zagreb (while working for Fischer MoMoWo conference held in Ljubljana in studio; passage Harmica widened in 1987); 1936- 2016, in a paper and presentation entitled 1938 State Children’s Tuberculosis Sanatorium “Remarkable Public Health Service st Strmac, Šumetlica near Nova Gradiška (1 stage Architecture by Architect Zoja Dumengjić realization); 1938-1941 Aid nurses´ boarding school, Mlinarska Street 34, Zagreb (today Medical nurses’ in Croatia”, and researched in the doctoral school and Pupils´ home); 1940 Economic and thesis entitled "Architect Zoja Dumengjić - commercial school on Svetice, Zagreb (+ S. the Remarkable Features of Her Oeuvre in Dumengjić, Z. Vrkljan, competition project);1941 the Context of Croatian Modern State Tuberculosis Sanatorium Snopljak, Architecture" defended at the University Medvednica, Zagreb (project); 1951-1976, 1959- 1964 General hospital; Main hospital building and of Zagreb in 2007. Polyclinic, Spinčićeva Street 1, Firule, Split (today KBC Split – Firule); 1953-1957 Health Centre, A. G. Matoša Street 32, Kutina (adapted and added to); 1954-1958 Tuberculosis pavilion of the General hospital, Spinčićeva Street 1, Firule, Split (today Gynaecological Cancer of the Clinic for Women’s Department for Pulmonary Diseases of KBC Split); Illnesses and Childbirths, Petrova Street 13, Zagreb. 1957-1959 Health Centre, Mlije Way 2, Omiš Andrej Uchytil and Zrinka Barišić Marenić (adapted); 1960-1976 Medical Centre, Andrije and Emir Kahrović, Lexicon of Architects - Atlas of Štampara Street 3, Karlovac (today General 20th Century Croatian Architecture (Zagreb: Hospital Karlovac); 1962-1976 Centre for University of Zagreb, 2011):83

1978-1981 2nd stage realisation). The most 2. Health Architecture of Zoja Dumengjić significant projects and relisations are (1969-1989) presented below.

The period discussed at this conference was the final stage of Zoja 2.1. Medical Centre, Karlovac (1960-1976, Dumengjić’s professional career. She was today General Hospital Karlovac), head of the Architectural practice Karlovac Dumengjić in Zagreb (1954-1975) and designed all presented projects within her The Medical Centre was realised field of specialisation, i.e. health service upon the 1st award-winning competition architecture. As a mature architect, after project designed in 1960/1961.3 Most of her retirement at the age of 71, she the complex was realised in stages within persisted in the completion of two a period of 16 years due to financial hospital complexes in Ogulin and difficulties.4 The main phases in the Koprivnica that she had designed in 1975. hospital construction are: TBC pavilion They were finished in 1981. (1963-1969, 1st stage of construction The projects in the final stage are: within the Medical Centre complex), the The General Hospital Complex in Split main hospital building (built in two (realisation in stages 1951-1969, final phases: 1974, 1974-1976, 2nd and 3rd stage equipping of the main hospital building realisation within the Medical Centre 1975/76)2, Medical centre in Ogulin (1958- complex), and finally the Medical High 1969, various projects), Medical Centre, School of the Medical Centre in Karlovac Karlovac (1960-1976, today General (designed in 1961, completed in 1975/76). Hospital Karlovac) and Centre for The project of the new health center Gynaecological Cancer of the Clinic for in Karlovac covered the surface of 47,000 Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Petrova m2, and was intended to meet the needs Street 13, Zagreb (1962-1976). After 1969 of 300,000 inhabitants from the districts Zoja Dumengjić designed the following of Karlovac, Ogulin, Gospić and partly from projects: Medical centre in Dubrovnik the districts Sisak and Bihać (Bosnia and (1970 competition project, unbuilt), Herzegovina). The program included: a Department of Pathology and Forensic hospital (with 714 beds), polyclinics, Medicine in Split (1974, unbuilt), Medical medical facilities for the polyclinic and the centre in Koprivnica (design 1975, hospital, hygenic-epidemiological service, realisation 1977-1980) and Medical centre education facilities, administration, service in Ogulin (1975-78 1st stage realisation, facilities and staff housing. The site for the new medical center is in the southern part of Karlovac, on the hill of Švarča, 2 The General Hospital Complex in Split was bordered to the south by an access road presented in the article Remarkable Public Health Service Architecture by Architect Zoja Dumengjić in to Karlovac from the southwest. The Croatia, 2nd MoMoWo conference-workshop Women Designers, Architects and Engineers 3 This is the 3rd realisation in her rich between 1946 and 1968, in Ljubljana (at Research competition oeuvre of 70 competition entries of Centre of Slovene Academy of Sciences and Arts, which 20 were ranked high and which were realised Slovenia), on October 5, 2016, by the author of this over 53 years. paper. Between 1969 and 1989 Zoja Dumengjić 4 Still now the skyscrapers conceived as designed the Department of Pathology and housing accommodation for medical staff and the Forensic Medicine in Split (1974), which has never south-facing pavilion for infectious diseases have been built. not been built.

24 hospital complex was conceived as an lower polyclinic-therapeutic-diagnostic autonomous urban entity dominating the block, conceived along a series of atrium south entrance to Karlovac. spaces. The lower TBC pavilion8 is realised “The proposed concept resulted from sourth from the main building, and with our efforts to integrate all units into one the main hospital building forms the main functional entity with the shortest outline of the hospital complex.9 The comunications for patients and staff. harmonious composition of the complex Although the need for phased construction was achieved through a rhythmic was considered, the departments are disposition, height gradation and careful closely linked and are simply and clearly design composition of longitudinal designed. It is particularly evident in hospital wings. linking the polyclinic area with the hospital Recently, energy-efficient wards and medical facilities. Regarding the renovation project is completed for the program and the proposed phased hospital complex.10 The Modernist construction it was planned to build a hospital complex with a harmonious combination of a central hospital building spatial composition and design dominates with separate pavilions for lung diseases, a today the southern suburbs of Karlovac.11 pediatric unit and administration, education and service rooms” the architect explained in 1975. 5 2.2. Centre for Gynaecological Cancer of The complex of Karlovac General the Clinic for Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Hospital is designed as a set of parallel Petrova Street, Zagreb (1962-1976) wings with a predominantly south orientation, which follow the pitch of the Due to insufficient capacity for south access road and thus allow the treating gynaecological cancer, a new insolation of the south-facing rooms. A building was planned to be built in the disadvantage is the access road that eastern zone within the existing site of the divides the hospital plot in the southeast Clinic for Gynaecology and Obstetrics at zone but it was neutralized by a 13, Petrova Street in Zagreb.12 The compositional counterpoint of the whole complex, i.e. the buildings conceived as 8 The TBC pavilion in Karlovac was built 10 housing accommodation for medical years after the same one in Split. The elements of personnel, which have never been built. A the external galleries for helio therapy have been tall longitudnal hospital block6 dominates retained as well as the multi-layered facades (a horizontal, skeletal axis, and a retracted shaded the entire complex and the surrounding 7 facade.). A crystal hovering volume of the Karlovac area. North from the monoblock is a TBC pavilion refers to the architect’s works from the 1950s. 5 Zoja Dumengjić, “Medicinski centar 9 The Medical High School of the Medical Karlovac”. Arhitektura 152-153 (1975), 55. Centre in Karlovac was built to the north in the 6 One can draw a parallel between the main final stage in 1975/76. hospital building in Karlovac and the Military 10 Energy-efficient renovation retained most Hospital designed by the architect Antun Ulrich in of the original design, although a thicker façade Split. The realization of the longitudinal eight- envelope is obvious upon careful observation. storey building of the Split Military Hospital was Previously added slanted roof was removed, which realized on the basis of a post-competition design is positive. Due to energy efficient renovation, the whose construction started not earlier than 1960 mosaic façade at the north-facing policlinic was and was completed in 1965, and therefore Ulrich’s demolished. influence is absent. 11 The project was funded by local citizens. 7 It was realised in two stages, which was 12 The existing main clinic on this site has a clearly seen before recent renovation. symmetrical classical composition, with two

25 modestly-sized plot had a direct impact on topographic and spatial restraints of this the spatial differentiation of three intervention. This is a typical feature of departments, i.e. blocks planned to be Zoja Dumengjić’s design approach: she is built in three stages. Taking full advantage capable of transforming every of the modest plot, the out-patient units disadvantage into a creative solution. The and the polyclinic block were placed Center for Gynecological Cancer was perpendicularly to Petrova street, while opened in 1976, the International the other two blocks were set to the Women's Year, on March 8th.15 north, parallel to the terrain slopes and at an angle to perpendicular urban disposition of the complex. Three blocks 2.3. Medical centre in Dubrovnik (1970 were linked by corridors with a northern competition project, unbuilt) entrance providing necessary communication with the Gynaecological The competition project was Clinic, laboratories, and technical and launched with the aim to invite six ancillary services. The northern wing architects, i.e. architectural groups from consisted of a therapeutic tract with X-ray former Yugoslavia, specialists in health therapy, partially located in the basement. architecture to submit their entries.16 The The new hospital ward had a capacity of proposed site was close to Velika Petka, 52 beds. 13 It was located on the highest east from Dubrovnik’s historic core17, with point of the site,14 thus providing peace a beautiful view of the sea. Zoja and quiet and open views from the shaded Dumengjić18 rejected the urban loggias and patients’ rooms. The out- restrictions set up by the competition patient units and the polyclinic block with propositions which limited the height of a laboratory, X-ray and administration is the complex to a maximum of four levels. located in the two-storey wing located She found it silly. Upon the competition along the eastern edge of the plot, i.e. closure, she wrote: "How ironic – having at Lobmayer`s stairs. Logically positioned our disposal a building plot along the internal staircase, in relation to terrain seaside in one of our most beautiful configuration, links the entry porch with coastal cities, and deny the possibility of the first-floor waiting rooms (with providing open views of the sea. Instead it recognizable skylights) and the northern is required from us to accommodate hospital ward. Three main blocks were patients in a depressed zone with closed designed as a parallelepiped of sharp views between the two hills and expose edges extended from the ground. them to the most unfavourable Harmonies integration of the complex into orientation. According to this obsolete the existing topography of the sloping terrain and the framework of dense urban 15 fabric does not express the complexity of Centre for Gynaecological Cancer of the Clinic for Gynecology and Obstetrics is in the intact original state, functions harmoniusly, but the shorter lateral wings. Originally it was used as the renovation of the southern facade is necessary. maternity ward and since 1921 it was a part of the 16 Three of them did not submit their Gynecological Hospital, School of Medicine, projects at all. University of Zagreb. The narrow easter segment 17 Listed at the UNESCO list of world of the plot shows 15, 5 m difference in height. heritage. 13 Twelve beds for patients on radium 18 Collaborators: the architect Selimir therapy are isolated in a separate tract. Dumengjić, architectural technician Branko Blažić, 14 With good connections to the radium architect Blanka Haramija and architect Vjera therapy block. Jerbić.

26 urbanists’ concept, the most important design teams: the architect Zoja objective is to make an impression on Dumengjić and the architects Mladen passers-by while the patient himself is Vodička and Duško Rakić. Architects irrelevant. In this attempt at an Vodička and Rakić won an unusual “the 'integration into the environment' first-award for their competition entry approach there is really no care for the without an award” (sic!).21 patients.”19 She decided to design a taller For Zoja Dumengjić this competition main hospital building, which is a tall was a terrible disappointment, because of structure with a cross-shaped planned the unprofessional attitude of the jury and with a terrace descending at the end of silly competition requirements. With this each wing forming “the silhouette of the project Zoja Dumengjić completed her rich hill”. competition ouevre of 70 competition The Hospital complex was conceived entries which she designed over 53 years. as a two-volume structure. The architect The fact that only 3 out of 62 awarded presented her project: “The first volume projects were built according to her (all services with preventive and curative competition solution, present briefly her work) is conceived as a central facility on a perseverance. wide base, in the form of a stepped pyramid with a cross-shaped plan. It includes an in-patient clinic with 634 beds, 2.4. Medical centre in Koprivnica (design polyclinic administration, diagnostics, 1975, realisation 1977-1980) ancillary wards and service units. The position and height of the building allow Koprivnica is a small town in the open views of the sea. The second volume north of Croatia. During the 1st stage of consists of smaller blocks of varying hospital construction, the architect heights, which in their mutually stepped Dumengjić designed and built the transitions fully adapt to the southern Tuberculosis Pavilion (1960-1966) in the slopes of Velika Petka. It contains pavilions eastern part of the site planned for the for chronical patients and psychiatry, and Medical Center in Koprivnica. The project initially consisted of 80 beds. The central of a longitudinal two-storey building is facility with short, vertical and horizontal analogous to the pavilion TBC in Karlovac communications develops around a (from 1961 to 1969). The southern facade central vertical communication core with of the building is characterized by a typical an additional area on the same floor and deep shaded loggias. 22 with other areas depending on the In view of the fact that the existing function. Such a layout proved highly hospital in Koprivnica was 100 years old functional.20 and with insufficient capacity, it was Of the six invited teams, the decided to build up a new hospital competition entry was submitted by two complex. The funds were provided by the 19 Zoja Dumengjić`s letter upon the closure citizens themselves, based on the Citizens' 23 of the architectural competition for the Medical of Koprivnica Referendum held in 1975. Center in Dubrovnik, 20th July 1970, Legacy of architects Dumengjić, Zagreb City Museum, Zagreb. 21 The majority of the invited architects did 20 Zoja Dumengjić, “Natječajni projekt not submit their entries. Medicinskog centra Dubrovnik / Competition Entry for 22 The structure has been partly renovated. the Medical Centre in Dubrovnik,” Arhitektura 152- 23 Citizens of Koprivnica and the surrounding 153 (1975). municipalities of Đurđevac and Križevci voted at

The hospital is located east of the historic in Croatia until recently actual “rooming- core. The architect Zoja Dumengjic in” in several materny wards.27 designed it before her retirement in The six-storey cruciform structure 1975.24 It is characterized by a low base for in-patients revolves around a vertcal with a six-storey cruciform structure that comunication core with staircases and dominates this part of town. 25 elevators. This design solution is a The outpatient polyclinic is placed in reflection of the architect`s competition a low single-storey (and partly two-storey) entry for the medical centre in Dubrovnik. base with interpolated atriums. The Longitudinal blocks typical for her architect said: "On the first floor adjacent work in the 1960s are changed in the to the administration is the meeting room, 1970s to complex cross-shaped structures. a library, transfusion area and radiology. From the design point of view the The second floor accommodates the cross-shaped volume is characterized by surgical ward. Access to the operating strip windows articulated with the profiled room is resolved so that there are almost colour verticals. These projections show completely sterile zone with sanitary the author's intention to provide daylight passes. On the third floor there is a and a plastic facade articulation which she maternity ward. The patients' rooms have here solves by positioning the toilet facility 30 beds, some rooms are designed for 3 of each room as a three-storey bay women, and in between are rooms for six window on the facade. By alternating the of their newborns separated by glass thus projections the architect provides an allowing better contact between mother accent on the third floor. and child, along with many other The building is painted in light earth advantages. Rooms with four beds also tones. have a separate toilet for maximum The prefabricated horizontal ribbon comfort.” 26 This standard was not reched windows are brown. The second phase of the project (tall volume in the western zone) was not realised according to the original design. After her death Šobot architects realized referendum for funding the construction of the the low western annexes, characterised by general hospital in Koprivnica (with 1-5% of different heights and colors of gray. Near personal income ). the hospital, in the eastern part of 24 Built between 1977 and 1980, Koprivnica, a number of other public Organization for design and supervision Gradec, Zagreb, OOUR Health Architecture, Blanka buildings were realised (such as the police Haramija, dipl.eng. and Đorđe Montina, dipl.eng. building, the contemporary high-school 28 25 During the first construction stage of the and the sports hall). main hospital building, other facilities were built too: the surgical department, the gynecological and maternity ward, the intensive care unit, the operating block, the central X-ray, the emergency, the central sterilization, the polyclinic, the medicine of work, the school healthcare unit, the 27 In rooming in“ maternity room newvorns woman’s health unit, out-patient unit, orthopedic are placed next to their mothers. The problem of out-patient unit, psychiatric unit, dental clinic, and this positive stiving is the fact that the rooms are service (laundry and central wardrobe). Hospital multy bed room, with, for example 3 mothers and capacity was up to 500 beds. newborns. 26 Krešimir Švarc, “Novi Medicinski centar u 28 In 2009 architects Toma Plejić and Lea Koprivnici /New Medical Center in Koprivnica”. Pelivan won Mies van der Rohe Award - Emerging Zdravstvo 1 (1981), 60-69. Architect Special Mention.

2.5. Medical centre in Ogulin (1975-198 company Industrogradnja. They used 1st stage, 1978-1981 2nd stage) prefabricated elements in order to speed up the construction process. The funds Construction of the new Medical were provided by the local citizens. Center was initiated due to the insufficient The Modernist hospital complex in capacity of the existing hospital Ogulin was Zoja Dumengjić's last project accommodating only 6 hospital wards with which is closely associated with the above 210 beds. The aim was to provide mentioned Medical centre in Koprivnica healthcare service for approximately 50,000 due to its design, i.e. a perpendicular wing inhabitants of Ogulin municipality, and the with a vertical communication core. New villages of the neighboring municipalities elements were triangular bay windows Vrbovsko, Slunj, Duga Resa and Otočac.29 designed with the aim to provide better The architect designed various projects for insolation and views. The Ogulin Hospital the Medical centre in Ogulin in the period was built with a series of compromises 1958-1969, but they have never been regarding the site, the adjacent existing built. The existing land of an old hospital structures and phased construction. It is along the road Oštarije - Ogulin, was presently in its original condition. planned for the construction of the new However, it requires some renovation hospital building as an extension of the works. existing one towards the southeast.30 The architect Zoja Dumengjić said: “The urban- planning solution maximizes the use of 3. Conclusion modest possibilities of the selected site, starting from a clear basic idea of the layout Long lifetime of architect Zoja plan. Parts of the new complex are hospital Dumengjić (1904-2000) covers almost the wards, medical facilities and service units… entire 20th century, and professional patients’ bedrooms were designed to take activity the period from 1928 to 1981. maximum advantage of south Based on continuity of work she is unique orientation.”31 The newly built hospital area figure not only in Croatia, but in former was 25 000 m2.32 Yugoslavia as well. She specialized early in The hospital was built during two within the field of health service phases by the Zagreb-based construction architecture, and her projects and realization marked this specific segment of complex architectural production. 29 Mladen Balen, “Nova bolnica - ponos Ogulina / New Hospital – the Pride of Ogulin” Vjesnik, In the period that is the subject of December 23, 1978, 12. this conference (1969-1989), the architect 30 The land was not appropriate for Zoja Dumengjić completed her complex extension due to its small size, bad terrain oeuvre. Her final projects designed and configuration with a hill on the south side, as well realized in the period between 1969 and as high density of buildings. 31 Zoja Dumengjić, “Projekt Medicinskog her retirement in 1975, mostly focused on centra Ogulin / Design of the Medical Centre Ogulin”, health care facilities design. In the period Arhitektura 152-153 (1975), 65. between 1974 and 1981 she realised even 32 The hospital ward with the capacity of three hospital complexes in Karlovac, 419 beds was realized in two phases with the Koprivnica and Ogulin. Due to limited following units: surgical, gynecological-labor, TBC and pulmonary diseases, intensive care, internal, financial resources of the local infectious, ocular, ORL, paediatric and community, a specific concept of citizens’ neuropsychiatric, and central surgery and participation in funding the construction sterilization

29 was introduced. Upon a local referendums competitions and realizations in in several cities an settlements, Croatian professional journals (Zagreb architecture citizens contributed 1-5% of their income and town-planning magazine over several years to hospital "Architecture and Urbanism" i.e. construction. For this reason and based on "Architecture" and Belgrade's such experiences, the architect Zoja "Architecture - Urbanism"). Projects of Dumengjić focused in the 1970s on the health buildings designed by the architect most rational and economical solutions, Zoja Dumengjić were published in the i.e. disposition of wings that intersect at a Russian monograph dedicated to central vertical core (with staircases and architecture in Yugoslavia written by the elevators).33 author Belousov: Contemporary She insisted on the most important Architecture of Yugoslavia, Moscow, 1973. component of any hospital that would be Her projects and realizations were of great benefit to the patients. At one presented at numerous exhibitions, and point in her career, she rose against especially in the period between 1969 and ridiculous competition requirements 1989 (Zagreb exhibition organized by prof. regarding the limited height of the Tomislav Premerl, PhD: Zagreb's Modern building according to Dubrovnik’s town- architecture between the two wars (held planning policy: “It is unacceptable that in the Museum of City of Zagreb, 1976- the patient is deprived of everything that 1977), and at the retrospective exhibition can help his treatment, while healthy of the most significant architectural tourists are provided with all amenities”34. realisations in Croatia 1945-1985 by prof. She particularly stressed the importance Neven Šegvić, PhD. Both retrospective of a “humane approach to the patient.” exhibitions in Croatia resulted in She was a consistent Modernist publications, i. e. the book by Tomislav architect over a long period, refusing to Premerl: Hrvatska moderna arhitektura accept influences of post-war Socialist između dva rata – nova tradicija (Croatian Realism and Post-modernism after the Modern Architecture between the Two 1970s. Her work and influence played Wars - a New Tradition). Zagreb: Nakladni therefore a significant role in the zavod Matice Hrvatske, 1989 and in the continuous development of Croatian special issue of Architecture magazine Modern architecture in 20th century. edited by Neven Šegvić, Arhitektura 196- Besides her professional work, she 199 (1986), with his contribution: Stanje also formed a rich bibliography. 35 In the stvari, jedno viđenje, 1945-1985 (Situation period from 1950 to 1975 she published in Architecture, a Point of View, 1945- many summaries of the projects, 1985, pp. 118-280). In 1984 she received the Charter of the Split General Hospital in 33 Cross-shaped plans characterise recognition and gratitude for her Dubrovnik and Ogulin hospital projects. outstanding contribution to the 34 Zoja Dumengjić`s letter upon the architectural competition for the Medical Center in development of the Split General Hospital. Dubrovnik, 20th July 1970, Legacy of architects The architect Zoja Dumengjić Dumengjić, Zagreb City Museum, Zagreb received "Viktor Kovačić" Life 35 Detailed list presented in: Z. Barišić Achievement Award given by the Marenić: “Arhitektica Zoja Dumengjić – Osobitost Association of Croatian Architects in 1975 djela u kontekstu hrvatske moderne arhitekture /Architect Zoja Dumengjić - The Remarkable and in 1995 the Life Achievement Award Features of Her Oeuvre in the Context of Croatian "Vladimir Nazor" in the field of Modern Architecture”, PhD diss., University of architecture given by the Parliament of Zagreb, 2007.

30 the Republic of Croatia. She was the Bibliography: winner of the top professional awards for lifetime achievement, and the first female Barišić Marenić, Zrinka. “Arhitektica architect laureate in Croatia marking her Zoja Dumengjić – Osobitost djela u pioneering role and contribution. kontekstu hrvatske moderne arhitekture /Architect Zoja Dumengjić - The Remarkable Features of Her Oeuvre in the Context of Croatian Modern Architecture.” PhD diss., University of Zagreb, 2007.

Balen, Mladen. “Nova bolnica - ponos Ogulina”. Vjesnik, December 23, 1978, 12.

Belousov, V.N.: Zdania učreždenii zdravo-hranenija. u: Sovremenaja arhitektura Jugoslavii, Moskva, 1973., str. 133-139 Zdanija i učerezdanija zdravo- hranjenja

Dumengjić, Selimir; and Dumengjić, Zoja. Arhitektonski projektni biro Dumengjić, Zagreb 1954-1964 (Architectural studio "Dumengjić" 1954- 1964), Zagreb, 1964.

Dumengjić, Selimir. “Novi Radium odjel Ginekološke klinike u Zagrebu”. Zdravstvo 9 (1968):41-48

Dumengjić, Zoja. “Projekt Medicinskog centra Ogulin / Design of the Medical Centre Ogulin”. Arhitektura 152- 153 (1975): 65

Dumengjić, Zoja. “Natječajni projekt Medicinskog centra Dubrovnik / Competition Entry for the Medical Centre in Dubrovnik”. Arhitektura 152-153 (1975)

Dumengjić, Zoja. “Medicinski centar Karlovac”. Arhitektura 152-153 (1975): 55- 56

Nedeljkov, Georgije. Der Krankenhausbau in Jugoslawien (The hospital construction in Yugoslavia). In: Paul Vogler, Gustav Hassenpflug (edt.).

Handbuch für den Neuen Krankenhausbau Architects - Atlas of 20th Century Croatian (Handbook for the new hospital Architecture. Zagreb : Sveučilište u construction), (München – Berlin : Urban Zagrebu, Arhitektonski fakultet, 2011. & Schwartzenberg, 1962., Separat of 2nd Edition) : 710-718 ... „Arhitekt Zoja Dumengjić; portret (Architect Zoja Dumengjić; Portrait)“. Šegvić, Neven. “Stanje stvari, jedno Čovjek i prostor 105 (1960): 103 viđenje, 1945-1985 / Situation in Architecture, a Point of View, 1945-1985!”. Arhitektura 196-199 (1986): 118-280 Other sources:

Štraus, Ivan. Arhitektura Jugoslavije http://www.min- 1945-1990 /Architecture of Yugoslavia kulture.hr/default.aspx?id=407. Nagrada 1945-1990. Sarajevo: Fondacija za razvoj Vladimir Nazor (Award Vladimir Nazor) održivog dizajna Sarajevo, 2013. Legacy of architects Dumengjić, Švarc, Krešimir: “Novi Medicinski Zagreb City Museum, Zoja Dumengjić`s centar u Koprivnici / New Medical Center letter upon finalisation of the architectural in Koprivnica”. Zdravstvo 1 (1981): 60-69 competition for the Medical Center in Dubrovnik, 20th July 1970, Zagreb Uchytil, Andrej, and Barišić Marenić, Zrinka, and Kahrović, Emir. Lexicon of

Paola Salmoni in Modern Italy (1951-2003) Politics in action

Monica Prencipe

Paola Salmoni (1921-2003) and the as average, in Rome between 1921 and female role in the Faculty of Architecture 1954, every one hundred graduated in Rome architects, only five were female. However, the capitol city – In Italy, the difficult economic traditionally against progressive positions situation left by the end of World War II, of the ‘weak gender’– had several had brought to the national mobilization underestimated records on the topic: not of all active forces for the reconstruction just was the first Italian city to have of the country. opened to women the faculty of If we look to the data available on Architecture, but it was also the birthplace the University of Architecture in Rome1 – of the first female designer ever recorded the first founded in Italy in 19192– it is in modern history. It is the case of Plautilla clear how the new social settlement had Bricci (1616-1696), who worked in the provided a relevant opening up for young seventeenth century for the Barberini women in search of a fruitful occupation family as both a painter and an architect.4 (Tab.1). In fact, if the women coming out from the faculty since 1925 can be considered isolated cases, it is in 1950 that essay started with an analogous analysis on the their percentage arrived close to 24% to situation of women in the Faculty of Architecture 3 and in the professional world. In that 1982, she rapidly increase in the following decades : reported that the enrolled students in the Faculty of Rome were 400 and 70 of them were women, 1 The data are taken from: Luigi Vagnetti still a percentage a little lower than 20%. On the and Graziella Dall'Osteria, La Facoltà di other hand, the female presence in the Architettura di Roma nel suo trentacinquesimo independent professional work did not exceeded anno di vita: anno accademico 1954-55 (Rome: 10% or 20%. Paola Salmoni, Atti del Convegno- Facoltà di Architettura, 1955), 200-231. The book Laboratorio Europeo sul tema «Donna: dimensione was a celebrative publication of the first thirty-five nuova nella cultura e nella politica» (Milan: years of the University of Rome and contained the Movimento femminile repubblicano milanese, general information on the number of students 1982), 197. (enrolled and graduated) and the list, with names 4 The ‘architettrice’ Plautilla Bricci, was the and votes, of all the graduated students. On the daughter of the multi-tasked artist Giovanni Bricci other hand, there are no available information on and she became acquainted as an architect the women that presumably enrolled and never between 1663 and 1680 for the project of a villa graduated. outside Porta San Pancrazio for the French 2 After Rome, other schools were soon ambassador Elpidio Benedetti as well as for design established throughout Italy. In order, they were in of the Chapel of Luigi in the Church of ‘San Luigi dei Venice in 1926, in Turin in 1929, in Florence and Francesi’ in Rome. The study on this new figure are Naples in 1930 and, last but not least, in Milan in very recent: the first was Olivier Michel, “Plautilla 1933. Bricci,” in Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, vol. 3 In 1982, the protagonist of this essay, XIV (Rome: Treccani, 1972), 223-224; on the recent Paola Salmoni, was invited to share her personal studies see Yuri Primarose, “Nuova luce su Plautilla experience as an architect, active since 1951. Her Bricci pittrice e ‘Architettrice’,” in Studi di Storia

This very long history of strong History of Architecture. Only to mention female figures, on the edge between the most relevant, we can list Maria Emma emancipation and social prejudice, had Calandra (1912-2004),8 Valeria Caravacci continued between the two World Wars (1915),9 Uga de Plaisant (1917-2004)10 and thanks to pioneers like Attilia Travaglio Margherita Roesler Franz (1915-1974),11 Vaglieri (1891-1969)5 and Elena Luzzatto all graduated before 1945 and all leading Valentini (1900-1983),6 followed by other figures in the different fields of the important names, today almost project: from restoration, to the exhibition completely forgotten (with the only design, to the architectural education.12 7 exception of Lina Bo Bardi ) by the Italian 1914-1992: una architetta romana in Brasile. dell’Arte 25 (2014), 145-161 with the related Celebrazioni per il centenario della nascita (Rome: bibliography. Prospettive, 2014). 5 Attilia Travaglio Vaglieri, a little older than 8 Maria Emma Calandra graduated in 1934 Elena Luzzatto, graduated at the Academy of Fine and she was the daughter of the head of the Arts in Rome and she aldo married the architect Faculty, Enrico Calandra (1877-1946) and the sister Umberto Travaglio. The two probably had been of Roberto Calandra (1915-2015), leading architect working together in many occasions. She was and friend of Frank Lloyd Wright. She had a chief mentioned as one of the most relevant female position at the Soprindendenza of Rome and she Italian architect in the seminal Anna Maria Speckel, took part to a fruitful series of collaboration, like “Architettura moderna e donne architette”, in the ones with Giuseppe Samonà. She was one of Almanacco della donna italiana, year XVI, n. VIII, the founder of the APAO (Association for Organic (1935), 121-134. Architecture) and of the INU (National Institute of 6 Elena Luzzatto Valentini (1900-1985) was Urbanism), both with the help of Bruno Zevi. See the first woman to hold a degree in Architecture in Maristella Casciato, “Chi semina ricordi raccoglie Italy in 1925 and the first to enrol in the National storie,” in Controspazio 2 (March-April 2001), 24- Board of Architects in the country. By change, 31; Paola Barbera, Maria Giuffrè, Archivi di Elena Luzzatto and Paola Salmoni shared a series of architetti e ingegneri in Sicilia 1915-1945 (Palermo: common features: they were both related to a Caracol, 2011), 78-9. Jewish family, they all suffered the persecutions of 9 Valeria Caravacci graduated in 1938. She the racial laws after 1938 and, finally, they were was and exhibition designer and one of the first to related to the city of Ancona, in central Italy, work with Adriano Olivetti in his publishing office. where Elena was born in 1900 and where Paola Her work is still completely unkown, beside a small worked for all her life. See Monica Prencipe, “Elena description in Augusta Lupinacci, Maria Letizia Luzzatto Valentini, the first Italian woman Mancuso, Tiziana Silvani, 50 anni di professione Architect. Towards a biography,” in Helena Seražin, 1940-1990 (Rome: Kappa, 1992). Katarina Mohar, Caterina Franchini, Emilia Garda 10 Uga De Plaisant was a relevant architect (eds.), Women Designers, Architects and Engineers and a professor in ‘Technical drawing’ at the roman between 1946 and 1968 (Lubiana: Založba ZRC, Faculty, and her early career started with the 2017). participation, still as a student, to the project for 7 Lina Bo graduated from the faculty of the famous memorial for the Fosse Ardeatine in Rome in 1940 and she soon moved to Milan where 1944, a year before her graduation. See she married Pietro Maria Bardi, to move again to Margherita Guccione, Daniela Pesce, Elisabetta Brasil in 1946. Far from a repressive country like Reale, Guida agli archivi di Architettura a Roma e Italy, in South America she soon became one of the nel Lazio (Rome: Gangemi, 1999), 100. most important names in Architecture. In Italy her 11 Margherita Roesler Franz was the general role has been rediscovered only recently: see Laura secretary of the central magazine Metron, directed Miotto, Savina Nicolini, Lina Bo Bardi: aprirsi by Bruno Zevi, and the wife of Cino Calcaprina, all’accadimento (Turin: Testo & Immagine, 1998); protagonist of the Italian Neorealism in Lina Bo Bardi architetto, ed. Antonella Gallo architecture, both emigrated in Argentina in 1948. (Venice: Marsilio, 2004), Exhibition catalogue; 12 For the graduated female students Luciano Semerani, Antonella Gallo, Lina Bo Bardi: il between 1945 and 1950 we can also add the diritto al brutto e il SECS-fàbrica da Pompéia names of Giuliana Genta (1922-2005), active (Naples: CLEAN, 2012); Alessandra Criconia, architect for the INA Casa throughout Italy, and Francesca Romana Castelli (eds.), Lina Bo Bardi Hilda Selem (1923-2006), future teacher of interior

However, a definitive route change and Carlo Melograni (1924-),16 but also arrived in 1950: this was in fact the women like Marinella Ottolenghi17 and graduating time for students who had Luisa Anversa (1926-)18 both future enrolled around 1945, right after the end teachers at that same faculty, while other of the war, called by the new needs of a masters like Ludovico Quaroni (1911- postwar society and the hope for a female 1987) and Gaetano Minnucci (1896-1980), working position, not merely related to a little older than Paola, would also education.13 become project partners in several future In this specific panorama we can set occasions. the active role of another Italian After her degree, in 1951, Paola protagonist, Paola Salmoni (Ravenna proudly entered the local Board of 1921-Ancona 2003), who took her degree Architects with the number 34. in that same 195014 and soon became a She recalled these moments many reference figure as an architect in the years after, in 1982, in occasion of an Marche region,15 but also, since the mid- International workshop dedicated to the 1970s, as the national leader of the ‘Modern woman in culture’, where she Feminist Republican party. was invited to share her personal Her close companions at the Faculty experience as an architect:‘we certainly in Rome were names like Carlo Aymonino paid –she said– a higher price, speaking of (1926-2010), Carlo Chiarini (1925-1996) personal, private sacrifice: our colleagues looked at us with mistrust and ironic suspicion. In the meantime, at the design and the first Italian female to win a beginning we had to look for males scholarship of six months in Sweden between 1951 support. We worked twice as much as men and 1952 to study Nordic architecture. 19 13 Even if the possibility to enter to all and got very poor acknowledgments’. On universities was slowly given to women at the the other hand she recognized her beginning of the twentieth century, this fact did fortune, since, ‘after the second world war not avoid the spread of a serious social concern on the choice of university studies not leading the possible use of such education. In fact, in Italy to traditional teaching was an élite choice, the number of women that actually worked as a 20 technician or a designer, after the university, was usually made within high income family’. far lower than the one that graduated. Moreover, It was really the case of her family: the percentage of student that abandoned the originally from Ravenna, and then University of Architecture in Rome, between 1921 transferred to Ancona because of their and 1954 was very high, with an average of 92%. Jewish relatives and their wealthy Only 8 on 100 students finished the University. If we speak about women, the comparison was far chemistry industry. Then in 1938, due to worse: every 1000 students only 3 would be graduated women. Source from: Vagnetti, Dall'Osteria, La Facoltà di Architettura, 200. 14 She graduated on July 29 with a vote of 16 Vagnetti, Dall'Osteria, La Facoltà di 100/110. In Vagnetti and Dall'Osteria, La Facoltà di Architettura, 226-227. Architettura, 227. 17 Nota su Marinella Ottolenghi. Marinella 15 The ‘Studio Salmoni Architetti Associati’, Ottolenghi, “Istantanee da un viaggio negli U.S.A.,” originally founded by Paola and her brother in Metron 47 (December 1952), pp. In cui riporta le Claudio in 1951, is today active and the two impressioni del North Lake Drive apartments. nephews of Paola Salmoni lead it: Vittorio and 18 Nota su Luisa Anversa. Si frequentano per Giovanna, which both worked with their aunt il progetto di restauro dell’ISTAO del 1993, diretto respectively since 1981 and 1985. Paola instead con il nipote Vittorio Salmoni. never married and she never had any children. 19 Paola Salmoni, Atti del Convegno- Monica Prencipe, Interview with Vittorio Salmoni Laboratorio, 200. (Ancona, August 30, 2016). 20 Ibid., 199.

35 the racial laws,21 during Paola’s last year of the universal principles of individual high school, she was expelled and forced liberty, political democracy and social to complete her education privately. justice. Between 1940 and 1942, always because of her race, Paola moved to Milan to study chemistry in a Jewish school, while her brother Claudio (1919-1970) was taking Paola Salmoni. Architecture and politics his degree in Civil Engineer in Rome.22 as a life project After coming back, hidden in a farm close to Ancona, on 20 September 1943 The purpose of the essay is of course she experienced one of the most not to report a full record of more than traumatic events of her life: the threats of fifty years of work (counting almost 200 the Nazis troops outside her house and projects),25 but it is indeed an occasion to the deportation of her uncle Giacomo and analyse a study case of the binomial her young cousin Sergio.23 ‘Politics and Architecture’ from a peculiar Paradoxically, she was raised in a perspective: a feminist and an influential completely laic family, in accord to the local technician. ideas of the Italian Republican Party,24 and As Paola Salmoni reported in a 1982 national congress on the topic ‘Women and Europe’, she did not feel to be ‘inside’ 21 The Italian dictator Benito Mussolini the political power, but more likely ‘aside’, 26 presented the Italian Racial Laws against the with the possibility of fully criticizing it. Jewish for the first time in 1938 on 18 September. She did not militate in politics in her The first ones were No.1381 and No.1390, young age, but she was forced to be more approved on 7 September. On 17 November followed the last racial law (No.1728), the “Law for and more involved with it after the death defending the Italian race”. On the Italian Racial –in 1970– of her close brother Claudio, Laws: Alberto Cavaglion, Gian Paolo Romagnani, Le planner and engineer in their studio, but interdizioni del duce: le leggi razziali in Italia (Turin: also a national level Republican member. Claudiana, 2002). After 1970 however, Paola continued the 22 Ilaria Zacchilli, Claudio Salmoni. Ingegnere e politico. Guida all’archivio (Ancona: Il lavoro planning work of her brother and, from editioriale, 2008), 5. there, she was naturally led to political 23 These early biographical information are militancy. taken from M. Crociati, “Paola Salmoni 1921-2003: However, besides the family una professione per la città e la società” (Thesis connections, why she decided to lead the diss., Università di Bologna, Facoltà di Architettura “Aldo Rossi”, 2008), 341-3. This paragraph in based Feminist faction of the Republican party? on Paola Salmoni’s private diaries, today hold by her nephew Giovanna. secondo dopoguerra (1943-1953), (Ravenna: 24 The Republican Party is one of the first Longo, 1998). founded in Italy in 1895, with solid bases in the 25 On the base of a recent list, her work as theoretical position of founding fathers like an architect counted almost 200 elements Giuseppe Mazzini and Carlo Cattaneo. An between projects, buildings and planning practice. important trademark was its deep laic tradition. This essay became an important chance for the During the fascist decades, the party moved to studio, interested in deepening the role of Paola Paris and started to gravitate around the ‘Giustizia Salmoni. In fact, after this occasion, the work on and Libertà’ movement and it also took part to the this new figure is currently becoming a full book, to active Resistance. After July 2, 1946, when Italy be published between 2017 and 2018 by had finally voted in favour of the Republican Quodlibet. institutional form, the Party entered, as a minority, 26 Paola Salmoni, Volontà e impegno per la in the coalition with the ‘Democrazia cristiana’ parità tra uomo e donna nella nuova Europa party. See Alessandro Spinelli, I repubblicani nel (Rome: Movimento Europeo, 1983), 213.

In the beginning of the 1970s, Italy woman that wanted to be a doctor or an was undergoing through serious social architect… Instead, in order to maintain a chances, especially due to the battles for feminine diversity, women ‘should women: right of abortion, divorce, laws of introduce in the independent professional equality and reform of the family work, logic behaviour different from the legislation, all –for Paola– necessary steps usual ones: seriousness, commitment, towards a ‘more open and just society’. refusal of exasperated antagonism and – However, in the everyday life, the more than any other– solidarity’. Solidarity practical applications of these ideas was with other women but also towards all still a far horizon: even after the strong other sensitive social groups, like the economic growth of the country after younger generations.29 1945, the percentage of women accessing As we can see, her social new professional positions did not involvement was not only a general increase proportionally with the humanitarian need, but it was also population. 27 For this, after the crucial associated to a specific ‘work ethic’. political reforms of the 1970s and 1980s, a Moreover, thanks to numerous new age of social engagement had to interventions in public conferences, it is start, in order to educate the so-called possible to highlight four specific elements ‘weak gender’ on her own new (at least), in Paola Salmoni’s architecture, possibilities and the male-counterpart on conceived as concrete actions of her a new necessary attitude. political and ethical beliefs: the pragmatic Therefore, her political involvement analysis of the context without any ‘a- was directed to spread the participation of priori’ idea; the central role of social women in society; for Paola, female services and especially of education for a ‘occupation’ was not merely a ‘symbol of more equalitarian society; the high value redemption’ but also the clear sense of a given to local heritage and, last but not more equal society, especially if directed least, the promotion of the young towards traditionally-male fragments, like generations in architecture.30 Politics, Technical areas (Planning, Engineering, Construction) and public administrations. 28 Schools buildings. Designing the ideal Inside those practises moreover, the community modern woman needed to ‘refuse the separate fields of common logic’: for The reform of education and the example, paediatrician and interior features of the modern school building designer were not the only chances for a were of course common questions to the

27 Paola Salmoni, “Perché un movimento 29 Paola Salmoni, Atti del Convegno- femminile repubblicano,” in L’informatore Laboratorio, 200. repubblicano 33 (1980), 3. In Italy, the first law on 30 These ideas are all consciously expressed abortion was approved in 1970, but it was assured in different conference were Paola was involved as by a popular referendum only in 1981; the one on national secretary of the Feminist Republican divorce was ratified in 1978; the principle of party: see Paola Salmoni in Convegno Nazionale equality of the two parents was approved in 1975. degli Amministratori Repubblicani (ed.), Il Cittadino On the topic see recent: Fondazione Nilde Iotti protagonista nel disegno repubblicano per le (ed.), Le leggi delle donne che hanno cambiato autonomie locali (Rome: Edizione della Voce, l’Italia (Rome: Ediesse, 2013). 1979), 179-182; Paola Salmoni, “Una proposta per 28 Paola Salmoni, Volontà e impegno, 213- la scuola,” in L’informatore repubblicano 33 (1980), 14. 5-6.

37 entire postwar generation,31 and Paola Contemporary to the Ravenna Salmoni managed to build almost 20 school, Paola was also in charge of a small schools throughout her career (the first in elementary school in the countryside of 1952). Her ideas passed through a series Ancona, in Montemarciano. The project of changes along the years and these were was again a new interpretation of a rather also influenced by the work of her master, intimate space, with dimensions thought Ludovico Quaroni. for their users, in order to specifically After meeting at the faculty of ‘avoid those effects of intimidation and Architecture, they worked together in apprehension provoked by a several occasion and, even if the most monumentally declared buildings’.34 known is probably for the bank extension Both, the plan for Ravenna and for of the ‘Cassa di Risparmio’ in Ravenna Montemarciano conceived in 1958, denied (1963-69),32 another interesting project the school building as a succession of was certainly the one for a school in the classrooms and the reduced height of the same city, between 1958 and 1963. common spaces (the lobby was less than In the Studio Salmoni Archive it is four meters) intended to favor the student possible today to see the evolution of the intimacy and free self-development as design: the first sketch was in fact a cross well as avoid rigid hierarchies. shaped project, with separated functions The school in Ravenna took to the (administrative, classroom and gym) in extreme consequences the educational different branches. This traditional thought shown in the smaller case of scheme was soon overcome by an Montemarciano: if in this last project the articulated central court, with a 'windmill' central court intended to favor the design that Quaroni had already used in relationships of the entire community, the the Canton Vesco’s school in 1955.33 geometric modulation of the grid in the The project was a strong evolution school with Quaroni, exponentially of Paola Salmoni’s previous educational multiplied the possibilities of meeting in project, if compared, for example, with smaller spaces. the Benincasa elementary building, The importance of educating the finished in that same 1958 and still younger generation to a modern conceived as an architectonical homage to equalitarian society, to avoid hierarchical the previous functionalistic generation. differences and to promote self- consciousness, was often stressed out in Paola Salmoni’s speeches as a concrete

31 Other architects had already been action in relation to the battle for the involved in a first analysis of the topic: like the women rights, since it was in school that 1936 ‘Scuole’ by Gaetano Minnucci, linked to many of the social limitations were European rationalist examples (Milan: Hoepli) and created at first.35 The design of the school the monographic number of Domus (June 1947, number 220) that -under the illuminated direction of Ernesto Nathan Rogers– presented to the Italian 34 Paola Salmoni, Relazione di progetto, architects the most innovative international September 1958, in Studio Salmoni Archive, schools in Europe and USA. Ancona, Box 41C. 32 The project is today considered a 35 ‘A me sembra del tutto prioritario il masterpiece in Ludovico Quaroni’s career and one discorso sull’educazione, (…) l’importanza di of the most relevant examples in the 1960s Italian arrivare ai giovani. Non dobbiamo tanto guardare a Architecture. noi, ai pochi risultati personali, agli scarsi risultati 33 Manfredo Tafuri, Ludovico Quaroni e lo collettivi, quanto dobbiamo guardare come la sviluppo dell’architettura moderna in Italia (Milan: nostra battaglia per la parità ha inciso sulle nuove Edizioni di Comunità, 1964), 136-137. generazioni’. In Paola Salmoni, Volontà e impegno,

38 building as an ‘ideal community’ in small Italian planner, and the second with the scale, occurred in Paola’s work in several two Salmoni brothers, both based on an occasion, as shown for example in design accurate analysis of the existing context of the local High school for the Arts (1962- and on a deep foresight for future needs. 67) and in the late Elementary school in The final solution, approved first in 1958 Castelfidardo (1983-84). and then in 1963, was a difficult combination of the two proposals, conceived with many of the most modern Heritage. Designing the landscape as features, that only after the 1967 ‘Legge common memory Ponte’ would become minimum requirements in the Italian legislation: a After the early public housing detailed zoning with different building complex (INA casa or IACP), the first densities, services previsions and important planning commission for Paola territorial infrastructures up to different Salmoni arrived in 1955, with the levels, from neighborhood schools to the competition for the new general plan of location of an industrial area far from the the city of Ancona, after the end of the old city.38 Reconstruction Plan. 36 A specific part of the plan –a direct The city jury proclaimed two winning responsibility of Paola Salmoni and Mario groups: the first led by Giovanni Astengo Coppa (1923-1999), planning professor at (1915-1990),37 one of the most important the Faculty in Rome39– took in consideration the needs of the historical center, in large part destroyed or 216; see also Paola Salmoni, “Una proposta per la abandoned by the war. scuola,” in L’informatore repubblicano 33 (1980), 5- 6. The problem of updating the 36 After a devastating bombing in 1943 and historical contexts for the modern needs is 1944, almost 2/3 of the city were completely of course very ancient in Italy, but it was destroyed and the city included in the Italian places seriously taken in consideration by the in strong need of a reconstruction plan. Claudio whole scientific community only after the Salmoni, with the city technical office, directed the plan with the supervision of Gaetano Minnucci, 1960 with the Chart of Gubbio and the engineer already active in Rome in the fascist one of Venice in 1964. For this reason, the decades but born in Macerata, close to Ancona. initial plan, concluded in 1960, was one of The plan showed a great analysis of the existing the first of its kind: based one hand on a elements and showed great awareness of the careful social-economic analysis of the future impellent problems of the city. See G. Bellucci, “Gaetano Minnucci. I progetti inhabitants and, on the other, on the marchigiani” (PhD diss., Università Politecnica delle application of the modern idea of Marche, 2012), 87-96. 37 Giovanni Astengo is considered one of the most important modern Italian planner. After his degree in Torino in 1938 with the supervision of Giovanni Muzio, in 1948 he became one of the 38 See Franco Balletti, “Dal Piano di leader of the INU (National Institute for Ricostruzione al Piano Regolatore,” in Rivista di Urbanisme) Institution together with Adriano Ancona 2, I (1958), 3-5; Giovanni Astengo, Olivetti. The bibliography on his work is very wide. “Ancona, città difficile. Aspetti originali del Piano See the fundamental Paola Di Biagi, “Giovanni Regolatore generale,” in Rivista di Ancona 4, I Astengo. Un metodo per dare rigore scientifico e (1958), 14-16. The plan was approved for the first morale all'urbanistica,” in Paola Di Biagi, Patrizia time on 17 September 1958 and finally on 22 Gabellini (eds.), Urbanisti italiani: Piccinato, February 1963. The plan for Ancona is today kept Marconi, Samonà, Quaroni, De Carlo, Astengo, in the ‘Giovanni Astengo’ Archive in Venice. Campos Venuti (Rome: Laterza, 1992). 39 AAA Italia, 13 (2014), 35-36.

39 restoration on an historical group, and not high and lower walls, defining an ideal – to a single monument. 40 and laic– ‘via crucis’. And exactly like in a The plan was also an opening step path of redemption, along the way were towards a new interest in the role of spread the different stations, represented heritage. In particular the three most by sixteen burnished steel plates, relevant projects of Paola Salmoni’s life recounting the tale of Liberation through are related to this topic: the Monument the partisans’ original letters to their dedicated to the WWII Resistance (1965), families. The monument was not the renovation of the eighteenth century conceived in a unity of place, but rather in ‘Muse’ Theatre (1987-2002) and, finally, a distended time, along the slope of the the restoration of the local ‘Campo degli hill, evoking itself the struggle of ebrei’ (Jewish monumental cemetery, Resistance and of its protagonists.42 1996-2005), all located in her hometown Many years later, at the beginning of Ancona. the 1990s, Paola would have the chance to The project for the local theater was work again on another evocative element particularly complicated, since the of the local heritage: the old Jewish complete loss of the original interiors, and cemetery. As a survival of the Holocaust she was selected to supervise the choices herself, she felt the project strongly and of Danilo Guerri (1939-2016), sensitive responded with a ‘minimal design’: at first, designer for architectural details and local she relocated all the broken and damaged building constructions.41 The result was a stems and then built a series of new modern interior, rich of traditional and pathways along the border of the area, classical allusions and shaped as the leaving the original space almost external square, similar to the proposal by untouched. The project ended in a high Aldo Rossi, Ignazio Gardella and Fabio ‘belvedere’ with the possibility to admire Reinhardt for the ‘Carlo Felice’ theater in simultaneously the cemetery,43 the sea Genova (1981-1991). and the oldest parts of the city, Differently, the resistance recollecting in one place the fragmented Monument was located in a natural elements of local history. landscape, on a hill facing the city center: One common elements to these the memorial was designed as a slow path, projects was their close relationship with a combination of sudden turns, steps and Paola Salmoni’s personal experiences, and she responded with solutions dealing with its objective reality rather than with 40 In 1963, the plan did not find the necessary political support, but still it was awarded transcendent ideals of liberty and with the IN/Arch national prize and, only after a big earthquake in 1972, it became again a base for a 42 On the project see: “Il monumento alla second plan, finally approved in 1974. Gilberto Resistenza nell’Anconitano,” in Rivista di Ancona 3- Bagaloni, “I piani particolareggiati di Capodimonte 4, VIII (1965), 3-13; Luciano Galmozzi, Monumenti e Guasco-San Pietro,” in Rivista di Ancona 5, III alla libertà. Antifascismo, resistenza e pace nei (1960), 2-14. For the second 1974 plan see monumenti italiani dal 1945 al 1985 (Milan: La Comune di Ancona, Ristrutturazione del centro Pietra, 1986), 194; Flavio Venturelli, “Una «triste storico 1/Documenti di lavoro (Ancona: Litografia ricostruzione»? Gilberto Orioli, Paola Salmoni e Carletti & C., 1974). l’architettura monumentale di Ancona,” in 41 Danilo Guerri was the most important Valentina Orioli (ed.), Gilberto Orioli, architect in the Marche region. Danilo graduated at Dall’Urbanistica al disegno di dettaglio (Faenza: the Faculty of Rome in 1962 and then started to Edit Faenza, 2014), 63-72. work with the TAU Studio in Rome. See Francesco 43 Lorenzo Ciccarelli, Guida all’architettura Leoni, Danilo Guerri maestro di spazio (Macerata: nelle Marche 1900-2015, (Macerata: Quodlibet, Quodlibet, 2016). 2016).

40 democracy. She felt the places to be fortune, but also for her ‘silent evocative in themselves as common industriousness’ and ‘work ethic’: ‘silent’ memory, and worked in order to highlight because she never wrote about the meaning and the possibilities hidden Architecture but, on the contrary, she behind those spaces. A peculiar form of tried to gave real shape to her battle for ‘empiricism’, which Paola often saw as a civil rights in her projects. For these characteristic trait of the female activity, reason, her political beliefs and the alongside a strong opposition towards the questions raised in her designs, must be 'domestic' role often associated with seen as complementary, in order to women in the field of architecture.44 understand the logic behind a generic ‘neorealist’ or ‘organicist’ resemblance. The planning practice, the school Some conclusions building’s design and the heritage protection were conceived as important The work of Paola Salmoni field trials for new architectonical throughout more than fifty years of composition, undermining gender issues activity (1951-2003), was signed by a or racial differences. conspicuous number of minor A ‘laic militancy’ of hers, where it constructions, together with some intense was sometimes difficult to distinguish moments, especially related to her between civil stance and political favour, projects for education and for the typical characteristic perhaps of a certain celebration of the common heritage. As Postwar local technician. mentioned, she was protagonist of the Undoubtedly, we still live too close first Italian Postwar reconstruction, to her actions and this is not the moment together with the other male protagonists to give a proper historical judgement of a of her time, and then of the following recently re-discovered figure.46 decades until today, thanks to her work to It is instead an occasion to reflect promote and teach the younger upon a sensitive study-case, emblematic generation. of a definite interpretation of Architecture For example, after she had started as a complex ‘manifestation of the human to her profession their nephews Vittorio activity, intended to provide men with and Giovanna (today in chief of the office), internal and external spaces necessary for they all cooperated, in occasion of an the exercise of their institutional and vital housing complex in Ancona for 122 homes functions’47 and not just as a piece of (1993-2002), with several of the most individual art. promising future architects of the country, like Aldo Aymonino, Cino Zucchi, Alberto 46 Ferlenga and Pippo Ciorra.45 The traces of a scientific interest towards The work of Paola Salmoni however her activity are, up to these days, a master degree thesis in 2008 with the supervision of Maristella can be highlighted not only for her Casciato, which highly contributed to the first architectural results or her historical understanding of the available archival material, after its legal declaration of ‘public interest’ in 44 Paola Salmoni, Atti del Convegno- 2003. M. Crociati, “Paola Salmoni 1921-2003: una Laboratorio, 200. professione per la città e la società” (Thesis diss., 45 See Paolo Pasquini, Paola Salmoni, “Il Università di Bologna, Facoltà di Architettura “Aldo quartiere Q1,” in Urbanistica quaderni, INU (1998), Rossi”, 2008). 47-55; Paolo Rossi, Cino Zucchi, “Residenze al 47 Ludovico Quaroni, Progettare un edificio. quartiere Montedago,” in Costruire in laterizio 109 Otto lezioni di architettura (Milan: Mazzotta, (2006), 40-43. 1977), 13.

Architect Bianca Ballestrero in Tuscany and Her Partnership with Gae Aulenti

Daniela Turazza and Chiara Santi

am very busy at this time." By a date I was given a chronological record; I had no I have heard of Bianca Ballestrero for doubt it would have happened. the first time in 1995 when I worked in BB (Bianca Ballestrero) allowed an Florence with Professor Enrico Baroni, in appointment at her home studio in charge of structural design for the layout Grassina, in the hills above Bagno a Ripoli of the square way off of former Leopolda (Florence), still today she continues her railway station. Gae Aulenti, already activity; we go to the gate with the considered an archistar, was in charge of reverential fear of those who are aware architectual project, Bianca Ballestrero that they will be admitted after a few standing for Aulenti’s studio in Florence. moments in the presence of an important Unfortunately, in that occasion I did not person. "Good morning. I have little time have the opportunity to meet Bianca to spare; we have urgent deliveries" said Ballestrero, since I was not taking part in BB, giving a little apprehension for the that assignment. consciousness that we would have to The opportunity to interview her overlook some topics. arrived 22 years later in 2017. I was Question: "Let's start from the looking for her details in the Architects’ beginning: how did you desire studying register in Florence, hoping it was still in architecture?" business: "Bianca Ballestrero, born in Pisa, Since the High School I had a graduated in Florence in 1961, enrolled in passion for Art History (my professor the Architects’s Order since 1962, number was a great poet, Attilio Bertolucci); 459. At first, I could not reach her by the art historian, understood as a phone, subsequently I sent a mail: "I craft, I did not want to become, so I would like the opportunity to arrange an decided to try architecture studies. interview within the MOMOWO Women's The choice didn't meet the approval Creativity project since the Modern of my parents because it was outside Movement the goal of wich is to make the of the family tradition: males all contribution of women in architecture doctors or lawyers, females destined and design fields"; a few days later I to become teachers. Design was received a phone call saying: "I'm Bianca never my strength and I had Ballestrero’s secretary, I am transferring abandoned that subject after the you through. Inevitably the emotion Middle school because I did the charged of the first interview with a Classical studies; then I had to put a celebrity. I’ve tried to give the most hard work to learn it and to deal detailed explanations possible, saying my with other new subjects: geometry prayers to provide me with the material and mathematical analysis. I grew up urgently. From the very first words, the in Rome and started the university in impression is of a very private but direct Rome, then completed in Florence. I and very professional person: "I will do as I graduated in Florence, my thesis can, you are giving me only few days and I with Prof. Libera and Prof. Quaroni;

42 it was the first group thesis in when they offered us great absolute; I was in the group with opportunities. Loris Macci and Pierluigi Cervellati; Q: "When did you meet with Gae the theme was the design of an Aulenti?" European University site in Florence; The meeting with Gae Aulenti we had chosen the Girone area, took place in the occasion for close to the river, as a site for the Theater Laboratory in Prato (the European university, a hot topic at second half of the 1970s),1 a space the time (then it began to move the dedicated to architecture and first steps); later it was realized in territory; from the experience of the Fiesole. three years of laboratory it turned Immediately after graduating I out a relationship of friendship and had a brief experience as an unpaid collaboration. I'd known Luca 'volunteer assistant' - I was Prof. Ronconi for a long time; research on Libera assistant. I quickly realized the territory was seen as the that I was not made for the 'ultimate moment'; Ronconi came academic career; it was obvious, from the experience of 'Utopia', a though, that I was suited for liberal great show2. During my stay at the profession; my husband [the prof. Laboratory we prepared the Piero Paoli, already a professor at materials for a new show, 'The Cross the Faculty of Architecture in Sign', which would have to go Florence] was pursuing his university through but remained unfinished, career; one was enough in the never went on stage. family! I suppose the profession was Q: “In addition to the 'Laboratory' in easier then: it was planned, there Prato, Gae Aulenti was assigned to Palazzo was more work; there were no Pretorio”. absurd obstacles; the public body would have called us because there 1 The Scenery Laboratory in Prato (1977-79) was 'trust'. There were also contests, was founded by the theater director Luca Ronconi (1933-2015) in mid-1970s in Metastasio theater; which, like today, were banished the contribution of Gae Aulenti was a new and then often did not lead to a definition of ‘stage’ that finally led to Fabbricone, realisation; I was tied to my a real 'invention' by Ronconi, where for the first husband, to Loris Macci and time he used as a stage an abandoned warehouse. Giovanni Bartolozzi: a design contest For the play The Tower by Hugo von Hofmannsthal Gae Aulenti rebuilt the Würzburg Royal Palace was made – as fresh graduates (late inside Fabbricone; there were a continuous change 1960s) - for the High School of of scene to the purpose of disorient the audience; Imperia, a large complex, a high for Calderón, by Pasolini, the scene had been school and gym and another college; extended from the stage to the stalls of the contest was won and the project Metastasio, while the audience had been sitting in the boxes. The activity of Ronconi in Prato lasted was then realized and the buildings just a few years, due to political obstacles, by are still in place. Another invoking economical reasons and blaming him for opportunity was the assignment in performances elitist. Val di Fassa [Trento’s Province - 2 ‘Utopia’ was a show put on inside a Solaria Tourist Center in Mazzin di shipyard in Giudecca Island (Venice), a degraded place then restored by Venice Biennale; the shows Fassa, 1972-76]; we were young and derives from five plays by Aristofane and the fortunate enough to be at a time scenery was elaborate and chaotic made by a great jumble of objects.

The Commune of Prato thought to make an extension of the decided to restore and transform paved marble area, replacing a Palazzo Pretorio and called Gae, who worthless 'pavement', but the came from the renovation of Palazzo Superintendence hindered us, Grassi in Venice (she had not yet arguing that there was historically realised the Gare d'Orsay the 'Third Class Restaurateur' here! preparation); Gae called me and They did all the sampling to find the asked me if I wanted to work with original paintings; at the end, the her. Later, we collaborated in a deeper layer was of a 'shocking pink' position for the State Railways [FS]. color, which of course was not re- At that time the FS deliberated to proposed. carry out a reconnaissance of its Q: "Today, these reception spaces national patrimony (abandoned no longer exist. The project has been buildings and areas) throughout Italy distorted" formulating hypothesis of I do not know, it's a long time requalification; Gae and I were in since I haven't been there. charge for Florence. From this work Q: “How did you come to Leopolda analysis came our idea of making a Station’s commission?” municipal theater at Porta al Prato. Leopolda came from a The Compartment of Florence - FS different commissioner, the were divided into Compartments - Commune of Florence, who called when there was funding received for Gae, who called me. It had to be a 'Italy 90' [Football World’s Cup] complex project, including the called us for the arrangement of renovation of the entire area of the 'Platform16', which was originally former Leopolda Station: the square the track for the Royal Train: they was meant as a continuation of the needed a second access to the Santa aisles of the building; then the Maria Novella station [from Piazzale administration changed their minds, Montelungo, adjacent to the probably for costing reasons, and Medicean Fortezza da Basso, an decided to leave the station as it exchanger parking] and a general was, limiting their assignment to the redevelopment of the area; it was access area; 3 Pitti Immagine4 1989, it was a fast-paced task. Only a immediately urged the closure of the year after the delivery the spaces square and we made the gate; had already been ruined by acts of unfortunately these spaces cannot vandalism: our projects should always be kept accessible to the always be photographed right away, public due to vandalism. In any case, just completed! For the initial project was reduced to the Santa Maria Novella we were bone; among other things, the entrusted by the FS also the setting element of water was eliminated. up of reception and catering area: the Superintendence made us struggle because of restrictions; it 3 The current fitting out of Leopolda is wasn't easy. The dining room had a largely known in Florence: a ‘temporary place’ since more than twenty years, with a roof made by flooring of one meter for one meter scaffold steel structures, used for performances of Carrara's statue [marble] and to and exhibitions. realize the new restaurant, we 4 A factory in Florence that organizes international fashion events.

Q: “The structural project was cover.6 Again there was the entrusted to Enrico Baroni”. Superintendency intervention: an Enrico Baroni, I like his work external lift, which had been thought very much, he has a lot of creativity; of by us as a quotation of the I worked with him for the Leopolda chimneys of Prato; the name of station and then again for Palazzo Aulenti was in the middle, so Pretorio. Superintendency instead of declining Q: “In 1998 an invitations contest to it immediately did as Pontius Pilate the Uffizi new Gallery’s Exit”. 5 did: sent the project to the Ministry, I remember mentioning a who asked for integrations and then photographer, charged by the Uffizi gave reason to the Superintendency; Director, who showed us Isozaki's so everything stopped. They called photos: suddenly I had a perception for a review for costing reasons and and I said to myself: Here is the the plan was restricted to Pretorio winner!; It was specifically and Addossato - initially the project forbidden in the ban the pedestrian included the former Carceri [prison], ramp to be removed but Isozaki's Valentini Palace, the Addossato plan was showing that; obviously, building and the former Monte he could. Even other designers Pegni [bank]; the Region provided allowed themselves to eliminate it, two funding later in two different while our project was made spending chapters, with grotesque according to rules required. limits: getting into the budget was Q: “Palazzo Pretorio in Prato, tell us not easy and the money had to been about it”. spent within the time limits with We [Gae and I] followed all the enormous difficulties in managing renovation from the planning stage the construction site. Fortunately, at to the execution of the works; Gae least the museum was set up, which should also have done the interior was previous a 'black hole' inside the design but then she became ill and city; as the lift was eventually built the set-up was made with a new inside, hitting the vaults. competition, won by Natalini. A thirty-year long project, the first lookout we did in 1986; then followed a long reconnaissance 6 In 1986 the Municipality entrusted to Gae Aulenti and Bianca Ballestrero a great plan for a period, both of the architectural museum pole, costs estimated €4.39m. The target complex and the collections - as is was strongly reduced and in 1998 the museum was logical in approaching such an closed to begin some restoration of the bearing intervention and scope. It had to be structures; the art works were carried away (The a 'pharaonic project': there was the third floor had been closed since 1983 due to the renovation of the roof). Works were carried on bad habit of putting design to the facing many difficulties till in 2009 the project was point before having the costing modified by the Municipality who brought back the entrance to the main front towards the square. 5 The contest on invitations for the new exit The last works consisted in restoration of the of Uffizi Museum in Florence, won by Arata Isozaki interior decorations like Podestà crests, frescoes and Andrea Maffei was held in 1998, participating and the painted wooden ceiling, while the whole Mario Botta, Norman Foster, Gae Aulenti, Hans building has been completely renovated. Hollein and Vittorio Gregotti. The target was the extension of the exhibition area and the creation of a new exit inside the back façade.

Q:“What difficulty did you encounter knowledge in the world of great in your profession as a woman?” engineers and architects, who As a woman, I had no 'gender' organized many seminars with great difficulties, perhaps because for a characters: it was just a 'university'. long part of my professional life and Q:“Was there any other from the beginning I worked in a participation in other contests?” group with male colleagues; in the Contests were in the early following period, in which I worked period of my activity, it was a way of with Gae, perhaps the gender being able to emerge, but then we difficulties were now overcome. still had some challenging You have a clear feeling - assignments: in the field of urban listening to Bianca's words - that the planning and landscape the task for question has not been whether or the Landscape Plan of Ticino Pavese, not a 'gender issue' exists but that together with Macci and Bartolozzi she has spent her entire life [70], by the Pavia administration practicing the profession in a that co-ordinated with that of Milan; profitable way and with satisfaction, a wonderful experience. Taking care without ever feeling discriminated as of landscape was not easy; we a woman; that she never asked managed to 'anticipate' some herself the meaning of expressions strategies, for example how to work such as 'reconciling family life with in synergy. The Plan was born professional activity' or 'having less because there was a desire on the prestige at social level or less part of coastal administrations to facilitating work than men valorize a wonderful river (apart colleagues. Perhaps she is right from mosquitoes), to provide when she says that the biggest accommodation that could make it problem in Italy is the shortage of economic and tourist point of view, work for new generations of working on the conservation of a architects who inevitably end up rather fragile habitat, even with penalizing women more than men. precious rainforest; to break down Q:“Do you know how many women beautiful vegetation to plant poplar were enrolled at the Architects' Order in for the paper mill meant destroying Florence when you enrolled in 1962?” the landscape but those who had I do not know how many invested did not want to give up the women were in the Architect’s grip; it was not easy to find a Order list - at Villa Giulia in Rome balance. A study of the territory was [Architecture Faculty] - we were done: morphological, geological, about 500 students; when I came to botanical (we collaborated with the Florence we were still less. University of Pavia), in short, Q:“How was the atmosphere at multidisciplinary; the group, when it the Faculty of Architecture in Florence?” is a tested group, works well. Cerasi7 There were new winds, there was a situation of innovation, a 7 Maurice Cerasi (1932-2015), architect, faculty where one had to deal with born in Istanbul, graduated in Florence in 1964, leaded an office in Milan dealing with residential important people: Quaroni, Libera, buildings and town parks; in his early years he Ricci, Arcangeli (to Construction collaborated with Gio Ponti and Giovanni Science), all people who had Michelucci. Professor in Architectural Composition at University in Milan and Genova.

led the group of Milan; we also had Projects clashes, we had different views. It was an innovative experience at the Hotel Center ‘Solaria’ in Fassa time in Italy. Valley (Trento) 1972-76 (with Loris Q:”How did you select Macci, Piero Paoli) assignments?” The type of assignment was “The vast area, on the slopes of a mainly due to the offer. Recently I wood, among snow capped peaks, has have also been involved in urban been highlighted becoming the first planning as a councilor in Prato feature of the touristic development. The (1995-97). There was a new consequence is the design of the sections Regulatory Plan (PRG) to be done; of the blocks falling down to the valley. 8” had been named as a professional “The three blocks, each with Bernardo Secchi. Mayor Mattei different use (hotel, residence, wanted me in his Junta as he wanted apartments), created to 1300 persons, are to have a technician to join the linked by the backbone of the facilities Secchi group, who could mediate (bar, restaurant, shops, auditorium; between the proposals of the Plan nursery, ski school), lined up on the and the interests of the municipal internal road.” 9. “The volume appears administration. It was a very broken in many pieces, articulated each laborious and tiring period and, other according to an unification intent during my stay, I found myself in [...]; The architecture of Solaria could be conflict with the Junta several times. regarded just a little as ‘brutalist’, in spite It was a trade that I did not belong of the reinforced concrete facades10. ” to, the one of the politician is a short-range mentality: prediction, programming does not know what it Touristic apartments in Cugnana is, politicians only concern actions Verde (Olbia) 1976 (with Loris Macci, that are temporarily within the Piero Paoli) terms of their mandate. It was evident that the industrial area, still “On a hill overlooking the Gulf of of considerable importance, was Cugnana, in the earth of Gallura [Sardinia], undergoing changes: commercial the touristic center to 4000 people, centers began to be established; I consists of apartments, residences, hotels defended the Secchi Plan, which in with commercial and sport facilities and is my opinion contained interesting situated at the edge of a nature park 90 and innovative elements, to the hectares large. unbending. I'm not going to see the The compositional solution is based Prato territory destroyed by on the ground morphology, generating an sacrificing the Sacchi Plan to the angle open and descending to the sea; the interests of the great textile result is an unitary configuration properties. I closed with politics; never again. 8 G. K. Koenig, "Centro alberghiero in Val di Fassa/Holiday centre in the Val di Fassa", L'architettura. Cronache e storia 331 (1983), 337 9 Bianca Ballestrero notes. 10 Fabio Fabbrizzi, Opere e progetti di Scuola Fiorentina 1968-2008, 295

(intentionally alternative to the 'Toscano Group' headed by Giovanni devastating spreading of touristic buildings Michelucci, following the design contest down the coasts of Sardinia) characterised for 'Fabbricato Viaggiatori' (1932); by by a strong identity, accentuated by the time at the center of many plaster facades, painted in the colors of controversies, today an undisputed the earth and the Mediterranean forest ”. monument of modern architecture. The 14 project also included the 'Royal Palace' by Michelucci, destined for the temporary stay and temporary residence Villa in Punta Asfodeli (Olbia) 1978 of the King and the Court, a building with neoclassical stylistic references; “Situated on the seaside, among the from the inside of the Palazzina you can granite rocks and the Mediterranean directly access the 'Royal Binario', the forest, the building tries to fit in the current ‘Binario 16’, without going landscape without camouflaging; dug in through the Travel Factory. The the ground deviates upstream, like a path intervention, which was carried out at of patrol, open downstream with views the 1990 World Football Championships, towards the sea. The facades have a was aimed at connecting the 'Fabbricato covering of dry stone walls, respecting Viaggiatori' with a parking space in local tradition. The top terraces are Piazzale Montelungo, overlooking the connected to the ground through stairs Fortezza Da Basso, in order to decongest wich strongly characterize the the area from vehicle traffic (Fig. 4); architectural composition. ” 14 "The ramp passes the traffic axis and, reached the plane of the station, extends into a large parking space Dwelling complex in Strada in covered by a skylight sloping and Chianti (Florence) 1985-87 - IN ARCH prize delimited to the sides by the tall twin 1989 (with Piero Paoli) towers that support the bridge reticulated beam"14. The features of the “Located in a steep slope area, this project - towers and brickwork - are cooperative housing block of flats is clearly dictated by the site's pre characterised by a double series of parallel existence: the Medicean Fortezza da steps divided by a central gallery and Basso (16th century), the border walls surmounted by some pedestrian bridges, and the railway warehouses (Fig. 5). The wich connect on one side to the road and design was extended to the detail of on the other to the green areas. The brick Piero Castiglioni lighting solutions, with walls enhance the unitary image” 14. recessed luminaires along the ramp walls and ceiling fixtures in the area covered by the skylight; the cotto floring New access to Santa Maria and handrail tailor made, designed by Novella railway station in Florence Adolfo Natalini. Today, after 25 years, (with Gae Aulenti) 1989-90 degradation and neglect have already heavily marked these works. Santa Maria Novella is the central station in Florence and the current buildings were built in the 1930s according to the design of the so-called

Restoration of the dining area referred to the ancient gates of the reception rooms in Santa Maria Novella station”. 14 railway station in Florence (with Gae Aulenti) - 1989-93 Shopping center and culture “This project was born as part of the facilities in Galcetello Nord (Prato) 1995 program of upgrading of the Santa Maria Novella railway station, promoted by the “The target of this project was to create a Florence FS Compartment; it consisted of place for social gathering and sewing up the restoration of the original dining room in the middle of industrial suburbs. The decorated by Ottone Rosai frescos, by key element is the pedestrian tunnel, adding a self service restaurant and the covered by a skylight roof; the tunnel, creation of a new waiting room inside crossing by the whole complex, makes a spaces currently disused.” 14 connection to the main road and to the green hills; many facilities are available down the way: shops at the ground floor, Underpass and urban crossing for private and public services at the upper Lucca railway station (with Gae Aulenti) floor, reachable through a balcony 1991 distribution. An easy plant marked by some emergent elements: the skylight, “This project was part of the supported by the double rows of steel program of upgrading of the railway columns highlights the central tunnel; a station and allowed the connection semicircular structure covers the wide between two parts of the town, previously hall for the railway facilities; the flat separated by the tracks. The brick walls coverings at different levels underline refer to the town walls; the steel beans the building of the supermarket.” 14 and the skylight over the entrance declare its membership to railway architecture.” 14 (Bianca Ballestrero) Enlargement of municipal cemetery in Poggio a Caiano (Prato) 1998

Renovation of the access square to “The facade of the cemetery, by the Leopolda former railway station in time included in a residential area, had Florence (with Gae Aulenti) 1995-98 been completely redesigned; the public space in front of the cemetery had been “The realization of the access square renovated, creating a square with trees intended to anticipate the project of and a parking area.” 14 restoring the former railway station; an entrance space to have rest (110 square metres) wich carries outside the marks of Renovation and Restoration of the interior [a nave 15 metres large and Palazzo Pretorio in Prato for creating the 240 long, with a roof made by scaffold Town Museum with Gae Aulenti (1986- steel structures]. The partition made by 2013) the central steel columns continues and underlines the longitudinal axis creating a “The operation has been only lately huge trellis together with the structures completed (with the interior arrangement on either side. The design of the gate is by Natalini), after a 20 years long way

49 littered with bureaucratic, political and Bibliography financial obstacles. In the original project it was planned to create a big museum pole, Aulenti, Gae and Ballestrero, Bianca, by aggregating to Pretorio Palace the by Paolo Berti. La rampa di accesso a adjacent building of the previous Public Santa Maria Novella dalla Fortezza da Schools, previous jails and Monte dei Basso, in S. Maria Novella 1990. Il restauro Pegni bank but it had been abandoned e le nuove architetture della stazione due to costing reasons; consequently the ferroviaria. Firenze: Alinari, 1990 restoration has been interested only Pretorio Palace and the small next building Aulenti Gae, et al. Il laboratorio di [the Addossato]. Prato / Franco Quadri, Luca Ronconi, Gae Anyway some important issues had Aulenti; fotografie di Marcello Norberth. been saved: the opening from the ground Milano: Ubulibri, 1981 floor to the Bacchino square; the role of ‘hinge’ played by the inner courtyard; the Ballestrero, Bianca et al., by creation of a new square, opened towards Giovannelli, Gianluca. Aree dismesse & Datini Palace by the demolition of the ex riqualificazione urbana: strategie public restrooms; the location of reception progettuali e modelli operativi per il facilities inside the Addossato building. recupero il caso delle aree ex-Breda a Pistoia. Firenze: Alinea, 1997 The project had been preceded by a long time of historical and architectural Gamberini, Italo and Ballestrero analysis and included the renovation of Paoli, Bianca, Siervo De Cresci, Serena. technical installations and structural Ricerca sul rapporto tra comunicazione e 14 works.” territorio: cultura, comunicazione, organizzazione del territorio. Firenze: Medicea, 1976 Invited contest for the new exit of Uffizi Museum in Florence (with Gae Ballestrero Bianca et al.. Da Aulenti) – 1998 immagine a piano: ipotesi di coordinazione per il territorio del Ticino. Firenze: “Our proposal consisted of regular Teorema, 1973 rows of columns, supported by an inclined pavement that linked the exit to the public Quadri, Franco, Aulenti, Gae, street, giving back its continuity previously Ronconi, Luca. Il Laboratorio di Prato / interrupted. A fragmentation of the space Franco Quadri, Luca Ronconi, Gae Aulenti. on different levels would have altered the Photographs by Marcello Norberth. relationship among the museum and the 14 Milano: Ubulibri,1981 surrounding buildings”. Koenig, Giovanni Klaus, "Centro alberghiero in Val di Fassa/Holiday centre in the Val di Fassa", L'architettura. Cronache e storia 331 (1983): 337. Venice: Canal & Stamperia

Koenig, Giovanni Klaus, by Egidio Mucci. Architettura del Novecento: teoria,

50 storia, pratica critica. introduction (MiBAC/PaBAAC). Firenze: Alinea editrice, François Burckhardt; Venice: Marsilio, 2011 1995 Architettura Toscana (website about Margherita, Petranzan: Gae Aulenti. modern and contemporary architecture in Milano: Rizzoli,1996 Tuscany by Fondazione Michelucci): "Stazione Firenze Santa Maria Novella Fabbrizzi, Fabio. Opere e progetti di 1935-2015" (2015); ”Viaggio Scuola Fiorentina 1968-2008. Florence: nell'architettura del '900 in Toscana” Alinea Editrice, 2008 (2015) http://www.architetturatoscana.it. Accessed July 2017. Aleardi, Andrea and Marcetti, Corrado (Fondazione Michelucci). Repertorio delle Architetture Civili di L’architettura in Toscana dal 1945 ad oggi. Firenze (database promoted by Claudio Una guida alla selezione delle opere di Paolini by Palazzo Spinelli no profit rilevante interesse storico - artistico. With Association) the collaboration of Alessandra Vittorini http://www.palazzospinelli.org/architettur e/. Accessed July 2017.

Maria Teresa Parpagliolo: The Kābul Experience 1970-1972

Lucia Krasovec Lucas an innovative spatial qualities of the city. Parpagliolo well explained her idea of

garden architecture, thus affecting the Maria Teresa Parpagliolo Shepard, readers and professionals on this issue born in Rome (1903–1974), approaches then underdeveloped in Italy, highlighting from the beginning of his carrier in an the fact that the garden and the landscape innovative way to architecture, gardening are part of the same picture. For and landscape issues: she was the first Parpagliolo, this was the central point in Italian woman landscape architect. She the cultural debate in the twentieth participated in international conferences century. of European landscape architects (Paris In her first part of professional 1937, Berlin 1938), and contributed experience, Parpagliolo’s communication regular articles for specialist magazines skills activated a break with tradition to such as Domus, Il giardino fiorito, experiment new forms in garden design, Landscape and Garden, Journal of the parkways and community gardens, as well Institute of Landscape Architects. In 1938, as she contributed as a pioneer to she joined the planning team for the establish the landscape architecture as a Esposizione Universale in Rome (E42), and new specific discipline. in 1940 became head of the exhibition’s As her European colleagues, Ufficio Parchi e Giardini. In 1946 Parpagliolo Shephard was involved in the Parpagliolo married Ronald Shephard, and exploration of new ideas, through a strong moved to London starting to work on innovative research of materials and projects with Sylvia Crowe (1901–1997). construction techniques, supporting the From 1950, with Frank Clark (1902–1971) Modern Movement in landscape she designed for the Festival of Britain and architecture. the grounds of several primary schools in During the sixties, she designed two the south of London. In 1954, the Società very interesting project: the patio of the of Generale Immobiliare commissioned her RAI Headquarters and the park of the many projects for private and public Cavalieri Hilton Holtel, both in Rome. As gardens, parks and open spaces. for the first, it reveals the international In Parpagliolo’s idealist vision, the experience of Parpagliolo Shephard and healthy landscape consisted of functional how she was opened to experiments and natural systems and integrated social receptive to new trends in landscape communities, and it provided the cultural design: the geometrical organisation of meanings to support human life: plants and paths highlights the influence landscape architecture is a work of of Japanese gardens, which had a synthesis. The innovative idea of domestic substantial interest from the members of gardens and parks was that of a natural ILA, and Parpagliolo’s endeavours to landscape, where beautiful and functional employ cross-cultural references and green scenography becomes an aesthetic contemporary design in her works. The expression of practical land-use, looking to second one, it is characterized by a

52 serpentine drive, now the trade entrance, European powers, especially for her two which snaked up through the grounds to traditional areas of interest, Europe and the entrance circle, and two artificial hills Mediterranean area. In such an on the top: allowing a quieter experience unpromising situation, it is rather on the terraces and rooms looking over surprising that the Italian Ministry of the gardens and city, the new construction Foreign Affairs was already making plans camouflages itself into the green and the for a comeback in the middle-east. At Monte Mario skyline. time, Italy was a “clay vessel” among iron In her introduction to the report on pots and therefore great prudence was Bāgh-I Bābur, Maria Teresa Parpagliolo required in any move but, at the same Shephard wrote that the place is “to-day time, Italy should not underestimate her not only a place for pilgrimage to the chances. Emperor’s tomb, but it is also one of the The first step was the simplest: public parks of Kābul. This double aspect sending representatives to the Arab explains why Afghan Authorities were countries, establishing contacts with the anxiuous to restore the site, not only as a local leaders and trying to understand shrine, but also as an added amenity for what was happening. Pietro Quaroni the benefit of the growing population of (1898-1971), brother of the architect the town.”1 It was 1972, and few years Ludovico, one of the ablest Italian before the Italian Archeaological Mission, diplomats, added a few finishing touches sponsored by the Institute for the Middle and explained that liabilities could become and Far East (IsMEO), restored the Shāh- assests, provided one was clever and Jahān’s Mosque. At time, prof. Giuseppe daring. He was also president of RAI from Tucci, President of the institute, would 1964 to 1969, and it is for sure that he met started the complete restoration of the Parpagliolo when she designed the patio whole site and he was suggested from De of the Headquarter building. Angelis d’Ossat to contact Parpagliolo When Parpagliolo Shephard went in because she had already been asked twice Kābul to see the Bāgh-I Bābur, in October by the Rome International Centre of 1970, it was also a great occasion for Italy: Unesco to give lectures on the restoration she was going to lose her colonies, of ancient gardens. nevertheless she could play whatever In 1945, when war in Europe had cards she had by establishing economic just ended, Italy’s position on the and cultural ties with these countries, international scene was, to put it mildly, forging new relationships and new extremely uncertain2. As a former enemy foundations on which to build, in time, a and a too recent co-belligerent of the real political role. winners, Italy had enormous problems to Parpagliolo Shephard met a new solve and, apparently, very little hope of country that was looking to progress and taking her place again among the imitating the Europe and USA. She noted that the site of the Bāgh-I Bābur was very 1 Maria Teresa Parpagliolo Shephard, Kābul: much changed and how it had lost its Bāgh-I Bābur, a Project and a Research into the original character through many Possibilities of a Complete Reconstruction (Rome: alterations: the only authentic features of IsMEO, 1972), 1. the ancient Moghul garden where the 2 Maria Grazia Enardu, A different role for Europe in the Middle East: Italy’s experience, (A. Emperor’s grave and those of some of his Varsori editor, Europe 1945-1990, Palgrave relatives, the Shāh-Jahān’s Mosque, and Macmillian, a division of Macmillian Pubishers the three remaining very old chenars. But Limited, 1995), 198-199.

53 the most striking impression was given by arrangement, but it derived also from the the total lack of water: the consequences Paradise garden of the Koran. The ground was a derelict dusty site where older trees being divided into eight terraces with the were dying, and newer one struggled to four rivers flowing crossways through keep alive. As described in the schetch of them, forming a pool sometimes very the ideal reconstruction of a garden of large in the middle, and other pools Samarkand, from Wilber’s research based receiving the waterfalls gushing from one primarly on accounts and drawings by level to the other. All these pools were European visitors and some standing square in shape, full to the brim, and jets remains, the pavillion and palace were of water by gravety spouted up into the placed on the central hill, the garden had air so high that the falling sprays an enclosed geometrical layout, avenues resembled masses of diamonds. with trees planted “à la ligne”, channels of Architecturally, these gardens were very waters and square pools on two sides3. simple, but enclosed by serrated Bābur in his lifetime planted and battlements, they created, in the murmur built several gardens at Kābul or in its of the running streams, the spalsh of the sourroundings, and all belong to the jets, the sweet smelling herbs and rose Persian garden tradition that he saw at bushes, the trees, willows, planes, Samarkand and Heart. In the past, Bāgh-I cypresses, a truly peaceful paradise, shut Bābur had all the elements of a Persian out from the turmoils of the ever changing enclosed paradise: the shady trees, the world of conquest and battles. channels of water and the jet springing When the twenty years old Bābur out of the pools, the awnings and tents, (1483-1530), the first Mughal emperor, the platforms where to erect them and descended from the mountains of the where to spread the carpets to sit upon, Hindu Kush5, he took with him the the Pavillion in the centre and the everlasting memory of Samarkand. Being magnificient gate at its entrance. All these from the beginning not only as a features were composed on a strictly conquering chief6, but also as a man of geometrical pattern on sloping ground, culture, he knew that he was bringing into the central axis enhanced by canals a new land, new ideas, a new culture, a flowing from terrace to terrace with new civilized way of life. As a modern waterfalls into the larger pools generally in garden lover he prides himself to have front of a Pavillion. The geometrical and brought the Ālū-bālū, the wild cherry of axial lay-out was still that of the Hellenistic the north into Kābul, and he had always a tradition of earlier times, but taken over keen perception of the essential elements by the Mohammedans in their conquests of a climate, a region, a landscape7. through Asia Minor4. The need of irrigation dictated the whole plan and 5 It was through the high passes of the Hindu Kush, a great mountain system of Central Asia extending c. 500 mi west form the Pamir Knot 3 The schetch probably represents the Gul- into the nord east Afghanistan and Pakistan, that Bāgh or Rose garden, based on the descriptions of invaders from central Asia brought their Indo- Ruy Gonzales and published in D.N. Wilber, Persian European language. The name derives from the Gardens and Garden Pavillions, (Rutland, Vermont, Arabic for “Mountains of India”. 1962. Washington, D.C., 1979), 61. 6 Babur was the direct descendant of 4 The new conquerors in Asia Minor Turco-Mongol conqueror Timūr Barlas (1336-1405) evolved their own style on preceding gardens. The trough his faher, and also a descendant of Genghiz influences were from Mesopotamia, Iran, Rome Khān (1162-1227) trough his mother. and North Africa. See: E. Hyams, A history of 7 C.M. Villiers Stuart, (London: Gardens of gardens and gardening, London, 1971, Ch. 6. the Great Mughals, 1931), 94.

The natural landscape was central to enclosure and India, where its flourished the life of Bābur’s court, as he had an into the most magnificient achievements acute eye for natural beauty8. When he absorbing also local trends and ideals. At moved to India, to remind himself of the the end of the seventeenth century, lands he had left behind, Bābur began a European travellers had discovered China process of creating exquisite gardens in and a new philosophy of life and its every palace and province, where he relation to the physical world9. This would often sit shaded from the fierce change in feelings and objectives was Indian sun. He tried as far as was possible promoted by innumerable descriptions of to recreate the gardens of Kabul, which he travellers, ambassadors and missions believed were the most beautiful in the visiting China. This conception was based world. Almost thirty pages of Babur's on a different outlook, more on visual memoirs are taken up describing perpceptions of nature in its own rights, the Fauna and Flora of his Hindustan. and less on mathematical certainties. The Though he wished to be buried in his outside space, the gardens, was planned favourite garden in Kabul, first he was not on a relation of determined numbers, buried in a Mausoleum in Agra and only but more on the effect on the eye of the nine years later in Kabul, where is his beholder of first planes, niddle planes and tomb on which is the following inscription background: the pictorial qualities of a in Persian: “If there is a paradise on earth, natural landscape. This new idea arriving it is this, it is this, it is this”. Among his in Europe while the gardens in the great successors, both Jahangir (1569-1627) and manner of Louis XIV were reaching their Shah Jahan (1592-1666) commissioned utmost possibilities at Versailles, Marly, St. works on this site, in honour of Bābur. Cloud and St. Germain, created in the Accounts of nineteenth century realm of ideas a complete cesura, which travellers suggest that the garden started in England a new development, subsequently fell into disrepair, and its the English Landscape Park, and became in perimeter walls were reportedly damaged Europe le Jardin Anglo-Chinois of the in an earthquake in 1842. Repairs were eighteenth century. In Europe, it led to carried out at the turn of the century, gardens of the utmost romanticism during the reign of Amir Abdur Rahman loosing, in the research for sentiments, Khan (1844-1901), who constructed a the real balance of what belongs to nature complex for use by his family within the and what derives from man in disrupting garden. the logical sequence of shapes and forms. The Parpagliolo’s reasearch on the The garden of Babūr was modified origins of the Kābul gardens wished to several times, and the whole conception well understand the evolution of the of the pools, the pathways and the central gardens since the Moghul’s times, parterre became European instead of showing how Bābur bringing Persian ideals Islamic. Further transformations took into the country, became a starting point, place during the twentieth century, when a bridge between the Hellenistic Islamic European-style elements were introduced tradition of the geometrical irrigated into the landscape and a swimming pool and greenhouse were built on an upper

8 Bābur describes several gardens in his memoirs, as in The Babur Nama, (translation of J. 9 Charles Masson, (London: Narrative of Leyden and W. Erskin, London and Edinburgh, various journeys in Belochistan, Afghanistan, the 1826), and The Memoirs of Babur, (translated by Panjab and Kalet during a residence in those A.S. Beveridge, London, 1917-21). countries, 4 voll., 1844).

55 terrace. A very serious problem for the The point she considered in the garden was always related to his project, included the water and the maintenance and water supply. After a reafforastation of the site that were the journey in 1925, Pernot said that in the real problem to solve, were the later garden “havoc has been perpetrated additions like the Queen’s Palace and the amongst the trees, (…) of the 15 terraces, Pavillion: they have a great weight in the which had been described by travellers in general composition, so with the tombs rapturous words, there are only some and the Mosque they are the main fragments of canals in ruins and a few old strucutral elements which had to be trees”10. restored and rendered functional for the In the light of the historical research modern needs of the Kābul citizens. The and of the state of garden in 1970, same it was to be considered for the Parpagliolo Shephard understood the swimmingpool and the upper reservoir, evident increasing decay of the site: only though less important in the general plan. some years before, for example, it was Even if they were derelict and incongrous, possible to see better the parterre, the Parpagliolo Shephard was sure that they still existing walls of the Karavanserai at must become an integral part of the the bottom, and more trees. At her time, design. By these considerations, most of the beds of the central parterre Parpagliolo presented two solutions. were missing, and the Karavanserai was The first plan had an open parterre only present in its outer walls. Even the in front of the pavillion, where the water trees were far less, most still standing but channel, the pools and the terracing dead, and mulberry seedlings, historically correspond to the description of the associated with beauty, had sprung here Badshah Nama. The alternative proposal and there. She did, helped for drawings by was a reconstruction based on the Elena Martini (1936-2015), an accurate descriptions of the nineteenth century survey showing the few traces of the past travellers and on the detailed description and the situation in 1970, for the project of Charles Masson, when seen in 1838: she aimed to start a complete this proiect gives more importance to the reconstruction of a lost environment, and Avenue and the presence of the to bring back the Bāgh-I Bābur to its magnificient trees, as showed in the former splendours. Only by bringing back section. Observing the site during the the grove of magnificent trees, the survey, she had also analyzed several murmur of water falling from terrace to aspects as canals, waterfalls and pools, terrace it may hope to achieve that expecially from the aerial photograph of something which made Bābur choose this the Afghan Autorities. Parpagliolo site as his last resting place. For Shephard also discovered the foundations Parpagliolo this approach would also of a wall which length was about 100 m benefit the tradition, transforming the running parallel to the central parterre on garden in a place for pilgrimage and a the right of it looking up towards the holiday resort for the people of Kābul, as it pavillion. There were, under the actual has been so from times immemorial11. level, in the centre of the lower square and in front of the Karavanserai, rests of foundations probably of a pool. She

10 M. Pernot, Afghanistan, (Paris: tought that if this will be proved, than L’inquietude de l’orient: en Asie Musulmane, Shāh-Jahān’s canal, pools and waterfalls Hachette, 1927, 24). were on the central axis of the modern 11 C. Masson, op. cit. Vol. II, 241

56 parterre. At time, there were still people descriptions and the orders given in the in Kābul who remembered from their past. But, she concluded, only a systematic youth three square pools: one below, one and more detailed search will give the in the middle, one on the terrace right answer on which to made a proper immediately under the Pavilion. And this plan of restoration. may be confirmed by the photograph of In his work, Parpagliolo Shephard Major Cleveland’s residence in the explained the primary elements to take in Pavillion. account for the design of the But even so, doubts still remained reconstruction of the place, as: where to for two reasons: what it possible that the find water; the rehabilitation of Queen’s lay of the land in older times was on a Palace, in that times it belonged to the different angle to the modern one? Most Afghan Army as a depot and storage place, descriptions speak of the waterfall as with new destinations as Museum, beside the Mosque, not below it? Cultural Centre, halls for concerts and Parpagliolo Shephard tried to reconstruct conferences, etc; keep as a separate graphically the different possibilities, enclosure from the rest of the garden of about the position of the canal: starting the Shrine – Mosque and Tombs, in the from the 12th terrace beside the Mosque; same spirit of the Giardini Segreti of the a cascade beside the Mosque, parallel to Renaissance; the Entrance Gate and the the direction of the Mecca; in the central Karavanserai to reconstruct as a square of the line to the Mecca direction (similar patio open towards the cascades. The to present situation); canals of water squallor of the garden, wrote Parpagliolo, derived from the tank were conducted depends not only on the lack of water and parallel to the course of the road, the of trees, but also on the fact there are no water falling in cascades over the descent constructive lines to hold toghether the of several terraces (as in the description of whole composition, expecially from the Charles Masson in 1832-38). In the last 10th terrace downwards. description we have: the Avenue ran along The boundary wall should be the waterfalls, but was separated from redesigned, at least the one at the bottom them by lines of cypress trees, so that the near the Karavanserai. In the proposed ascent was on the right of cascades; the reconstruction of the garden, she tank was in the middle of the chenars at introduced even a swimming-pool and a the top and therefore the waterfalls were sport-grounds that should be shut away on the central line of the grounds. Though from the rest of the garden by a screen of it is not the symmetrical lay-out one would trees and shrubs, to give fun and leisure to expect from a garden so close to the the citizens of Kabul. About planting, Persian tradition, yet the whole Parpagliolo Shephard said that it was a asymmetry gives a perfectly balanced question of a proper reafforestation to composition so well adapted to the site, bring back, in time, to the Bāgh-I Bābur to that Parpagliolo Shephard presented it as that state of venerable grove all visitors of an alternative for a possible restoration the nineteenth century speak of. The and evidently as a less expensive one. She description they give of the beauty of the considered that the four attempted trees, their masses, the variety of the reconstructions has been done to clear as flowering shrubs is rapturous. In the much as possible the conflicting factors replanting of the garden therefore, the that beset in this case, where the situation double aspect of tall shady trees (grove) of her times were so different from the and of flowering ahrubs and fruit trees has

57 to be kept in mind. The rose, expecially, interpretation centre and other facilities. was so important in the Persian world of Archaeological excavations in 2004–05 gardens that gul meaning rose, also means revealed sections of a marble-lined water a garden, and this is probably the reason channel, yet discovered by Parpagliolo of the Bābur’s poetic ideal to converte the Shephard, and a series of water tanks world into a rose garden, as for plant very along the central axis, which provided the many gardens. basis for the design and reconstruction of Parpagliolo Shephard also aimed to a system that again allows water to flow add to the trees, the flowers of the land in the length of the centre of the garden, as which Bābur delighted but, unfortunately, it did in Babur’s time. The landscaping she became seriously ill in 1972, and she aims to restore the character of the died after two years. original garden, through the For this reason, she could never reintroduction of flowing water and the begin to develop and realize her project. grading of adjoining terraces that have By the time fighting broke out in been replanted as distinct orchards. Stone Kābul in 1993–94, the character of Bagh-I- pathways and stairs have been laid on Bābur was much altered and the site was either side of the central axis, which is in a poor state of repair. Finally, in 2002 flanked by an avenue of plane trees, an agreement for the rehabilitation of the interspersed with pomegranates, apricots, eleven-hectare garden was signed apples, cherries and peaches. Outside this between the Aga Khan Development zone, the terraces have been planted with Network (AKDN) and the Transitional mulberry, apricot, fig and almond trees, Afghan Administration. In parallel with with copses of walnut along the clearance of remaining unexploded reconstructed perimeter walls. ordinance, work began in 2003 on The Parpagliolo Shephard’s work conservation of Babur’s grave enclosure, was probably the first project of which had been significantly altered over renovation of a such important historical time. Based on marble fragments found in garden in Middle East. At the same time, it the grave area, it was then possible to was probably even the first scientific erect a replica of the marble enclosure approach to a survey, considering a lot of around Bābur’s grave, inside the walled different topics and levels of knowledg: area. The war-damaged marble mosque history, literature, religion, geography, dedicated by Shah Jahan in 1675 was re- politic aspect, measures, that she has roofed with lime mortar and cracked displayed in drawings and sketches, with a marble elements were replaced, while the lot of informations, not only metric but mihrab wall was refaced with marble in also qualitative and useful to become a 2004. Among other historic buildings proper project for the reconstruction. subsequently restored were the The study and the proposal of nineteenth-century Garden Pavilion and Parpagliolo Shephard was only a the Queen’s Palace, both now in use for beginning, as she wrote: public functions. Excavations in the “it needs tac-taste and deep western end of the garden in 2003 knowledge in all fields: architecture, revealed stone foundations of a archaelogy, and specialized techniques, a seventeenth century gateway, around team of experts is needed. “Paradise is the which was constructed a Karavanserai eternal abode of Bābur Bādshāh” is complex, using traditional forms and written on his tomb. Befitting his memory techniques, which now houses an the place of his everlasting rest, should

58 gradually become again the Paradise on Second World war: Part 1, January 1981, earth he loved”. 183-212.

Angus Hamilton, Afghanistan, Vol. 18 (Classic Reprint), General Books, Bibliography London, 2000.

Bābur, The Baburnama, Memoirs of Lucia Krasovec Lucas, Modern Babur, Prince and Emperor, edited and Women in (Modern) Architecture: Some translated by Wheeler M. Thackston, New Cases (Genesis of a Modern Lifestyle), in York: Oxford University Press, 2002. Women Designers, Craftswomen, Architects and Engineers between 1918 Babur’s Garden Rehabilitation and 1945, MoMoWo, 2017, doi: Framework, Published by AKTC/HCSP with 10.3986/momowo2013420208. the Departement of Historic Monuments of Information and Culture, and Kabul Eric Newby, A Short Walk in the Municipality Kabul, Afghanstinan, January, Hindu Kush, HarperPress, 2010 (first 2004. edition 1958).

Roberta Bin, Amanullah Khan e le Pietro Quaroni, Valigia diplomatica, Relazioni Internazionali con l’Italia, Tesi di ed. Garzanti, Milano, 1956 laurea del Corso di laurea Magistrale in Relazioni Internazionali Comparate _ May Schinasi, Kabul: A History 1773- International Relations, relatori prof. 1948, translated by R. D. McChesney, Brill, Antonio Trampus, prof. Duccio Basosi, Leiden-Boston, 2017. Università Cà Foscari, Venezia, AA 2013- 14. George Passman Tate, The Kingdom of Afghanistan: A Historical Sketch, Egidio Caspani, Ernesto Cagnacci, Bombay, Calcutta, “Times of India”, first Afghanistan crocevia dell’Asia, Vallardi publication 1911. ed., Milano, 1951. Donald N. Wilber, The Timurid Milan Hauner, One Man against the Court: Life in gardens and Tents, Iran 17, Rmpire. The Faqir of Ipi and the British in 1979. Central Asia on the Eve of and during the Second World War, in Journal of www.AKDN.org/ Contemporary History, Vol. 16, N.1, the

RESEARCH AND INDUSTRIES

An Architectural Scanning: Women Abundance between 1969 and 1989

Beste Sabir

‘… The line it is drawn. The curse it is 1.Societal and Political Background from cast. The slow one now, will later be fast. 1969 to 1989 As the present now, will later be past. The order is rapidly fading and the first one Environmental catastrophes started now will later be last. For the times, they in 1960s and Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring1 are a-changing.’ affected American public consciousness in a deep level. People started to think Bob Dylan broadly about the connection of their environment with ecology, industry and technology and started to link the Introduction destruction of modern developments with the nature. Beginning of modern From 1969 to 1989, the world faced environmentalism blossomed as with many societal and politic breakpoints environmental activists encouraged that reflected to urban life and people to raise the public awareness and architecture. Undoubtedly, practicing as a to support environmental issues such as; woman architect in these intense times of human waste, pollution, protection. They change was a challenging responsibility. used the methods of sit-ins, events, Aura of the period reflected directly to city students’ silent protests, raising funds for culture and architectural productions. In the cleanup and protection of the earth. this paper, firstly, the societal changes will Many acts have been created in late 1960s be discussed; the main realm and key and 1970s to protect the nature. In points of the period will be clarified. Later, addition, Buddhism and eastern in the light of keywords such as; socialism, philosophies led to environmental eco-socialism, collectivism, movements. 1960s generated ideas about environmentalism and nature, women recycling and protecting the environment pioneers and architects who produced that we consider today.1950s people were with these perspectives will be urged to be the same and they were mentioned. Their major projects, efforts staying with the crowd. As the 1960s and struggles will be linked to the main counter culture grew; fashion, music, arts societal conditions and reflections of the and many social levels of the society period. changed, they developed essential new

1 Silent Spring provoked conservationists, ecologists, biologists, social critics, reformers, and organic farmers to join in the American environmental movement and the book helped to

transform the previous and insufficient conservation movement into more comprehensive and ecologically informed environmentalism. Environmental and Green movements raised through worldwide.

61 values influenced by spiritual experiences principles of architectural design and such as Zen Buddhism, socialism2 and urban planning in the United States for the environmentalism. The New Left last century. An implicit rather than contributed peaceful protests like sticking explicit principle for the conservative and flowers into the soldier’s gun as these male-dominated design professions, it will practices called non-violent civil not be found stated in large type in disobedience3. textbooks on land use. It has generated Social progressive values that began much less debate than the other in 1960s kept on growing in 1970s. The organizing principles of the contemporary hippie culture started in the latter half of American city in an era of monopoly the 1960s. Large amount of protests capitalism, which include the ravaging began to grow with the Vietnam War4, pressure of private land development, the people that were opposed to war they fetishist dependence on millions of private were called hippies, anarchists. After automobiles, and the wasteful use of nuclear meltdown in 1979, hundreds of energy. However, women have rejected thousand people protested nuclear power this dogma and entered the paid labour in New York. In 1970 people started to force in larger and larger numbers. realize the limits of nature more deeply, Dwellings, neighbourhoods and cities apart from the first Earth Day in 1970, designed for homebound women Mohandas Gandhi in India organized constrain women physically, socially, and people to hug trees5. We may also call this economically. Acute frustration occurs period as environmental revolution and an when women defy these constraints to alternative way of activism. spend all or part of the work day in the With the second wave feminism6, paid labour force. I contend that the only people started to talk about gender issues, remedy for this situation is to develop a sexuality, workplace, reproductive rights, new paradigm of the home, the and legal inequalities. Many of these neighbourhood, and the city; to begin to protests ended with some changes such as describe the physical, social, and divorce law, integration of women to economic design of a human settlement sports activities, women’s shelters etc.7 that would support, rather than restrict, “‘A woman's place is in the home’ the activities of employed women and has been one of the most important their families.” (Hayden, 1980) As Hayden mentions about developing new paradigms that can link employed women 2 The New Left was a social activist group in 1960s wanted to reference Marxist movements to everyday life. Thus, 60s and 70s represented mostly by students’ democratic movements support these ideas, and society. women gains lot of rights in their daily 3 These practices influenced by Herbert lives especially in second wave of Marcuse, founder of the New Left. feminism. 4 US bombed North Vietnam, Cambodia and Lao. The protests, against to the nuclear 5 Tree hugger term coming from this event. arms continued in 1980s. In the late 80s 6 First wave feminism was focusing on legal cold war came to an end. 1980s issues like the right to vote. movements were less vibrant and small 7 Despina Stratigakos, “Architecture’s New scaled than 1960s, even the protest music Feminist Activism Tackles the Profession’s Gender- Bias”, of the sixties had nothing on the music of http://www.metropolismag.com/architecture/arch the 80s. itecture-new-feminist-activism-tackles-profession- gender-bias/, (accessed September 5, 2017).

2. An Architectural Scanning 2.1 Yasmeen Lari and Her Collectivist Approach Parallel to socio-economic and technological changes all over the world, Yasmeen Lari (1941, Pakistan) is the people started to feel the urge of nature. first woman architect of her country. After In this paper, it is tried to be scanned the receiving her architectural degree from period between 1969 to 1989 with the Oxford Brookes University in 1963, she lenses of socialism, environmentalism aimed to create solutions for Pakistan’s through the projects of women pioneers socio-physical conditions. She was from all over the world. The image operating in a place that is industrially connects the women architects that this less-developed, with poverty, booming paper will discuss, with their urban centres also, with major disasters. characteristics, conditions and social These conditions were making her work structures related to their countries. more challenging. During her life, she In 1364 Christine de Pizan, a French faced with many challenging conditions writer wrote a book in Venice about due to practicing as a woman architect in women in society and started dreaming the male dominated world. Especially about how a city life should be for the workers at the construction sites was a women. Edward Soja (1996) mentions challenging issue for her. about this book of Pizan in Third Space8 Pakistan’s socio-political background and expresses that it has been started to during her period shows that, there was be discussed the situation of women in not a stable condition in the country. Free society not only in modern times, but even elections have been held in 1971 to in 1364. establish a democratic government. By Women began to be accepted to that time, the country had been under Architectural Studies in 1870s. Cincinnati military rule for thirteen of its twenty-five Enquirer was recommending in an article years of existence. Also, Pakistan was in 1880 for the women to use their skills involved in war with India, clearing the on improving kitchens, servants’ rooms way for the establishment of Bangladesh and closets. This male dominant strategy from 1965 to 1970s. Thus, during an continued to be promoted for a century, unstable and patriarchal condition in her until the gender movements followed by country, Lari managed to open herself a the legal and institutional reforms of space for an inspiring career. 1970s. Briefly, we can call three waves She established Lari Associates, that supports the women in architecture Architects and Urban Designers in 1964 area. First wave was in 19th century, and took on the challenges as an architect second one in 1970s and third wave dealing with issues in an industrially less continued into the 1990s.9 developed country – from mud buildings, low-income housing and improvements in spontaneous settlements to state of the art buildings. She worked there until 2000, designing many state-of-the-art buildings for the upper class while simultaneously working to create low-income housing and 8 E. Soja, 1996, Third Space 9 vernacular technologies for lower classes. http://www.metropolismag.com/architecture/arch She was elected Member of Royal itecture-new-feminist-activism-tackles-profession- Institute of British Architects (RIBA) in gender-bias/

1969, as President of Institute of an enclosed courtyard; second, one Architects Pakistan (IAP) and first consists of two rooms, a veranda, and a chairperson of Pakistan Council of courtyard. In both cases, the kitchen forms Architects and Town Planners. She has an enclosure within the veranda, the WC, always had an interest on cultural heritage and bath open onto the courtyard. preservation thus, she founded the non- Materials are produced locally such as: profit, humanitarian Heritage Foundation Reinforced concrete cast in site, wooden of Pakistan with her husband in 1980 for window frames. All materials are to document and conserve the traditional produced locally, except steel, which is and historic environment of Pakistan’s imported, and rolled locally. diverse architecture and art. Lari’s aim has never been ended up with doing many projects, but being able to do different kinds of “things”. Lari 2.2 Sheila Sri Prakash and Social practiced architecture with the lenses of Responsibility social design and humanitarian perspective and her designs usually have Sri Prakash (1955, India) graduated driven by the users of the buildings. As she from Architecture & Planning Department states, she has been influenced mostly by of Anna University in 1977. After Egyptian architect Hasan Fathy and Le graduation, she founded Shilpa Architects Corbusier. One of her early achievements in 1979. Sri Prakash’s work of architecture includes the study of slums and squatter has always been focusing on settlements of Karachi, her important environmental-friendly designs with socio- projects included housings, such as the economically sensitive consciousness. She Anguri Bagh Housing (1978), Taj Mahal introduced vernacular architecture and Hotel (1981), the Finance and Trade indo-centric design techniques to her Center (1989), and the Pakistan State Oil works. In her understanding, indo-centric House (1991) in Karachi. Especially one of design evolves from empirical her publications called “Slums and understanding of our culture, family Squatter Settlements - Their Role and values and lifestyle and these are crucial Improvement Strategy” supports her issues for her sensitive understanding on collectivist ideas and projects. design process. In Anguri Bagh Housing project Socio-political background of India in (1978) that won The Aga Khan Award for that period was male dominated in every Architecture, she built it with the cheapest level. Riots between Hindus and Muslims local bricks in Karachi while still were going on; in 1984, assassination of maintaining the quality of the building. the Prime Minister Gandhi made the The projects attempt to provide large confusion worst and chaotic. In 1971 India number of low-cost, one- and two-room entered to a war with Pakistan for the housing units based on the living pattern independence of Bangladesh. IMF of the urban poor of Lahore. 787 low-cost programs and industrial and agricultural dwelling units arranged in 14 clusters of developments during the 1980s, made single, two and three-storey blocks some impact on the wellbeing of the providing large number of low-cost one people and urbanization of the cities. She and two room housing units for the urban had many obstacles during her practices in poor of Lahore, Pakistan. First category male-dominated profession. It is to say, consists of a room, a covered veranda, and

64 there was a chaotic and unstable period to movements’ ecological concerns. She practice as a woman architect. produced in an interdisciplinary area of Prakash has researched on the architecture, urbanism, art, land art and impacts of space design and planning on supported these works by researching on society and she called this field as science, philosophy, geography and “spaciology”. She applied this concept to mathematics. She is the author of six healthcare and the leisure, wellness and books and is featured in numerous other hospitality industry, linking the built publications on a wide range of subjects in environment to human behaviour through art and the environment. sociology, urban design, architecture and Wheatfield - A Confrontation: sociology. Basically, spaciology was tracing Battery Park Landfill (1982) in Downtown how the space design influences society Manhattan is her best-known work which and how it creates linkages between has been created during a four-month architecture practices and our period in the spring and summer of 1982 environmental perception. She was always when Denes, with the support of the connected to performing arts as a Public Art Fund, planted a field of golden Bharatanatyam dancer, musician, sculptor. wheat on two acres of rubble-strewn Dance has influenced Sheila’s approach to landfill near Wall Street and the World architecture, as architecture and dance Trade Centre in lower Manhattan (now are both relying on lines, rhythm and the site of Battery Park City and the World harmony within a space. 1987 was the Financial Centre). The work is criticizing year of shelter for shelter less as World the massive urbanization tendencies and Bank and HUDCO announced, and with focusing on nature in the cities. It is one of invitation she designed an award-winning the first examples as an environmental art low-cost home. that relates to urbanization.

2.3 Agnes Denes and Her Environmental 2.4 Maya Lin’s Tranquil and Minimal Art Approach

Agnes (1931, Hungary) is a Maya Lin (1949, China), one of the Hungarian born American conceptual most important public artists, studied artist working in a wide range. Agnes Bachelor of Arts degree in 1981 and Denes was raised in Sweden and educated a Master of Architecture degree in 1986 at in the United States. She produced Yale University. Lin’s art and architecture complex diagrams (which she expresses as inspired from environment and landscape, visual philosophy), sculptures and she is mapping socio-spatial relations in installations mainly constructed on the urban environment. She takes micro environmental issues. She is a pioneer of and macro views of the earth, sonar several art movements focusing on resonance scans, aerial and satellite science, linguistics, music, history, poetry, mapping devices and translates that philosophy and engaging her works with information into sculptures, drawings and socio-politic ideas of her time. environmental installations. She produces She has reflected the socio-political projects that focus on environmental background of her time with her works, as issues with social responsibility and for the a pioneer of environmental art, she usage of sources in a sustainable manner expressed with her works the 1968 with an artist awareness. These works

65 address how we respond and relate our pollution problems as most of the post- environment. She also links her works to industrial societies face through. history, time, language and boundaries (http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/timelines/j between two and three-dimensional apan_modern_timeline.htm). space. These works have strong Technological and industrial growth environmental messages crossing beyond separate people from nature and effects the aesthetic preferences. Lin’s works the urbanization models in cities. Some have been effected by the social and group of people started to choose the new environmental issues of her period. They nature but also after this big gap between simply show how nature can be nature and people, some architects incorporated in the urban forms and their started to develop and connect house and development and for the advantage of building forms reconnected with ecology, industry and common health. environment. They started to argue the Lin’s works bring awareness to minimal relationship with society and nature. thoughts and texturally rich minimalism As cartoon sector started to grow, with the usage of simple, organic and concept of “second/new nature” started tranquil forms and flows -making a place to be discussed. This new nature - for individuals within the landscape. including cars, televisions, computers, She won a public design competition machines- opposing the real nature for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial (1980- started to affect the urbanization and 82) in Washington, D.C during her architecture models in a way of undergraduate studies, with her winning postmodern, hi-tech and next-modern proposal, she designed a V-shaped wall of movements. Society started to relate black stone etched with the names of technology to every detail of the urban 58,000 dead soldiers. Visitor’s reflection life. can be seen with engraved names in Contrary with these tendencies, building façade, this effect brings past and Hasegawa (1941, Japan) used technology present together in one space. The to redesign and implement the nature to building design has a rich creative process developing cities of Japan. By using the in the background, full of sketches linking real nature patterns, she tried to combine users and landscape, past and present architectural design with technologic times to each other. developments and with men made nature. Thus, we may see in her works green roofs and facades, insulated pools in the centre 2.5. Itsuko Hasegawa and Her Naturalist of the cities, organic forms dedicated to Approach in Post-war Japan nature and new topographies. In Byhouse project (1985, Tokyo) she combines the From 1945 to 1960s Japan’s post- nature with the building façade by using war atmosphere effected many socio- technologic developments of the time. physical sides of everyday life. From the sixties through the mid-eighties politics She describes one of her sensitive were more stable. Liberal Democratic project called Shonandai Culture Center Party maintained a solid majority and (1990, Tokyo) with the words ‘back to the economy started to grow in seventies nature by a different route’10. She especially in heavy industry sector and in advanced technology. Parallel to these 10 An article by Hasegawa, Architects’ events, country started to face with Journal, vol.192, no.12, September 1990 / p.56-59, ‘Back to nature by a different route’

66 designed this space as Tokyo’s leisure and became the first woman to be elected a communal life center as the city needed full professor at Harvard and MIT and was this function abundantly. This project the first woman to be elected president of holds significant communication and the AA and to sit on the RIBA council. feedbacks from the habitants. Also, the Dolores Hayden, Susana Torre and Ada concept ‘architecture as the second Louise Huxtable produced on criticism and nature’ guides the design in theoretic approaches. They produced environmental and socialist ways. Marble theories and books on gender issues, shell and glass facades comes together feminist designs, ethnicity and urban with the silver and metal trees by a history. Some of Hayden’s books in our manmade river in between. The landscape scanning period: Seven American Utopias: that she designed for the space is called as The Architecture of Communitarian a special space that we can hear the Socialism, 1790–1975 (1976); The Grand enchanting music of the universe. Domestic Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighborhoods, and Cities (1981); 3. Conclusion Redesigning the American Dream: The Future of Housing, Work, and Family Life It is tried to scan the period between (1984). 1969 to 1989 with the lenses of socialist It can be noted that the social and environmentalist approaches in realms and background of the period design, also lenses of gender issues of the between 1969 to 1989 underline main period. It can be added more to the keywords and movements that influence women pioneers that have been explained architectural productions. The women above such as: Brinda Somaya (India) is an pioneers that have been mentioned above architect and urban conservationist are both related the aura of their own worked with cultural and historic period and produced with the main environment, supported Zonta sensitivity of their times. These International, which is an organization movements of 60s, 70s and 80s have that aims to enhance the status of women stable and strong roots in today’s present around the world. Also, she is the founder realities. And these roots are forming and trustee of HECAR Foundation that is bringing new ways of searching and focusing on heritage, education, analysis. Diagram of the main terms that conservation, architecture and have been generated and practiced in the restoration. She worked on women period have been shown in the image. We empowerment thus on the sites of the can refer this diagram and scan the buildings she cooperated with the women period’s main concepts that relates to labor. Jane Drew (1911, England) was one architectural production of the women of the leading exponents of the Modern pioneers. Movement in London. Much of her work From 1970s to 1990s we face with was carried out in collaboration with the rise of environmentalism and Maxwell Fry. Their most important engagement with Marxism and actually, projects were in West Africa and India, existing socialism. 1990s onwards, these they worked on empowerment of the key points have been combined with the communities, she worked with Le present time’s conditions and turned into Corbusier on development of Chandigarh - new realities. Socialist design and the Punjab's new capital. In the 1980s, she environmentalist approaches formed a

67 new term: Eco-Socialism11 which brings Bibliography together insights of ecology with the rich tradition of socialist thought and action. It is a critical of many past and existing Hasegawa, Itsuko. “Back to Nature by a forms of both Green politics and socialism Different Route”, Architects’ Journal, of 1970s. Briefly, it is an anti-globalization vol.192, no.12, (1990):56-59. movement engaged with the Eco socialist Manifesto with the vision of transforming Hayden, Dolores. “What Would a Non- society in harmony with nature, directed Sexist City Be Like? Speculations on toward alternatives to all socially and Housing, Urban Design, and Human ecologically destructive systems, such as Work”, Signs, Vol.5, No.3, Women and the patriarchy, racism, homophobia and the American City, The University of Chicago fossil-fuel based economy. Press (1980):170-187. These approaches still, continue and Soja, Edward W. Thirdspace: Journeys evolve in our present time. We are still in to Los Angeles and Other Real-and- search of healthier urban forms with the Imagined Places, New Jersey: Blackwell less and balanced usage of natural sources Publishers, 1996. plus we have an urge for the resilient cities for the conditions of tomorrow. Thus, we Website notice with this paper the roots of the socialist and environmentalist movements Baer, Hans A. “Toward Democratic Eco- and how they shaped the women pioneer socialism as the Next World System”, April architect works. Hopefully these scanning 2016, The Next System Project, research linking the main terms of 70s and http://www.thenextsystem.org/toward- 80s movements with the architectural democratic-eco-socialism-as-the-next- searching and realizations of the period world-system/. Accessed September 5, gives us an understanding and enthusiasm 2017. for to continue searching and creating on Eco-socialism, wikia.com, tomorrows cities with the deep http://greenpolitics.wikia.com/wiki/Eco- understanding of green socialism. socialism. Accessed September 5, 2017. Homer, Nicola. “Agnes Denes: A Visionary Artist”. Interview with Agnes Denes. Studio International, November 2013, http://www.studiointernational.com/inde x.php/agnes-denes-interview-a-visionary- artist. Accessed September 5, 2017. Japan's Modern History: An Outline of the Period, Asia For Educators, Columbia.edu, http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/timelines/ja pan_modern_timeline.htm. Accessed September 5, 2017. Kazmi, Laila. “Yasmeen Lari”, kazbar.org, http://kazbar.org/jazbah/printyasmeenl.p 11 Green Socialism, Socialist Ecology or Deep hp. Accessed September 5, 2017. Ecology.

Le Mock, Freida. “Maya Lin: A Strong http://www.ecologise.in/2017/06/11/eco- Clear Vision Full Documentary l994”. socialism-eco-socialist/. Accessed Filmed November 1995, Documentary, September 5, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FWG Soorti, Sufyan. “Women Rights in XGTK_5k0. Accessed September 5, 2017. Pakistan”, July 2008, http://womanrightsinpakistan.blogspot.co Overview and Analysis: Environmental m.tr/2009/07/yasmeen-lari.html. Movement of the 1960s. https://sixties- Accessed September 5, 2017. social-movements- 3.wikispaces.com/Environmentalism. Stratigakos, Despina. “Architecture’s Accessed September 5, 2017. New Feminist Activism Tackles the Raven, Moon. “Social Movements in Profession’s Gender-Bias”, Metropolis the 80s”. Social Alchemy Blog, April 2009, Magazine, http://social- http://www.metropolismag.com/architect alchemy.blogspot.com.tr/2009/04/ush25- ure/architecture-new-feminist-activism- social-movements-in-80s.html. Accessed tackles-profession-gender-bias/.Accessed September 5, 2017. September 5, 2017. Social Movements of the 60s. https://sixties-social-movements- Stratigakos, Despina. “Women 3.wikispaces.com/Women. Accessed architects: Building change”, August 2014, September 5, 2017. aljazeera.com, Sarkar, Saral. “What is Eco-Socialism? http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinio Who is an Eco-Socialist?”, June 2017, n/2014/08/women-architects-building- Ecologise.in, chan-2014825101929831491.html. Accessed September 5, 2017.

Contribution to Research of Modern Architecture in Croatia (1969-1989)

Zrinka Barišić Marenić, Marina Bertina and Neda Mrinjek Kliska

1. Introduction

Modern architecture has been architecture in Croatia even in the period developing in Croatia since 1928, the year after the Second World War within that saw first accomplishments by young political circumstances of a new socialist architects educated at the Architectural republic.2 Despite certain pressures from Department of the Polytechnic in Zagreb the east, or more specifically Belgrade, who had fresh views and inclinations. Croatian architecture managed to resist Works of established architects who had the socialist realism of the late 1940s. received educated in other European cities In the late 1960s, the Croatian also contributed to its formation. architectural scene was, in addition to In the 1930s, a high quality of established architects, increasingly architecture, especially residential, was marked by the work of a younger achieved owing to influences exerted by generation of architectural professionals3 Bauhaus, Le Corbusier and the Dutch De who were closely connected to modernist Stijl movements. The majority of architects active in the interwar period. architects were left-oriented and they They made their contribution by working frequently warned about growing social in different types of organisations such as issues in their public statements and governmental institutions or independent exhibitions. Through their work, they tried architectural design studios. A great to provide high quality spaces such as number of them also worked in big housing, schools, hospitals and workers' building companies whose influence and insurance offices that could cater for a strength peaked in the 1970s.4 wide range of people. Architects active within the so-called Zagreb School of

Architecture adopted tenets of 2 In World War II, the Yugoslav Communist 1 functionalism, though as Prof. Šegvić Party organized and united anti-fascist forces into a stresses, their interpretations of typically widespread resistance movement. At the end of pure and strict forms were subtly imbued World War II, a new communist government was with regional elements, primarily through established. Croatia was one of the six republics that constituted former Yugoslavia. Although their choice and treatment of building communist in its ideology, it held an independent materials. Continuous activities of the position in relation to the Soviet Union, i.e. the architects who formed their architectural Eastern Bloc. 3 language in the 1930s, together with a Boris Krstulović, Igor Emili, Andre Čičin- sound theoretical basis, contributed to a Šain, Zdravko Bregovac, Radovan Nikšić, Ninoslav Kučan, Miroslav Begović, Mladen Vodička, Lovro further development of modern Perković 4 The early 1970s saw dramatic political 1 Neven Šegvić, “Stanje stvari, jedno developments in Croatia, that is, attempts to gain viđenje, 1945-1985,” Arhitektura 196-199 (1986), political autonomy from Yugoslavia, which did not 118-280. have any substantial influence on architecture

In the mid-1970s and during the Somewhat less funding went to sports 1980s, Croatia was dominated by the facilities.12 architecture that was grounded in The 1980s were a harbinger of the modernism5. Only several individual economic crisis and widespread economic architects showed inclination to stagnation. The focus shifted to city rationalism6 while a few cases appeared development and a restored formation of with elements of a certain neo- unique urban functions with the expressionism7 and structuralism8. There enhancement of the existing urban were also examples whose features were morphology. Decreased investment internationally called neo-vernacular while allowed for exquisite accomplishments in in Croatia they were, according to Prof. interior design and the construction of Maroević9, recognized as traits of local buildings that were low in number but heritage10. high in quality. Owing to the deeply rooted modern Esteemed examples of architecture, architecture, postmodernism did not leave accomplished in the period after the any considerable resonance in the Homeland War, were strongly based on country. Its influence was partial and modernism, sound architectural criticism of its tenets present from the education13, theoretical framework and very beginning. In 1980, Prof. Neven insights into contemporary tendencies in Šegvić critically observed that the country architecture. “will participate in a general architectural Croatian female architects were history only through its idiosyncratic professionally active in all the expression”.11 aforementioned periods, in all segments In the course of the 1970s, urban of the architectural practice. Their planners focused on creating spatial plans, influence in the 1970s and 1980s has here with a particular emphasis on the area been analysed from the point of view of along the Adriatic coast that witnessed a their architectural schooling and their role growing number of tourism-related in architectural education and practice. building projects. Dominant characteristics included a formation of new estates on urban peripheries and extensive housing 2. Overview of Architectural Education in projects. In terms of urban growth, the Croatia Regarding Rates of Female state considerably invested in the Students14 construction of educational facilities, cultural institutions and hospitals. The education of architects in Croatia dates back to 1919 when the

5 Architects Jelinek, Posavec, Knežević and 12 An analysis of professional awards in the Marinović-Uzelac. period shows that the buildings for commercial, 6 Architects Odak, Paulić, Tajder, Crnković sports and public health purposes were the least and Kožarić. awarded 7 Architects Šosterič, Emili, Filipčić and 13 Nicola di Battista (ed.) “Europe`s Top 100 Šerbetić. Schools of Architecture and Design 2014,” Domus 8 Architects Bregovac and Kušan. 975 (2013), supplement 118-119 9 Maroević, “Arhitektura sedamdesetih,” 47- 14 Percentages of graduates from the 5. Faculty of Architecture in Zagreb can be found in: 10 Architects Rožić, Rošin, Kranjc, Silađin and Mladen Obad Šćitaroci (ed.), Sveučilište u Zagrebu de Luca. Arhitektonski fakultet 1919/1920–1999/2000 11 Neven Šegvić, “Postmoderna arhitektura - (Zagreb: Sveučilište u Zagrebu – Arhitektonski okrugli stol," Arhitektura 172+3 (1980), 24. fakultet, 2000), 313-30.

School of Technology was established in which has progressively continued to the Zagreb.15 By the beginning of the Second present day.17 World War there had been 18 female The growth trend in the number of graduates from the School's Department female students at the Faculty of of Architecture (10% of all graduates16), Architecture in Zagreb corresponded to and the same number of women the trends at other Croatian universities, graduated in the period 1940-1945 (32% and taking the lead in the 1980s.18 of all graduates). However, few female architects managed Early post-war years saw the change to gain recognition in the professional of power and socio-economic system in arena even in the late 20th century. Croatia, with intense attempts to Women have evidently had the primacy overcome shortages of housing and to among the population of architecture plan industrial development, that is, a students in Croatia. Today, the ratio general modernisation of the country and between male and female students is 40% its economic growth. There was a tangible to 60% in favour of female students shortage of all sorts of engineers, (contrary to the ratio in the 1960s). including architects. This shortage resulted with a considerable increase in the number of students of the Faculty of 3. Overview of Female Contribution to Technology. These years were marked by Architectural Education in Croatia (Before an encouragement of social and gender 1989)19 equality. After having been mobilised in the Second World War, women assumed a 17 Among the graduates from Zagreb's significant role in the socio-political Faculty of Architecture, there was 40% of women sphere, and they lived in the in the 1960s and 48% in the 1970s. The 1980s saw circumstances that supported an increased rate of female graduates in relation to emancipation and a free choice of life male graduates 42% vs. 58%, while the ratio styles. The number of female architecture shifted even more in favour of women, 36% vs. 64%, at the end of the 20th century. students increased significantly, so the 18Ever since the 1970s, the percentage of predominantly “male” studies started female graduates at the Faculty of Architecture in losing this attribute by the process of Zagreb has been bigger when compared to the gradual gender segregation. At the end of total percentage of the female graduates at the 1970s, the number of female students at faculties of other Croatian universities. In the 1970s, the ratio was 48% to 44.6%, in the 1990s it the Faculty of Architecture started to was 64% to 55.6, and in 2015-16, it was 64% to exceed the number of male students, 61%, which is very indicative especially since architecture is a technology-based field. The total percentage of the universities includes data collected from the faculties with exceptionally high percentage of female students such as those in the 15 The name of the institution gradually fields of humanities and social sciences, changed from School of Technology (1919-1926) to biomedicine and health care. The average Technical Faculty of the University of Zagreb (1926- percentage of female students at technical 1956), to the Faculty of Architecture, Civil faculties of all Croatian universities is 37%. Engineering and Geodesy (1956-1962) and finally 19 The information about the teaching staff to the Faculty of Architecture of the University of of the Faculty of Architecture in Zagreb can be Zagreb (since 1962). found in:: Šćitaroci (ed.), Arhitektonski fakultet, 16 Students who graduated in this period 313-30 / The information about the teaching staff included Zoja Nepenina (married Dumengjić, of the Faculty of Architecture in Zagreb can be graduated in 1927) and Ksenija Grisogono (1934). found in:

Women, female architects, lecturers, of the 1980s, the gender ratio of the educators in a challenging field of spatial teaching staff had been 73% to 27% in development and planning were not favour of male population. Today this ratio active within the architectural studies in is 60% to 40%25, which is inversely Zagreb20 before the period after the proportional with the gender ratio among Second World War. The first female architecture students. assistant employed at the Architectural All female research and teaching Department of the Faculty of Technology assistants were employed as fully formed in 194621 was Sena Sekulić Gvozdanović.22 young architects or exceptional students It was only in the late 1950s that new of the Faculty of Architecture in Zagreb. positions opened for female architects and Most of them have continuously built their the percentage of employed lecturers at careers within the formal frames of the the Faculty of Architecture reached 10% in institution, proving themselves equally the 1960s.23 In the early 1970s, the competent in the architectural practice percentage rose to 18%. The same period and research. The most remarkable and saw the rejuvenation of the teaching staff energetic of them have actively with the employment of a considerably big contributed to the formation of number of research and teaching educational policies and Sena Sekulić assistants, including women.24 By the end Gvozdanović and Hildegard Auf Franić participated as deans in the highest 26 20 Recently in Split and Osijek as well. administrative bodies of the Faculty. 21 Even 27 years after the establishment of the Faculty. 22 She was followed by Božena Ostrogović, 4. Female Architects in Croatian Melita Viličić and Dragica Crnković Očko. 27 23 This percentage includes Olga Vujović, Architectural Profession (Before 1989) Aleksandra Zimperman, Tea Ložnik, Nada Jurković, Jasna Štampar and Vera Marsić. In the period before 1989, architects 24 The Department of Architectural Design worked within various organisations, such employs, among others, the following architects: as governmental bodies, ministries, Ljerka Biondić, Renata Waldgoni, Ljiljana Šepić, Anamarija Babić Poljanec and Marija Rendić conservation departments, educational Miočević. The staff of the Department of Urban and Physical Planning and Landscape Architecture Jurković affirmed herself as a professor, town includes Marija Perak and Željka Ružić. The planner and landscape architect. The Maksimir Department of Architectural Technology and Park was the topic of her book (1992, co-authored Building Science employs Jasenka Bertol Vrček, with Olga Maruševski). http://www.ulupuh.hr Branka Rosandić, Branka (Bek) Salaj, Marija Rebec (accessed September 5, 2017). Her design of the and Marta Sulyok Selimbegović. Melita Viličić was a Sports Centre in Poreč was shortlisted for the professor at the Department of History and Theory participation in the World Architecture Festival in of Architecture. Barcelona (WAF 2009), http://www.ulupuh.hr In the period 1969-1989 the teaching staff (accessed September 5, 2017) of the Faculty also included the following 25 The average gender ratio at the faculties architects: Vera Marsić, Olga Vujović, Nada of all Croatian universities is 51% to 49% in favour Jurković, Doroteja Ložnik, Gordana Žaja, Ariana of men Štulhofer, Aleksandra Zimpermann, Eva Vaništa, 26 Among 56 faculty deans with the Božena Ostrogović (Božica Janeš Ostrogović) and background in architecture, Sena Sekulić Mira Molnar. Gvozdanović and Hildegard Auf Franić were the Ljiljana Šepić, MSc, included into the only women. curriculum (in 2000) a new elective course, 27 The female architects mentioned do not Industrial Archaeology, which dealt with the timely represent the full list of similar architects but this topic of regeneration and research of technical paper aims give an overview of the developments heritage as a widely defined category. Sonja during the period in question.

73 institutions and especially successful civil who was awarded with the Viktor Kovačić engineering companies. The majority of (1975) and the Vladimir Nazor (1995) women worked within the same system Awards for life achievement. She on an equal footing with their male specialised in health service architecture, colleagues, without bringing themselves to with significant theoretical support public attention. In fact, the system was provided by her husband Selimir effective due to their dedicated work and Dumengjić. In addition to 188 works of commitment to architecture. Yet, they architecture, she designed hospital were rarely awarded or promoted to complexes in Split, Karlovac, Koprivnica leading positions. and Ogulin. During the period, only a few most Other female architects who were progressive female architects asserted active in the period after the Second Word themselves within the fields of health care War remained in the shadow of their and educational architecture, interior successful male colleagues or architect design, horticulture, but also in education husbands (Kazimir Ostrogović and Božica and scientific work, history of architecture, Janeš-Ostrogović, Ivan and Nada Vitić, etc. Marijan Haberle and Minka Jurković29). The first female architect and winner Published monographs that well present of the life achievement award was Zoja dominant architects have until now Dumengjić28. In many aspects, she played omitted female architects. Only recently a pioneering role since she graduated in the female role in Croatian architecture is the 3rd generation of architectural being studied more intensively. Good engineers in Zagreb (1927) and gained a examples are Lidija Butković Mićin’s professional reputation as early as the exhibition and the accompanying 1930s. She was the first woman to realise catalogue dedicated to Rijeka’s female the five-year plan within the architecture architects Ada Felice and Nada Šilović.30 In of socialist Croatia in the post-war period the concluding words in the catalogue, she and the first female architect to set up her noticed that if a focus is placed on own firm, the Dumengjić Architectural contemporary women's (un)equality in the Design Studio, in 1954. Additionally, she architectural practice, it must be was the first female architect in Croatia recognized that even nowadays the pervasive imbalance prevails between the 28 Recent papers focusing on her work were number of female graduates and those presented within the MoMoWo Conferences by who achieved a successful career as Zrinka Barišić Marenić. The titles include Remarkable Public Health Service Architecture by independent architects, although their Architect Zoja Dumengjić in Croatia presented at presence is self-evident and the 2016 Women Designers, Architects and unquestionable. Engineers between 1946 and 1968 Conference in Nada Šilović31 (1924-2009) and Ada Ljubljana, and Modern Hospital Complexes by Felice Rošić32 (1922-2013) started their Architect Zoja Dumengjić in Croatia (1969-1981) presented at the 2017 Women Designers, Architects and Engineers between 1969 and 1989 29 The spouses designed the Vatroslav Conference in Oviedo. Architect Zoja Dumengjić’s Lisinski Concert Hall in Zagreb (with Tanja Zdvořak, ouevre is the theme of Zrinka Barišić Marenić’s 1958-1973; 1974 City of Zagreb Award and 1974 doctoral thesis titled „Arhitektica Zoja Dumengjić – Zagreb Salon Award). Osobitost djela u kontekstu hrvatske moderne 30 Lidija Butković Mićin, Ada Felice-Rošić i arhitekture” (Architect Zoja Dumengjić - The Nada Šilović, ženski trag u arhitekturi Rijeke. Remarkable Features of Her Oeuvre in the Context (Rijeka, 2014). of Croatian Modern Architecture), University of 31 In 1948-1957, she worked Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, 2007. in Rijeka, Istria and Šibenik.

74 careers in the post-war period. As Dragica Perak (1917 – 1998) was a employees of the Architectural and co-architect of the prominent building Engineering Design Institute in Rijeka, they project of the Federal People’s Republic of designed a number of contemporary Yugoslavia’s Presidency Building in apartment buildings in Rijeka in the early Belgrade, Serbia (1947, 1954-1959, with V. 1950s. Potočnjak, Z. Neumann, A. Ulrich, From 1958, Ada Felice Rošić worked adaptation M. Janković; today Palace of at the office of the Primorje construction Serbia) and she designed numerous office, company in Rijeka. Her most prominent educational and public buildings.34 works from that period include the Trade Dragica (Daša) Očko Crnković (1918) School, Korzo Department Store, and the worked as teaching assistant at Faculty of residential towers in F. Prešern Street and Technology in Zagreb. She headed her A. Kovačić Street, all in Rijeka. Korzo is the own projects as well as collaborated on first department store in the city opened Prof Zdenko Strižić`s projects. Between in 1970. As a symbol of social progress, it the 1950s and 1980s, many Yugoslav was built in an important and complex specialists were employed by the state as location in the city’s historical centre. On technical or other assistance in third world the other hand, the residential towers in F. countries, which was a result of Prešern Street and A. Kovačić Street form Yugoslavia´s non-aligned foreign the entrance to the city. The X-shaped policy35. This was significant for her career floor plan, which enabled better flat since her husband was several times arrangement, was a source of engaged in the projects as an expert. She controversial interpretations in the lived in Ethiopia (1958-1960)36, Zambia context of the Law on Construction in (1966- 1970), Swaziland (1970-1972) and Seismic Areas. Over time, these towers Sierra Leone (1972-1974). While in have become landmarks that define the Ethiopia, she had her own clients and city skyline. worked as independent architect. In other From 1963, Nada Šilović worked at countries, she participated in European the Town Planning Office in Zagreb. By architectural practices. Her design is based then, the social action had largely been on modern architectural vocabulary focused on town-planning issues. One of integrated with contemporary tendencies. numerous urban design competitions held at that time was the competition for the new city quarter of Sopot in Zagreb in arhitekture XX. stoljeća (Zagreb: Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Arhitektonski fakultet, 2009) 1965 and Nada Šilović’s team was one of 34 She designed new commercial, health four architects and/or teams invited to care, educational and public buildings in Zagreb participate in it. During her career as (medical centre, 1960; Kemoboje administrative urban planner, she created many urban building, 1962; Youth Hostel, 1962; Tekstilpromet plans including the plan for Črnomerec, or Department Store, 1968) and reconstruction and adaptation of several hotels (Intercontinental, more specifically the areas Fraterščica – Palace and International). Kvaternikova Street, Bijenik – Šestinski dol, 35 Former Yugoslavia was one of the Zelena magistrala – Ponikve, Podsused founders of the Non-Aligned Movement, rejecting and Špansko.33 association with either of the confronting blocs in the Cold War period. 36 Although she was still formally employed 32 In 1975-1977, she worked as building at the Faculty of Architecture in Zagreb and was inspector in Rijeka. active as theoretician. From 1960 to 1966, she 33 Andrej Uchytil, Zrinka Barišić Marenić and lived in Zagreb. Afterwards she resigned from the Emir Kahrović, Leksikon arhitekata Atlasa hrvatske Faculty of architecture.

She applied the same procedure in her Snješka Knežević, a high ethical charge of later works, yet adapted it to the African serving citizens, the aspiration to aesthetic context by merging the influences from utopia based on the synthesis of nature Croatian modern architecture and Sub- and art are the foundations of her rich Saharan Africa.37 oeuvre.38 Within the field of interior and Olga Pavlinović (1927-1982) was the landscape design women gained architect of the modest, yet impressive substantial recognition. Works of two Andrija Kačić Miošić Square (1970-1971). female landscape designers are significant By subtle urban intervention in the heart for this period. Both of them were spouses of Makarska, a new model has been of successful architects and often worked created with a very clear, yet rich and together on complementary projects. complex space design. A thousand-year- Silvana Seissel (1912-2010) is a long tradition, a new example of a laureate of the Vladimir Nazor Life Mediterranean public space was designed Achievement Award in 2000 for allowing all forms of movement, architecture and town planning. She was interruption, encounter, and stay, or married to architect Josip Seissel with moreover, inducing them.39 whom she designed many projects In the late 1970s and in the 1980s (Dotrščina Memorial Park in Zagreb, 1966- the interest in town planning grew 1967, with Vojin Bakić, Angela Rotkvić and stronger. The concept of social property of Josip Seissel; today designated as a apartments was replaced with private or cultural-historical complex). She designed state ownership. As apartments had the Presidential Park in Zagreb (with become trading goods in 1958, Angela Rotkvić), which is a regulated construction companies started to look for landscape unit from the 1960s, the parks profit. The demand for economically of Duke Branimir and King Držislav in viable large building plots led to Osijek (1950, 1956) and many other urbanisation of large areas at the outskirts horticultural achievements. of cities. New systems of prefabrication Mira Halabek Wenzler (1929) one of designed in former Yugoslavia were the most renowned landscape architects applied. The main characteristics of the in Croatia, well known for horticultural period were standardization, design of the area surrounding Zagreb’s prefabrication and mass production. Large Town Hall (1955-1960, Kazimir construction companies employed Ostrogović). She collaborated with her architects and other types of engineers. husband, Fedor Wenzler, an urban Female architects worked in teams planner, on the Jarun Sports and alongside their male colleagues. One of Recreational Park (1987). This popular frequently published works is the Office area in Zagreb was developed for the 1987 and Residential Complex in Gruška Street University Games (Univerzijada). The conversion and regulation of former gravel 38 Snješka Knežević, at pits into a system of lakes and rowing http://www.ulupuh.hr/hr/straniceclanova.asp?idse tracks, transformed this peripheral area of kcije=14&idclana=641 (accessed September 5, Zagreb into the recreational and 2017) 39 residential area of Jarun. According to Željka Čorak, “Kačićev trg u Makarskoj arhitektice Olge Pavlinović (prilog poznavanju hrvatskih trgova,)” Život umjetnosti 31 (1996), 44- 37 Mojca Smode Cvitanović, Marina 51, https://www.ipu.hr/content/zivot- Smokvina and Andrej Uchytil „Dragica Crnković umjetnosti/ZU_58-1996_044-051_Corak.pdf, Očko,“ Prostor 1(2016), 90-101. (accessed September 5, 2017).

76 in Zagreb, designed in 1971 by Lidija Herbert Read, and Walter Gropius. She Grečko and Miroslav Stella, employees of participated in numerous international the Tempo building company that conferences, taught at universities abroad completed the complex in 1973.40 and published a number of scientific and In terms of their public work, female professional papers. From 1983, she had architects were also actively engaged in actively participated in conferences of the advancing the profession. Dragica International Union of Women Architects. Crnković Očko served as presidents of the In 1973, she published articles in Zagreb Architects' Association, while professional magazine Čovjek i prostor Hildegard Auf Franić was president of the (Man and Space) focusing on the historical Croatian Association of Architects. female position in architecture. In 1998, As an educational institution, the she published the book “Žena u arhitekturi Faculty recruited the best students or – tragom žene kreatora i žene teoretičara affirmed professionals to be serve as u povijesti arhitekture (Women in teaching staff. Excellence, talent, Architecture – Following the Steps of diligence, perseverance, keenness are only Female Creators and Theoreticians in some of their characteristics, or criteria for Architectural History)”.42 In addition to successful advancement. The following numerous prizes, she received the Viktor chapters will focus on most prominent Kovačić (1983) and the Vladimir Nazor female professors and their professional (1997) Lifetime Achievement Awards. achievements. Hildegard Auf Franić, PhD (1941) Sena Sekulić Gvozdanović, PhD (1916 – worked in her formative period 2002) was the first woman employed by individually and/or with various architects, the Department of Architecture at the and participated and won awards at Faculy of Technology in Zagreb (1946), the architectural competitions. first female dean (1979-1981) and first In her search for urbanity and female professor emeritus (1998). Her humanisation of city spaces she primary field of specialization was history approached architectural tasks in a critical of architecture and the protection of and innovative way, which can be architectural heritage, within which she discerned in the competition entry for built her educational, scientific and Francuske Republike Square (1976), professional career.41 At the time when it 42 was very important to have information The author of the book based her about international trends, Sena Sekulić research on archaeological findings, old manuscripts and contemporary historical Gvozdanović translated several books interpretations. She “revealed a feminine authored by James Maude Richards, sensitivity in structural particularities of architecture, in the iconology of ornamentation and individual architectural elements, in structural 40 Šegvić, “Stanje stvari,” 224. and decorative materials, and, finally, in the 41 Conservation, restoration and adaptation substantive identity of buildings in individual designs for the Sisak Historic City (1954, first civilizational and cultural periods, in harmony with awarded competition entry, realisation of the or opposition to the “male” features of project was entrusted to Denzler), Music Academy architecture and features of architects”. She in the Upper Town in Zagreb (1964-83, cooperation stresses the need to create and protect the with A. Albini). balance achieved by the acceptance of complex After Mladen Kauzlarić's death, Sena Sekulić values, including the female and male prototypes Gvozdanović and Zvonimir Vrkljan completed the that supplement each other. design for the buildings of the Archaeological Olga Maruševski, “Predgovor” in Sena Museums in Zadar (1964-1972) and Split (1954- Sekulić Gvozdanović, Žena u arhitekturi (Zagreb: 1976). PSEFIZMA, 1998), 6

77 designed in collaboration with B. Silađin, Viktor Kovačić annual award)45 whose which won the Grand Prix Award of the “structural glass envelope creates a 14th Zagreb Salon Exhibition (1979). The counterpart to the environment within a design “shows achievements of an modified historical city centre […] forming architectural gesture that does not stop at a new spatial situation, hitherto unusual the borders of the competition guidelines, for the most central part of the city.46 The but approaches the city and reinterprets it couple also designed a residential building in a visionary way, by creating links in Zamenhofova Street (1976) and the between its parts methodologically, INA-Naftaplin office building in Šubićeva substantially and interpretively”. 43 Street in Zagreb. She designed the Mostar Cathedral However, she made a particular (1975, with I. Franić) and the 5th Pavilion of contribution to Croatian architecture with the the Faculty of Agriculture in Zagreb her interior designs that became (1979, with B. Radimir and L. Pleština) 44 outstanding public places in Zagreb, such marked the first in a series of as Charlie Cafe (1985), Argentina Cafe accomplishments in the field of (1988) Velvet Cafe (1993), Harmica Cafe educational architecture that would (1995) as well as interiors in the public characterized her professional and area of Dubrovnik II Hotel, and many academic body of work. She also designed others.47 Therefore, she was the first a secondary school complex (1979) and a autonomous female architect and a kindergarten and nursery (1980) in Imotski laureate of the annual Vladimir Nazor and a primary school in Aržan (1982). The (1988) and Viktor Kovačić (2000) Lifetime 1990s saw the beginning of her most Achievement Awards. fruitful period in which she created There are few female architects numerous educational buildings, from engaged in architectural criticism. The first nurseries to faculties, which were either among the few was Antoaneta Pasinović nominated for or awarded with a number (1942-1985) who wrote numerous of professional and national architectural architectural reviews, organized awards. Among others, she also won the exhibitions and directed documentaries Vladimir Nazor (2013) and the Viktor about architectural problems.48 Kovačić (2015) Lifetime Achievement This overview concludes with Branka Awards. Kaminski (1956-2002), an architect known Ines Filipović (1936 – 2001) completed numerous architectural 45 She was a rare female architect working projects, competition entries and interior in the field of tourism-related architecture in this design projects. In the period 1956–1980, period, which was a fruitful period for the she participated in numerous development of this architectural field in former competitions with her husband Nikola Yugoslavia. 46 Filipović. They designed the reconstruction Ivo Marojević, “Zagrebačka arhitektura osamdesetih godina,” Radovi Instituta za povijest of Dubrovnik Hotel and the new umjetnosti 16 (1992), 239 Dubrovnik II Hotel (receiving in 1982 the 47 Interior design become a topic of interest to other prominent architects as well, for example, to Nenad Fabijanić (5th Magazin in Pag) and Ivan Crnković (Karas Gallery and Cabinet Wine Bar in 43 Sandra Križić Roban, „Reasserting the Zagreb). City,“ Život umjetnosti 82 (2008), 70. 48Sandra Križić Roban, 44 Zrinka Barišić Marenić, „Paviljonski sklop https://www.geni.com/people/Antoaneta- Poljoprivredno-šumarskog fakulteta,“ Prostor 13 Pasinovi%C4%87/6000000040875963118, (2005), 55-65. (accessed September 12 2017).

78 in Croatia not so much for the buildings among which the most prominent are she designed but for her fantastic hand social and institutional contexts and drawings. She won the second award at gender stereotypes, or more specifically, the Architectural Review Centenary imposed „gender differences“. The public Drawing Competition in 1996 for the is not very familiar with female architects, perspective view of the city of Pula with whose architectural practice and academic the Arena in the foreground. work has considerably advanced the In the late 1980s and the early profession and enriched the Croatian 1990s, a number of female architects space. This make every encouragement graduated and became active in the for researching their body of work positive profession. Their work was later and welcome. recognised by numerous award-winning For women, the entering into the competition entries, and realised projects field of architecture in the early 20th awarded with a great number of century was not an easy endeavour and it professional and national awards. did not occur under the same It was in the war period or circumstances as it did for men. Women immediately after the war49 that many of could not study architecture abroad and them graduated and started their could receive formal education only after respective careers abroad. Helena Paver the establishment of the School of Njirić (1965) returned in 1992 to Zagreb Technology in Zagreb (1919). However, from Graz, Austria and pursued her only exceptional female architects such as remarkable career first as partner in Zoja Domengjić managed to overcome njiric+njiric with her husband Hrvoje Njirić, socially imposed limitations and and from 2002 in her own office HPNJ+. marginalised position in society and the From 2008, holding the position of profession. assistant professor, she taught courses at Immediately after the Second World the Faculty of Architecture in Zagreb, and War, the Croatian social policy was was a visiting or affiliated professor at characterized by a fundamental various European faculties. Zoka Zola, on commitment to introduce equality the other hand, built her renowned between women and men in all segments international career abroad, established of life and work, including the her own studio and is currently teaching at architectural profession.51 A growing the Illinois institute of Technology.50 number of women enrolled in the Faculty of Architecture and after graduation, they participated in the work of architectural 5. Conclusion studios, very often being comparably involved in all segments of architectural Experiences of “being” a woman in practice, including education of new different time periods of the Croatian generations of architects. architectural practice are very different and dependent upon numerous factors, 51 Women were legally given the right to 49 The more prosperous republics vote in 1946. Female emancipation was an of Slovenia and Croatia aspired to having important objective of the communist decentralized and democratic governance. In 1991, revolutionary project. The socialist authorities Croatia and Slovenia declared their independence granted women many political, civil and economic to Yugoslavia, the act that led to war. rights, including the right to abortion, maternity 50 http://www.zokazola.com/aboutus.html, leave, free nursery and kindergartens, equality in (accessed September 12 2017). marriage and economic independence.

The progressive socialist project well as the number of those who have whose goal was to create “a new woman” received professional awards and weakened in the 1950s with the emerging recognition for their work. In spite of that, discrepancy between the ideal, new the ratio between men and women in progressive woman and everyday life. leading positions is still greatly Unequal labour division in private lives disproportionate when compared with the negated the ideologically constructed data that place Croatia among few image of female equality, and the slogan European countries where more than half of the equivalent, shoulder-to-shoulder of all certified architects are women.53 work of women and men steered women Moreover, the percentage of female into particular professions, which did not architectural graduates in relation to their include architecture. A small number of male counterparts is even bigger. women held leading positions, and the The increasingly improving status of public exposure of female architects women in the Croatian architectural arena whose work stood out among others’ was owes much to the female architects who “silenced”. gained esteem with exquisite In the 1970s and 1980s, the accomplishments and whose overall influence exerted by female activist activities paved the way for new groups and feminists led to a generations of women. Each of them, a transformation of female identity and a distinctive creator, deserves thorough redefinition of the social position of research of discourse and creative habitus women. 52 From the perspective of and an honourable presentation. women's position within the architectural Dividing women and men into binary profession, the shift was significant. There categories could bring new quality to the was an increase in the number of women profession if the “dualism is replaced with among students, within the academic versatility, and consensus with diversity“.54 community and practice. This period was In that context, a gender diversity of characterized by a gradual “feminisation” architects should be asserted for the of the architectural profession, at least in wellbeing of architecture. terms of numerical prevalence of women, which has continued to the present day. On the other hand, the architectural practice is still largely dominated by men. Bibliography and sources The legacy of these positive social processes has been felt in the last 30 or so Abramović, Mirjana. Žene i years. In the early 1990s, the privatisation društvena moć. Zagreb: Plejada, Institut za process helped transform former state- društvena istraživanja 2011. run architectural offices into a number of small private enterprises. The number of 53 In 2016, 2200 architects worked in female architects who have been running Croatia, among whom 59% were women. At the studios independently, with other female level of the European Union, the percentage of colleagues or, most commonly, with male female architects is 38%. More in: “Architects partners and colleagues, has increased, as Council of Europe: The architectural profession in Europe 2016”, Architects Council of Europe, http://www.ace-cae.eu, (accessed August 18, 52 In 1979, Yugoslavia signed the Convention 2017). on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination 54 Mirjana Abramović, Žene i društvena moć against Women (CEDAW), adopted by the UN (Zagreb: Plejada, Institut za društvena istraživanja, General Assembly 2001), 68.

Barišić Marenić, Z. “Arhitektica Zoja Maroević, Ivo. “Arhitektura Dumengjić – Osobitost djela u kontekstu sedamdesetih u Hrvatskoj”. Arhitektura hrvatske moderne arhitekture.“ (Ph.D. 2014( 1998):47-51 diss. University of Zagreb, 2007 Kaminski, Branka: Branka Kaminski, Barišić Marenić, Zrinka and Braun, Perspektive / Perspectives. Zagreb Alan. «Dr.sc. Sena Sekulić-Gvozdanović, dipl.ing.arhitekture,» in Sveučilište u Križić Roban, Sandra. «Reasserting Zagrebu Arhitektonski fakultet 1919/20– the City,» Život umjetnosti 82 (2008): 66- 1999/2000, edited by Obad Ščitaroci, 81. Mladen, 215. Zagreb: Sveučilište u Zagrebu – Arhitektonski fakultet, 2000. Obad Šćitaroci, Mladen. (ed.), Sveučilište u Zagrebu Arhitektonski Barišić Marenić, Zrinka and Bertina, fakultet 1919/20–1999/200. Zagreb: Marina. «Dr.sc. Hildegard Auf-Franić, Sveučilište u Zagrebu – Arhitektonski dipl.ing.arhitekture,» in Sveučilište u fakultet, 2000. Zagrebu Arhitektonski fakultet 1919/20– 1999/2000, edited by Obad Ščitaroci, Pleština, Lenko (ed.), Arhitektonski Mladen, 176. Zagreb: Sveučilište u fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu – 95 godina. Zagrebu – Arhitektonski fakultet, 2000. Zagreb: Sveučilište u Zagrebu – Arhitektonski fakultet, 2014. Barišić Marenić. Zrinka. «Paviljonski sklop Poljoprivredno-šumarskog Sekulić Gvozdanović, Sena. Žena u fakulteta,» Prostor 13 (2005): 55-65. arhitekturi. Zagreb: Psefizma, 1998.

Butković Mićin, Lidija: Ada Felice- Smode Cvitanović, Mojca; Smokvina, Roščić i Nada Šilović, ženski trag u Marina; Uchytil, Andrej: „Dragica Crnković arhitekturi Rijeke. Rijeka, 2014. Očko“ Prostor 1(2016): 90-101

Čorak, Željka. “Kačićev trg u Šegvić, Neven: Postmoderna Makarskoj arhitektice Olge Pavlinović arhitektura - okrugli stol. " Arhitektura (prilog poznavanju hrvatskih trgova)”. 172+3 (1980): 22-24. Život umjetnosti 31 (1996): 44-51 Šegvić, Neven. “Stanje stvari, jedno di Battista, Nicola (ed.) “Europe`s viđenje, 1945-1985”. Arhitektura 196-199 Top 100 Schools of Architecture and (1986): 118-280 Design 2014,” Domus 975 (2013), supplement 118-119 Uchytil, Andrej, and Barišić Marenić, Zrinka, and Kahrović, Emir. Leksikon Dumengjić, Zoja. “Medicinski centar arhitekata Atlasa hrvatske arhitekture XX. Karlovac”. Arhitektura 152-153 (1975): 55- stoljeća (Lexicon of Architects - Atlas of 56. 20th Century Croatian Architecture). Zagreb : Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Domljan, Žarko: Postmoderna – Arhitektonski fakultet, 2009. historicizam. " Arhitektura 172+3 (1980): 22.

... “Postmoderna arhitektura - okrugli stol”. Arhitektura 172+3(1980) Central Bureau of Statistics, «Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of … Europe`s Top 100 Schools of Croatia 2016,» Republic of Croatia Central Architecture and Design 2014, Domus 975 Bureau of Statistics, (2013): supplement 118-119 http://www.dsz.hr>ljetopis>sljh2016. Accessed August 20, 2017.

Internet Sources Architects Council of Europe, «The architectural profession in Europe 2016,» http://www.min- http://www.ace-cae.eu. Accessed August kulture.hr/default.aspx?id=407. Nagrada 18, 2017. Vladimir Nazor (Award Vladimir Nazor) Sandra Križić Roban, http://www.enciklopedija.hr https://www.geni.com/people/Antoaneta http://www.ulupuh.hr -Pasinovi%C4%87/6000000040875963118, http://www1.zagreb.hr/galerijakd.ns (accessed September 12 2017). f/e72a894655a44471c1256f9600325af3/9 9f40cbc540786e8c1257f3e0048f5ff?Open http://www.zokazola.com/aboutus. Document (Kompleks šume Dotrščina) html

Central Bureau of Statistics, «Women and men in Croatia 2010», Republic of Croatia Central Bureau of Statistics, Zagreb, http://www.dsz.hr>men_and_women_20 10. Accessed August 20, 2017.

Rosalia La Franca

Thought and operative practice

Starlight Vattano

Introduction between 1970 and 1975 where she acted an autonomy of the drawing that, albeit Rosalia La Franca was born in 1947. interconnected with the project, it holds She graduated in Palermo in 1970 with both the signs and the meanings. Leonardo Urbani and eight years later she obtained the teaching of ‘Drawing and Survey’ and ‘Interior Design’ at the On the drawing/project ‘Approach to the figuration and design section’ of the Faculty of Architecture of Her research turned the drawing of Palermo. In this field, she carried out an the architectural object on the knowledge, experimental and theoretic teaching transcription and body, reaching the linked to research about representation dimension where shaping the condition of and figuration in architecture. She representation. According to Rosalia La interested in the study of historic centers Franca the drawing constitutes an of Sicily through an analytical approach of independent element with respect to the knowledge of urban systems. For many architecture that has still arise and which years, she worked with Giuseppe Caronia finds, in it, the true expression. at the urban planning of historic centers Geometries and harmonies become collaborating with Sicilian Administration graphic elements contributing to the on the issues of architectonic reuse and didactic research of the project, both in recovery. the case of the analysis at the building and Reasoning on the role of the urban or landscape scale. Her critical and figuration and on the ways of pragmatic way of proceeding, is often representation the urban environment accompanied to iconographic apparatus Rosalia La Franca tried to trace the characterized by sketches enriched by autonomy of the figurative act through notations, schemas and geometric the tools of architecture discipline, matrices determining the graphic skeleton recognizing in the urban environment ‘a of her research, through which it is space where stay and from where starting possible recognize the path that from time for a new appropriation’. Inside the to time Rosalia La Franca followed to complexity of the modern, she felt a lack identify the ‘investigative value of the of identity, which ‘removes the knowledge’. differences’ moving away what she «As researchers on the defined ‘the necessary risk of the project’. representation of the artifact/natural She defined four ways of proceeding, as in environment we are interested in the the case of the four images of city project and built environment, we are proposed for the design competitions involved in thinking and classifying the

83 physical around and its reasons»1. These that «the scientific attention for the words give a vision of the meaning of the notion of Identity can contribute to trace Drawing that Rosalia La Franca stressed to borders where parts and assemblies the integration with parallel and adjacent reobtain roles and functions connected to research fields as the epistemological, the the dignity of shapes and structures for art history, the esthetic, the architecture sure not the same but individuals, history, and the project according to recognizable, flexible, available to the several passages of scale in relationship to declination and understanding and only the different specificities. In that space of for this acceptable for use and role today the mind, theoretic model to which the that is still role in becoming»3. Sicilian architect referred in her work, we Talking about the concept of find the interconnected relations between memory, according to Rosalia La Franca in a drawn culture and an oral one in a the disorder of the complexity it is fading of signs which question on the possible to recognize a sort of spatial contribute of research in architecture. In reorganization of the environment where the uncertainty and rarefaction of the the misunderstandings can structure roles historic condition, Rosalia La Franca read a and meanings in a coherent way from the city in parts, a box of symbolic formal point of view and with faithful aggregations where she recognized a disenchant towards the hypertext help plurality of messages in the settled space. given by the specialized languages of the A chaos of elements representing an contemporary city. She denounced a total alternative form of order. We could think absence of quality as expression of the to the ‘great moment of disorder’ relationship between nature and artificial described by Paul Valéry as «a huge, through which the demiurge-architect, violent degradation, the general today overpassed, defines the unloading, a rapid disruption in which disaggregation of the urban condition. At perspective the most weak things, the same time, she asked if the temple, precious or not, perish, the most delicate even if not yet the place of panathenaic and detailed images but superficial and processions, it still measures the limited deform themselves, become landscape because far away from the real, unrecognizable, disintegrated in a myriad or as it became another time an of elementary and transposed reflections archetype. in movement […] A mirror never troubled The proposal of Rosalia La Franca is doesn’t see itself as a mirror. It doesn’t that of a memory, which realizes the sense feel itself, it feels to be that other thing it of living not so much proposing again the always has only reproduced»2, an past models, but those ones that lead to inevitable process of transformation for the building «In the current uncertain parts that contribute to define the new terms, the sense of the sure living»4. images of the city. Memory as experience of the moving Searching for the contemporary city, forward an evolutionary process for the place of differences the architect states acquisition of information through the declination of misunderstanding as a unit of measure for the ‘deviance of the norm’ 1 Rosalia, La Franca et al, Identità/Differenza/Fraintendimento: le proposte del Disegno (Palermo: Flaccovio Editore, 1991), 3 La Franca et al., 220. Identità/Differenza/Fraintendimento: le proposte 2 Paul, Valéry, Quaderni. Volume quinto del Disegno, 12. (Milano: Adelphi edizioni, 2002), 10. 4 Ibidem, 29.

84 which confers the significance to the reasons of the historical space?»6. These drawing from the survey of the real. questions lead Rosalia La Franca to face That origin of the city’s idea the search with “method samples” in containing the mythical value of the order to structure a methodological path settlement principle sinks its meaning into of study on the forms of settlement in the memory of places recognizable for Sicilian territory, reading the identity different languages that represent the traces of Mediterranean architecture in quality of the lived space by variables in the archetypes of building sites. continuous change. Further research put in contact the It is a matter of recognizing the University of Palermo and the ‘Judaica spatial values at a multi-level Italy Association’ in 1989, when Rosalia La communication outlining the plot of Franca participated in a project of national historically determined places through relevance that addressed the study of a which to obtain the traces of the modern specific culture of urban analysis through project. the interpretation of Jewish settlement In this regard, Rosalia La Franca, phenomena. The research deepened the within the ‘Department of Representation, question of the Jewish places in Sicily Knowledge, Figuration, Transformation of sinking «into the documentary privilege of the Built/Natural Environment’ of the the history of the built environment to University of Palermo5, carried out retreat the fundamental field of researches related to the quality of the understanding of physical places for Mediterranean features, from the island consolidation of built memory and of Sicily to the North Africa, from the transformations of the surrounding»7. forms of the Greek and Islamic cities to In Jewish figurative tradition, she the landscape of coastal reserves, tracing found a correspondence between a language of contemporary architecture representation and reality proposing a through the evolution of the concept of dynamic thought between the hosted style into the various meanings and community and the established one, declinations of space and time. Resuming which leaves trace of a mobile tension and the question of broad dialectic between no longer fixed. context and subject, in an architecture The issues posed dealt about the conceived for parts, fragments, changes, quality of the places where the Jewish the quality of lived space assumes for the presence established and the idea of a city architect from Palermo substance through formed before their expulsion taking a the method of ‘survey of places’. temporal image of Jewish memory that «Will the physical environment that Rosalia La Franca recognized in the contains us still, and under what ‘ucronic spiral’ of history, in a relationship conditions, be the depository of the traces between ritual and architecture that after that the quality of the settlement has the destruction of the Temple imposes the established on it in the slow deployment displacement of the models «from the of gestures and signs of life? And what set- up is possible if not from the deepest 6 Rosalia, La Franca. La forma dell’insediamento umano tra natura e storia (Palermo: Stampa Luxograph, 1992), 2. 7 Rosalia La Franca, “Ebraismo, sito, 5 For more information about this research memoria dei luoghi”, in Rosalia La Franca et al. see: Rosalia, La Franca. La forma dell’insediamento (eds.), Architettura judaica in Italia: ebraismo, sito, umano tra natura e storia (Palermo: Stampa memoria dei luoghi (Palermo: Flaccovio Editore, Luxograph, 1992). 1994), 19-20.

85 physical place to the absolute place of the National Competition – Northern mind»8. Expansion Zone Cardillo, 1970

The first design theme concerned Four design competitions 1970-1975 the construction of a subsidized housing district for 15,000 people in the zone of The architectural images offered Cardillo of Palermo, an area once under the four design competitions were characterized by an expanse of vegetation marked by a fate of unrealizability, and the curtain of mountains bordering according to Rosalia La Franca, who the so-called ‘piana dei colli’, already recognized in the design and overwhelmed by the urban extension and qualifying phase of the competition ideas. until the eighteenth century almost The geographical characterization and completely free from buildings, that were therefore the spatial dimension, together only nearby the sea. Rosalia La Franca with the functional one, constituted the addressed the issue of the uncontrolled projective act of the project proposals. At development of Palermo in its hinterland, the same time, the most interesting suggesting in such dynamic complexity the aspect according to the Sicilian architect possibility of future hypothesis. She took approach was the methodology for parts into account the need for integration and of a wider discourse than the mere communication of polyfunctional recovery of specific occasions, through the organisms. On this occasion, the architect synthetic-analytic motivation dictated by proposed to replace the short vision of the the architectural drawing that, according urban project, projected no more than 10- to Rosalia Franca, constitutes ‘the first of 20 years later, with a mental attitude in the parts’, in reference to the thesis on terms of a meta-program through which it the architectural-urban unit of the becomes possible to move in a timeless Lecorbuserian memory. dimension with reference to the The four draft proposals submitted parameter of mobility taken as a starting included the ‘National Competition for the point. The thematic levels concern the neighborhood to be built in Palermo - infrastructure one, the socio-cultural and Northern Expansion Zone Cardillo’, the the economic ones linked to the use of the ‘National Competition of Ideas for the soil, from the perspective of a possible General Plan of the Municipal Territory of territory «whose parameter is mobility: a Agrigento’, the ‘National Competition mobility of men and economies, cultural IN/ARCH. S.I.R.: Proposals for an stratifications and settlements, history and industrialization building initiative’ and intervention policies, and whose poles are finally the ‘International Competition for mutually within a single interconnected Urban-Environmental Restoration of the circuit in multiple and multi-faceted Rioni Sassi’. opportunities over time and in management by geography and men»9. The design reasoning is carried out according to a grid obtained following the morphological analysis of the site in which

8 Rosalia La Franca, “Ebraismo, sito, memoria dei luoghi”, in Rosalia La Franca et al. 9 Gangemi Giuseppe and Rosalia La Franca, (eds.), Architettura judaica in Italia: ebraismo, sito, Sistema urbano e progetto. Quattro concorsi di memoria dei luoghi (Palermo: Flaccovio Editore, progettazione (Palermo: Vittorietti Editore, 1979), 1994), 22. 26.

86 two narrow passages are distinguished and housing facilities is part of the between the Gallo and Pellegrino integrated system between the mobility of Mountains. The modularity of the grid the subway and the stasis of the dwelling. allows you to identify the layering by Project and experimentation find in this which to place the block of the residence, context an opportunity of manifestation raised over the terrain to connect them to through an open research regarding the the service terminals. Both the grid use of plastic material also in view of a texture and the blocks of the residence rethinking of the Sicilian industrial process are the result of the combination of the and the use of prefabrication. By two ‘order elements’ that Rosalia La exploiting the technological and physical Franca tracks in the coexistence between possibilities of plastic materials, Rosalia La the mountains and the passages they Franca proposed a type of building generate orographically. consisting of horizontal elements formed The first drawings explicitly show by the aggregation of self-supporting these arguments through schematic modules mounted on reinforced plastic graphical synthesis shapes that give plates, aggregated through interlocking annotations about the site’s features and and individually replaceable. the first design elements: drawing is the Signs thicken in the description of primary project form. Its abstractness neighborhood equipment and services in identifies the meaning of the idea. The the area where residences are doubled. question raised is that of expressiveness The ‘reticular spine of the civic center’ is and communicability through the project the filter between the two systems. In this drawing of continuous confrontation and way, the natural elements of the site are dialectical control generated by the combined with the sign of the project in interpretation and translation of the abstract code of thought, according to architectural poetics in the reading of an analytical procedure for networks and specific realities over time: environmental, ‘neighborhood living rhythms’. dimensional and functional elements Posthumous reflections on the same therefore represent the solution of the schemas show some perplexity of the project. The dwelling, conceived as a same architect about the feasibility of the service tool, becomes «the last capillary of proposal and the relationship between the movements network involving man’s drawing and design, «nature without an actions, the term in which at certain times architecture that adheres to it with lime of the day man stops and regains the and cement is guaranteed in its integrity, sense of himself in the rest and privacy»10. or perhaps the superimposed drawing, The initial diagrams are unplugged of the plastic macrostructure is characterized by a nodal element in an just what can mortify it? Now, looking at eccentric position with respect to the the signs of almost 10 years ago, beyond drawing from which three directions arise, the limit of achievability, the problem has towards Palermo, Terrasini and Mondello, presented no questions and is closed. It is identifying the modularity of the grid and better that architecture is not against the then the layout of the residences. The mountain but below it. That sign, today equipped platform from which the and rightly seems to be a violent way of connections start with collective services

10 Gangemi Giuseppe and Rosalia La Franca, Sistema urbano e progetto. Quattro concorsi di progettazione, 28.

87 representing an overbearing groups; the resulting structure is mainly architecture»11. related to the variability in time and the Rosalia La Franca put these presence of multiple spaces and physical arguments into the sixty-eight cultural artifacts. Once again, the use of the grid climate in which technological utopia and goes back to the tracking directions, the macrostructural readings, new materials, sinuousness of the ground, the formal and prefabrication processes were the structure and the Greek element, resulting form of rethinking urban peripheries. into the organization of a scenario of wills declined in the appropriation of landscape reality. National Competition for the General The general plan project is Plan of the Territory of Agrigento, 1972 structured following the graphic data identified and represented in the diagrams The second theme of competition on within a structural grid conceived for the the Agrigento General Plan showed new urban intervention to the limits found reflections on the urban characteristics in the graph-cognitive phase. Rosalia La and the morphological complexity of the Franca inserted the graphic traces of the territory characterized by the sea to the new intervention: the hospital system, the south «how can be that blue one of Sicily residential system, the civic center and the when it is a sunshine mirror»12, from the spatial equipment for leisure. Annotations medieval city on the rock to the north and and numerical values characterize the from the valley of temples developed project drawing at an evolutionary stage between these two territorial systems13. of the new expansion by integrating with The project proposal developed to the the green together with the identification north, starting with the study of all those of the hinges of services at neighborhood, reliable data that characterize the natural urban and territorial scales. The analysis of and morphological structure of the site, the site graphically carried out in the surveys, valleys, crops, historical, territory of Agrigento emphasizes the architectural and environmental structure of the space model towards the emergencies and infrastructures. north by tracing into the symmetries that The study schemes dealt with the element of compositional force that the issue of the summary drawing code for the architect recognized as a logic representation of natural and design intervention. Based on the particular elements, according to a will of maximum ancient topographical configuration, the integration between the signs of nature structure of the design actions has been and architecture shaping within the obtained, ensuring a buffer zone around drawing frame. the archaeological site to be valued along These are drawings based on a with a number of natural and landscape ‘spatial grammar of points and lines and heritage of considerable importance. The zones’ determined by the convergence of aim was therefore to structure an activities with the settlements of social integrated system of parks developed around the valley, along the coast and 11 Gangemi Giuseppe and Rosalia La Franca, slopes of the rocky ridge on which the Sistema urbano e progetto. Quattro concorsi di medieval city lies, articulating the design progettazione, 10. 12 Idem. grid with the existing city according to a 13 The project proposal for the General Plan metropolitan and territorial service of Agrigento, with the motto M.I.S.U.R.A. won the character. The infrastructure system was first place of the competition.

88 conceived in relation to the existing the workpiece to be produced and roadway by integrating it with new assembled»15. This concreteness on the connection functions. representation of the idea in the available Taking into account the nodes of the space determines the necessary historical-naturalistic apparatus, «the line elimination of little useful details in favor opens, softens, accommodates the wide of a direct communication of the project rugged expanse of the valley and re-reads adapted from time to time to the in transparence the paths of the conceived and measured dwelling module orthogonal system of cardines and on the possible user. decumans of the settlement, still Unlike the approaches adopted in unexplored, but of which there is sure the previous two competition themes, in trace in a few meters of depth under this case, she no longer worked with almond crops. The Drawing therefore as natural passages, but with typological an element of knowledge of the existing abstractions for the realization of and perception of the natural; but drawing repeatable and realizable standards at also as a representation of the design idea different scale of intervention. Utilitarian in all its connotations of oriented sign to worry over space, cost, aggregation, and the new arrangement or to be subjected reproducibility took shape in architectural to the previous arrangement of which a representation through a game of balance harmonic order key has to be found»14. between modules and living cells, resulting in multiple combinatorial configurations that can be adapted to National Competition IN/ARCH. S.I.R., different urban contexts, «an abstract 1973 drawing and falsely concrete. Abstract because falsely autonomous from the Compared to the constraints physical context of the place: everything is proposed in the IN/Arch. S.I.R. possible everywhere; concrete, but still competition Rosalia La Franca faced the falsely, because it has fallen into itself theme from what she defined as a within the limits of the cell and the gap ‘producible element’ to be tested in between the micro-environment and the mounting, assembling and repetition at urban space that should contain it»16. The various scales. two goals set by Rosalia La Franca concern The reference is to the minimum the need for organization and living dwelling, of which she conceived the management of public intervention and structure through the advanced industrialization of the building sector, prefabrication technology integrated in tracing in the new design approach a three different steel types. An idea of differentiated operational control at dwelling as a social service able to propose different levels of the building process to a transformation of the industry and its meet the need for immediate use. relationship with the production cycle. The Sicilian architect addressed the Because of the absence of constraints and issue of housing on the building type, as it spatial indeterminacy of the competition, happens during European rationalism, «the drawing [...] must be all contained through a personal interpretation both within the object in the machinist logic of

15 Ibidem, 13. 14 Gangemi Giuseppe and Rosalia La Franca, 16 Gangemi Giuseppe and Rosalia La Franca, Sistema urbano e progetto. Quattro concorsi di Sistema urbano e progetto. Quattro concorsi di progettazione, 12. progettazione, 14.

89 from the technological and the social according to a plan project increasingly point of view, with a design intent aimed linked to the site. In fact, the proposal is at the artifact as a place where the whole about an integrated park system with the cycle of living obtaining the blend of light hypothesis of total reuse of the prefabrication and typological constituent types of the Sassi «the project standardization between structural is suggested by the existing but not so operations and formal operations. The easy to understand. You have to go and go competition thus constituted an back and measure and stay inside»17. opportunity to verify and compare the The complexity of the thematic area existing typologies to study aggregating constitutes the privileged place of a potentialities in favor of a technological making of a city once expression of the use of plastic material; an analysis of the intellectual struggle on the rethinking of current legislation then follows in relation an agricultural land with a community to the existing types according to the management and subsequently emptied perspective of transformation of the reality by its inhabitants. Rosalia La Franca distribution grid. Each hypothesis was feels the architectural value of the place in conceived with its own matrix of the contradictory coexistence of the myth technological elements according to and the ‘asphyxiated development’ of the aggregate criteria for different design city as a specific problem for the hypotheses (multi-story, stepping, multi- development of the region. story building with balcony access house) The graphic study of the territorial by elaborating a reorganization of the and building system permits to recognize surfaces and creating a continuum the essential elements in terms of bed/living/dining in which the different accessibility, environmental quality and functions are disengaged from small fitted functionality. The analytical drawing passages. shows the gradual recognition method of Again, the project is as an the elements that characterize the site opportunity to offer new technological already adopted in the previous cases, but and functional possibilities to design a with a scalar synthesis, that puts together compositional freedom based on the the territorial system and the building choice of components of the construction system into a single graphic elaboration. product, taking into account the reasoning The methodological criterion is on the variability of use destinations, developed by areas and functions, taking technological obsolescence and on market into account the role that the city plays in mutations. It is therefore a transfer from the southern and national economic ideas to images according to a biunivocal spheres and the significance of the place process between hypothetical and real. within the processes of marginalization of the inner areas, manifestation of the demographic regression and physical International Competition for the obsolescence in the countryside. environmental-urban recovery of the The project proposed by Rosalia La Rioni Sassi, 1975 Franca suggested a process of ‘productive and social reconstruction’ taking into The case of the competition of the account a re-naturalization of the Sassi Sassi di Matera district, in line with the approach adopted for Agrigento, raises 17 Gangemi Giuseppe and Rosalia La Franca, the question of the primacy of the context Sistema urbano e progetto. Quattro concorsi di progettazione, 15.

90 area, the remediation of the entire antithesis (order/disorder, rule/exception, surrounding area through a system of one/many, etc.). Her reflections on the urban and territorial parks. intimate relationship between the Two areas are the ‘cave park of temporal flow and the signs of tradition, Sassi’ with the function of services of the denial of models and the search for territorial importance and the ‘park of unrepeatable archetypes until the denial urban services and residences’. In both of evolutionary concepts of style and cases, the proposal for the revitalization of character lead to the search for a meaning the Sassi accounts for the processes of of the architectural language that defines recovery of living and compliance with the the experimental characterization. hygienic, physical and static requirements Her methodological approach led of the site. In a general context, the nature her to develop «considerations which, of the proposal is an anthropic landscape with great attention to the signs studied, enclosed by aggregations for always allow to reconstruct the neighborhood units and homogeneous construction of the real (and hence its areas by using road penetration systems project) to the knowledge of what already for integration between the system of is (to the history) through representation dwellings by level and the potential of what is going to be»19. relationship with the city. Her work constitutes a hermeneutical process of interpretation of the modern in the transcription of Conclusions architectural issues and in their formulation, according to a critical vision A constant search for the sublime, of of deconstruction and redefinition of the classical notion of measure, a process meaning, «it is therefore to continue to of inference of architectural logic through argue that I interrupt this discourse»20. which the trace of the real is in the physical sign of the graphic language, «in essence, if the Drawing of belonging (survey/revelation) is quality meter for differences and not per unit, the project, putting into service, must return to risk, and no longer absolute, uniform, compact, maximizing, long-lasting, eternal program. It must return to be adapted to a building that makes explicit the belonging, which forms the first end: the living»18. A codified methodology for the research of the principle of architectural, urban and territorial identity characterized Rosalia La Franca’s practice and thinking through the determination of a fragmented contemporary consciousness 19 characterized by the harmony of the Rosalia La Franca, “Presentazione”, in Giuseppe Pagnano (ed.), La difesa virtuale. Progetti inediti di fortificazioni per Palermo e Taormina in 18 La Franca et al., età sabauda (Catania: Istituto Italiano dei Catselli Identità/Differenza/Fraintendimento: le proposte Cuecm, 1992), 5. del Disegno, 221. 20 Ibidem, p. 222.

Bibliography Sicilia”, in Architettura judaica in Italia: ebraismo, sito, memoria dei luoghi, edited - Rosalia, La Franca et al. by Rosalia La Franca et al. 113-114. Identità/Differenza/Fraintendimento: le Palermo: Flaccovio Editore, 1994. proposte del Disegno. Palermo: Flaccovio - Rosalia, La Franca. La forma Editore, 1991. dell’insediamento umano tra natura e - Rosalia, La Franca et al. storia. Palermo: Stampa Luxograph, 1992. Architettura judaica in Italia: ebraismo, - Rosalia, La Franca. “Presentazione”, sito, memoria dei luoghi. Palermo: in La difesa virtuale. Progetti inediti di Flaccovio Editore, 1994. fortificazioni per Palermo e Taormina in - Gangemi, Giuseppe, and Rosalia, La età sabauda, edited by Giuseppe Pagnano, Franca. Sistema urbano e progetto. 5-6. Catania: Istituto Italiano dei Catselli Quattro concorsi di progettazione. Cuecm, 1992. Quaderni di analisi dei sistemi urbani ½. - Giuseppe, Pagnano. La difesa Palermo: Vittorietti Editore, 1979. virtuale. Progetti inediti di fortificazioni per - Rosalia, La Franca. “Ebraismo, sito, Palermo e Taormina in età sabauda. memoria dei luoghi”, in Architettura Catania: Istituto Italiano dei Catselli judaica in Italia: ebraismo, sito, memoria Cuecm, 1992. dei luoghi, edited by Rosalia La Franca et - Paul, Valéry. Quaderni. Volume al. 19-28. Palermo: Flaccovio Editore, quinto. Milano: Adelphi edizioni, 2002. 1994. - Rosalia, La Franca. “Caratteri insediativi e memoria dei luoghi ebraici di

In front of and behind the Mirror

Women in Italian Radical Design

Elena Dellapiana and Annalisa B. Pesando *

Introduction transformation that became, from 1968, a mass-educational system2. In the history of Italian feminism, In Italian universities meetings and some dates are crucial: the universal congresses about the “hot topics” were suffrage, obtained in 1945 together with organized with the self-convocation the new republican Constitution, the formula, without the support or even divorce (1970) and the abortion laws against the official academic institutions. (1975), the definive version of both was Among the others, the Architecture the results of popular referendums, and Faculties were the first in which urban the reform of the family law (1975) meant development, in relationship with social to reduce discrimination in social and inequalities, pollution, cultural heritage work environments1. and environmental preservation, were the The politic and social movements debated issues, and where the number of which struggled for that had their roots in girls enrolled as students was growing. left-wing groups, mainly consisting of At the end of Fifties squatting, students and intellectuals trained during demonstrations, protests began and the early years of contestation and became frequent from 19633, but the counterculture and grown in high schools, crucial phase was in 1968, the year of universities and political circles. It should student mobilizations worldwide. have allowed young women, following the pioneers, to make themselves more and more independent and aware of their The feminine presence in groups possibilities in professional fields, especially after the university The “historical” Radical groups, founded around 1966 and 1971, highlighted nevertheless a limited presence of women in the original groups. * The paper is the result of a continuous match between the authors. In particular it is to Elena Dellapiana the Introduction, the second and 2 Giovanni Genovesi, Storia della scuola third paragraphs and the conclusion, to Annalisa italiana dal Settecento a oggi, (Roma-Bari: Laterza, Pesando the fourth paragraph. The authors want 1998). to thank the interviewed architects and designers 3 First squatting were in Venice (1958 and who have been generously available to speak not 1960) and Turin (1959) to protest against the only about professional events but also about introduction of some restrictive rules; Francisca personal feelings. Insulza, Studenti, architetti, città: da facoltà d’élite 1 Miguel Malagreca, “Lottiamo ancora: a università di massa, PHD Dissertation, “Storia e Reviewing one Hundred and Fifty Years of Italian valorizzazione del Patrimonio Architettonico, Feminism”, Journal of International Women’s Urbanistico e Ambientale”, Politecnico di Torino Studies” 4 (May 2006), 68-89. 2009, sup. G. Montanari.

The Florentine 9999 (1967), Zziggurat Furthermore Lara Vinca Masini8 who (1968), Superstudio (1966) and the Turin saw in the Radical groups a way to “open” Strum (1971) were totally male while in Florence, folded on its Renaissance past, UFO (Florence, 1967) we find Patrizia towards an international artistic future, Cammeo; Lucia Bartolini entered the favoured the contacts between the young Archizoom (Florence, 1966), in 1967 and architects and the most international Athena Sampanitou, later joined by her personalities of the moment: for example sister Angelica, was one of the founding with Fernanda Pivano, journalist and members of the Studio 65 group (Turin translator of American novelists and poets 1965). belonging to the Beat Generation, and The different groups included in the Ettore Sottsass, architect and designer, “Radical”4 category, all dislocated art-director, from 1957, of the Tuscany eccentrically with respect to Milan –the furniture firm Poltronova9. After the flood “mecca” of Good Design- were affected by that hit Florence in 1967, they attempted the cultural and artistic influences of their to collect works of all the contemporary respective cities of origin. In Florence the Pop artists to establish an international courses held by Leonardo Ricci and museum of contemporary art, becoming Leonardo Savioli5 criticized the mega the core of a huge networking action in structural widespread trend, proposing a which two women, Lara and Nanda, were more human and social scale for both pivotal figures. architecture and objects, and the However, the women in the groups architecture and art historian Lara Vinca were really few: Patrizia Cammeo was one Masini pointed her attention on the post- of the original members of UFO group10. avant-gard art6. On the contrary in Turin Patrizia remembers an atmosphere of the academic courses were still traditional great competition between the guys and and even the entrance of Achille tolerance toward her due to her prettiness Castiglioni as professor of “Progettazione and her bond with Riccardo Foresi, her artistica per l’industria” ("Artistic design future husband: “I was the nice girl who for the industry", from 1969 to 1982), was the model in the photo shootings and sounded alien to the ongoing despite the fact that we were experimentations influenced by the politic revolutionary, the women touched only spurs and the artistic researches7. the most “domestic” topics”. In the UFO Superhappening in San Giovanni Valdarno (1968), for example, she was charged to

4 Germano Celant, “Radical Architecture”. In create the costumes and her own feeling Emilo Ambasz (ed.), Italy: The New Domestic was not to be much important. On the Landscape. Achievements and Problems of Italian contrary, when she and Riccardo had a Design (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1972), 380-387. 5 Fiorella Bulegato, Rosa Chiesa, “Note anni Trenta ai Sessanta”, QUAD. Quaderni di sull’insegnamento della storia del Design in Italia: Architettura e Design 1 (2017), forthcoming. 1950-1990”, in Pier Paolo Peruccio, Dario Russo 8 Interview collected on 13.07.2017. (eds.), Storia hic et nunc. La formazione dello 9 Francesca Balena Arista (ed.), storico del design in Italia e all’estero, (Torino: Poltronova Backstage. Archizoom, Sottsass and Allemandi, 2015). Superstudio. The Radical Era 1962 - 1972 (Miami: 6 Laura Lombardi, “Lara-Vinca Masini”, in Fortino Editions, 2017). Maura Pozzati (ed.), Artiste della Critica, (Mantova: 10 Stefano Pezzato (ed.), UFO STORY Corraini, 2015). Dall'architettura radicale al design globale, (Prato: 7 Elena Dellapiana, “Da dove vengono i Centro Luigi Pecci, 2012); interview collected on designer (se non si insegna il design)? Torino dagli 20.09.2017.

94 baby and Patrizia left the group, the group Their researches developed from pieces of itself crashed as if the only female figure furniture to the large scale of the No-stop was its glue, and, after the end of the city (1970-1971) and on this ground grew Radical season, the couple continued their the idea of a global design that also common work on the topics of urban included clothing items. The reflection on planning as a result of their previous the supply of objects for life in anti-urban researches on social themes11. sites came to the proposal of a Rational In 1967 Lucia Morozzi and Dario clothing system (1970) followed by the Bartolini, who will marry in 1969, joined Dressing design (1972). Based on the idea the Archizoom group12, collaborating to all of the user's participation in the finishing the collective projects, but with a later and on the use and declination of neutral specialization, especially by Lucia, on dresses, the Dressing Design was far from dressing design. a stylists’ approach and focused on Since the beginning the group’s production systems and new materials work was affected by the cultural and development. Lucia Bartolini, with her habit changes, particularly by the “sexual sister Nicoletta Morozzi, later Andrea revolution”, traces of which were founded Branzi’s wife, was the most active in this in many of their projects as the Scroto line of research, even if, as Lara Vinca (scrotum) furnishing (1969) and the Masini states “after the very beginning, Manhattan skyscraper (1969), both in she was mainly occupied in the care of her phallic shape, or the double room Dream children, home and husband”. The Beds and the Gazebo project (1967)13 improvement of experimental fabrics used which, with their quoting of American for basic garments as the Overall or the visual and musical counterculture Body –unisex and combinable- produced (rainbows, arrows, animalier fabrics, in joint venture with the Fiorucci brand folksingers portraits), or with their and published on Vogue14, highlighted transparencies and indeterminacy of once more how the design in relationship spaces, pushed the audience to imagine with fashion was one of the opportunities hot nights and informal uses in contrast open to women as a traditionally feminine with the bourgeois schemes. These first field and able to define their roles in experimentations were spread by the project. Indeed, in 1974, two different countercultural magazine “Pianeta fresco” projects were published on “Casabella”15 created and directed by Pivano, with Allen and “Domus”16, showing the proposals for Ginsberg as deputy director (irresponsible the competition for the Libyan national director) and her husband Ettore Sottsass costume by Lucia and Dario Bartolini and jr. as art director (head of the gardens). by Nanni Strada and Clino T. Castelli (couples in real life). In both cases the aim 11 She started, aged 53, her collaboration was to claim for design the fashion with the Vittorio Gregotti firm, in the garden and urban park design. 12 Roberto Gargiani, Dall’onda pop alla 14 The shooting is by Oliviero Toscani, the superficie neutra. Archizoom Associati 1966-1974, models are Donna Jordan and the architect (Milan: Electa, 2007). Benedetto Gravagnuolo, for L’Uomo Vogue 19 13 About the magazine Pianeta fresco: Mario (aug- sept. 1972) 68-73; Archizoom, “Dressing Maffi, La cultura Underground, (Bologna: Odoya, design”, Casabella 373 (january 1973), 17-22. 2009); Martina Spalla, Le Origini della sostenibilità 15 N. 510 (may 1972). ambientale nel progetto italiano. Dibattiti ed esiti 16 “Vestirsi Arabo”, Domus 537 (august tra il dopoguerra e la crisi energetica, Degree 1974), 22-25; “Abitare l’abito”, Domus 510 (may dissertation, Politecnico di Torino, sup. Elena 1972), 33-38. Nanni Strada, Lezioni. Moda-design e Dellapiana, a.a. 2016-17. cultura del progetto, (Milan: Lupetti, 2013).

95 stylism, using the common spurs – Utopie, the British Archigram, the Italian industrial production, seriality, material Archizoom and the elder Italian born experimentation- and mixing those with active in USA Aldo Gurgiola and Paolo liminary disciplines, as semiology, Soleri20. following Roland Barthes writings17, In the organizing committee, named anthropology and ethnology in the U e/o R, we find, among the seven direction traced by Bernard Rudofsky18. members, three women, Graziella Gay Clothes easy to wear, informal, Derossi, Adriana Ferroni and Elena interchangeable, practical, economic were Tamagno, and, among the younger the results of this renovation research participants – still studying or just which remained anchored to the design graduating- Angelica Sampanitou and method but switched to a field Maria Schiappa. traditionally feminine, considered, during Some of them gathered in the local the years of contestation, at the frivolous Radical group, as STRUM (male exclusive limit. While Nanni Strada continued her group), or Studio 6521, founded by Franco activity as fashion designer, Lucia Bartolini Audrito, with his wife Angelica –Nanà- didn’t appear in further professional Sampanitou, Franco Tartaglia, later joined occupations. by Adriana Ferroni (born Garizio). Nanà In Turin, due to the social turmoil tells of meetings to prepare contest typical of the workers' cities, the design projects22 – a seat in fibreglass, the debate was oriented towards a more Omoteca23- mixing the social themes and political approach. In 1969 a huge the design of items and architecture. She conference, organized by the “volunteer states that women were quite numerous assistant committee” took place. Titled at meetings –the “chat time”- but a few in Architettura: Utopia e/o Rivoluzione professional life. She remembers how to (Architecture: Utopia and/or be a pretty woman helped her and her Revolution)19, the conference collected own group in making contacts with firms reports by the most international and beginning the successfully innovative firms as the French professional career which followed with Architecture Principe, Yona Friedman, the design of some of the most iconic pieces of Radical design as the Bocca 17 Roland Barthes, Système de la Mode, couch (1970) or the Capitello seat (1971) (Paris: Ed. Du Seuil, 1967). in collaboration with Gufram company. 18 The MoMA exhibition edited by Rudofsky, The “Gufram Track” which involved “Are the Clothes Modern? An essay on contemporary apparel” is dated 1944; MoMA other designer as the Strum group and Archives, New York, Giuseppe Raimondi allowed the group to http://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/3159 ?locale=en accessed September 6, 2017; Elena Dellapiana, “Case e sandali. Bernard Rudofsky dalle 20 Alicia Imperiale, “Utopia e/o Rivoluzione, isole del Mediterraneo al mito dell’anonimo", in A. Politecnico di Torino 1969”, in B. Colomina (ed.), Maglio, F. Mangone, A. Pizza (eds.), Immaginare il Radical Pedagogies, Princeton, 2013-2014, Mediterraneo. Architettura arti fotografia, (Naples: http://radical-pedagogies.com/ Accessed Paparo, 2017), 205-214. September 7, 2017. 19 The conference held from 25 (anniversary 21 Franco Audrito, Maria Cristina Didero, Il of the liberation from Nazi-fascism in Italy) to 27 mercante di nuvole, (Milan: Skira 2015). April 1969, in the historical site of the Faculty of 22 Interview collected on September, 12th, Architecture, the Castello del Valentino. The 2017, Turin. scheduled speechs and the debats are published in 23 A kind of chaise-loungue obteined with the magazine Marcatre 50/55 (February-July the mold of the figure of a person lying down, 1969), 6-133. never realized except in the form of a prototype.

96 meet the artistic milieu, thus to 1976, of “Modo” from 1977 to 1979 characterizing the Turinoise mood as the and then of “Domus”, and he involved most artistic in Italian outline. The several women in the different collaboration with artists as Piero Gilardi newsrooms, or in groups as Global Tools and Ugo Nespolo, the attending of the (1973) the multidisciplinary self-design post-avangard galleries24 and the and self-build workshops. Lidia Prandi, involvement in design-driven exhibition as Mendini’s wife, Ines Klok, wife of the EuroDomus25, turned away from the social musician Davide Mosconi and musician themes the projects and the groups raised herself, were Global Tools members and on these challenges. Furthermore, the appeared as co-protagonists and radicalization of the social struggle melt background of their partners’ the dichotomy “Utopia and/or performances (for example the Gufram Revolution”, discussed in 1969. On one polyurethane seat, 1974, with Gilardi, or hand somebody from the original groups the Sitting woman performance, 1976, turned in the armed struggle in the with Mosconi or the Costume for woman following dramatic decade, on the other and harp 197). Mendini tells that they hand the initial optimism about changing were “an help”28 and almost always, after the goals of the architect's work ceased these early experiences, they turned to and many had to emigrate or switch field different occupations: journalism (Prandi) of action and, regarding women, and music (Klok). Even in groups where interrupting the work when babies were they were many, women played roles of born, “a vacation from the tension of work “order” in editorial and organizing staffs competition”, says Nanà26. and when they started solo careers they The greater presence of women did that as journalists, critics, curators and occurred in the groups created by artists. This is the case of the “Modo” Alessandro Mendini, the most influencing editorial staff: Nives Ciardi editor and later architect, following Gio Ponti, in child psychoanalyst, Claudia Donà curator, organising crews, creating and directing Cristina Morozzi, architect Massimo specialized magazines and events27. He Morozzi’s wife29, journalist, Barbara was the director of “Casabella” from 1970 Radice, the daughter of the painter Mario Radice journalist and curator, Patrizia 24 The Galleria Sperone opened in 1964 Rizzi, illustrator and artist, Daniela Puppa initiating collaboration with Ileana Sonnabend, fashion designer. The same thing introducing American Pop Artist in Italy and Italian happened with the former “Domus” artist in New York, Luca Massimo Barbero, Cecilia Widenheim (eds.), Time & Place: Milano-Torino collaborators under Mendini’s direction: 1958-1968, Moderna Museet, (Stockolm: Steidl Lisa Licitra Ponti, Ponti’s daughter, Verlag, 2008). curator, Marianne Lorenz historical editor 25 The first edition of the fair-exhibition of the magazine, Maria Grazia Mazzocchi promoted by the magazine Domus held in Genova chief publisher, Rosa Maria Rinaldi in 1966, the second and the fourth in Torino in 1968 and 1972. Elisa Argenta, Decorare, arredare, journalist and artist, Patrizia Scarzella abitare. Tre decenni di design per la casa nelle journalist. As designers they collaborated, pagine di Domus, Degree dissertation, Politecnico e.g. in the Alchymia group (1979) mainly di Torino, 2009, sup. E. Dellapiana. 26 Adriana Garizio was arrested in 1976 for her belonging to the “Brigate Rosse” group. The 28 Interview collected on September 18th couple Nanà and Franco Audrito (Studio 65), went 2017, Milan. to Arab Emirates in 1975. 29 Cristina Morozzi, Il design non è una cosa 27 Peter Weiss, Alessandro Mendini. Cose seria. Memorie di una ragazza radicale, (Milan: progetti costruzioni, (Milano: Electa, 2000). Rizzoli 2017).

97 on the topics of decoration, clothes, characteristic of her work. She was fabrics. interested in women approach, as shown in a collective exhibition held in Brescia (Castello di Oldofredi, 1976) titled Magma The solo careers edited with the art critic and Enzo Mari’s wife Lea Vergine34 (who in turn will edit Just in few cases, from the group the gorgeous exhibition “The other avant- and the couple or family dynamics, some garde half” in 1980)35, but, she states, “the women started their own careers. Paola womanhood as to tend to family and Navone, graduated in Torino with an early reproduction, was the obstacle the dissertation on Radical Architecture women themselves set on their own way, (1973)30 that was published the next year they did not want to leave the old road for in the “Documenti di Casabella” by a new one”. She remembers also to have Mendini’s decision, and involved in many been twitted by colleagues for her initiatives, became an important sign of eclecticism and for her relationship with Italian design, also as art director of elder people belonging to the “old guard” several design companies31. She states as Gio Ponti. Nanda Vigo, once again, that one of her luck was not having represented the crossover and children. This allowed her to travel in far overlapping attitude between different countries, to know cultures and situations fields –architecture, design, art, from which to get ideas and projects curatorship, critic- which was typical of always new32. women in those year in which was The absence of a family is one of the objectively difficult to play masculine roles critical points highlighted by Nanda Vigo33 as the traditional architect or designer. too. She, after graduating in architecture Even in the professional from the École polytechnique de relationships with companies, often the l’Université de Lausanne, and a work alternative ones asked the collaboration of experience in the United States, started these borderline designers: Gufram, her interest in relationship between Poltronova, Fiorucci, which worked with architecture, art, and design. Piero the radical groups, or Simon-Gavina who Manzoni’s partner during the Sixties, after produced in 1971 the “Ron-ron” seat by 1959 she worked on interdisciplinary the Romanian born artist Marion Baruch projects – art, standard production pieces, or the table “Traccia” by Meret interior and exhibition design-, that Oppenheim, included in the series explored the relationship between space Ultramobile (1971-1973), addressed to and light which became the unifying dialogue with surrealist artists and not only with “traditional” designers36. 30 Paola Navone, Bruno Orlandoni, Architettura “radicale”, (Milan: Documenti di Casabella, 1974). 31 Spencer Bailey, Tham Ma Da: The 34 Francesca Alfano Miglietti, “Lea Vergine, Adventurous Interiors of Paola Navone, (New York: la signora della body-art”, in Maura Pozzati (ed.), Pointed Leaf Press, 2016). Artiste della critica, (Mantova: Corraini, 2015) 108- 32 Sing of Design, Paola Navone, 125. Televisionet, 3 March 2011, 35 Lea Vergine, L' altra metà dell' https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YLIStdNjOeU avanguardia 1910-1940: pittrici e scultrici nei Accessed Septembre 8, 2017. movimenti delle avanguardie storiche, (Milan: 33 Interview collected on July, 24th 2017; Mazzotta, 1980). Barbara Pastor, Nanda Vigo interni ‘60-‘70, (Milan: 36 Elena Brigi, Daniele Vincenzi (eds.), Atlas Segesta, 2006). Dino Gavina, (Mantova: Corraini, 2010).

understood as the original social code of Italian rural life, was going to be replaced Women as mean of Radical by consumer groups linked to a new communication technological civilization39. His speech, that was a part of the more general Architects, designers or artists, Pasolini's reflection on the "mutation of women were anyway a strong mean of anthropology" in Italy, told about a new communication for the Radical design woman, emancipated and free from the items, in turn icons of social, cultural and role of mother and from the codes of the artistic changes. paternalistic society (pater familias), but Especially the photography became also under the thumbs of the new laws of one of the preferred means to express this consumption carried out by bourgeois need for a change and women were the society40. So house, with its equipments protagonists -symbol of these reforms- and decorations, become the perfect both as favourite subjects to be stage on which playing both the social role photographed and as photo reporters and and the transformation of goods system photographers37. The great number of one. artist-photographers who worked in the The feminist historian Lea Melandri 1970s magazines shows how photography (1941) wrote: “It is no coincidence that was a profession appreciated by the women gather in homes, it may look like female universe in which observation and regression, a step backwards in their path communication through a medium -the of emancipation, but in reality they touch camera– became an expression of their on issues that have always been identity and working dignity. This remains considered marginal and non-political” 41. in fact a challenge that was not resolved Among the several interesting by the contesting season, even if pictures of that period, that became very intellectuals and critics fuleled the iconic, there is the black and white discussion on the women role between portrait depicting Superonda, the couch 1969 and 197538. The social changes that made of foam blocks designed in 1968 by had to overwhelm the traditional Italian the Archizoom group and produced by family were interpreted, among others, by Poltronova. On the Superonda stands Pier Paolo Pasolini interviewed in the Rai voluptuous pose Florinda Bolkan (Florinda Uno tv-show “Donna Donna” in 1974. He Soares Bulĉao 1941), a Brazilian actress stated that an epochal change was noticed by Luchino Visconti who in 1969 underway in which "we no longer need the family"; in his opinion the family, 39 Videos aired on September 21, 1974, http://www.teche.rai.it/2015/02/intervista-a- pasolini-su-donna-e-famiglia-21091974/ Accessed 37 Pierre Lannoy, “L’usine, la photographie August 21, 2017. et la nation. L’entreprise automobile fordiste et la 40 Enzo Golino and Pier Paolo Pasolini, il production des photographes industriels”, Genèses sogno di una cosa: pedagogia, eros, letteratura dal 80 (2010), 114-133; more generally Mario Piazza, mito del popolo alla società di massa, (Bologna: Il “La grafica per il ‘Made in Italy’“, Mulino, 1985); Pier Paolo Pasolini, Saggi sulla http://www.aisdesign.org/aisd/la-grafica-per-il- politica e sulla società, (Milan: Mondadori, 1999). made-in-italy. Accessed September 10, 2017. 41 Storia del movimento femminista in Italia 38 Ilaria Bussoni and Raffaella Perna (eds.), Il – Gli anni Settanta gesto femminista. La rivolta delle donne: nel corpo, http://www.lastoriasiamonoi.rai.it/puntate/storia- nel lavoro, nell’arte, (Rome: Derive Approdi, 2014); del-movimento-femminista-in- Carla Lonzi, Sputiamo su Hegel, (Milan: Scritti di italia/739/default.aspx Accessed September 5, rivolta femminile, 1970 1°ed). 2017.

99 was awarded with the David of Donatello Similarly, Cristiano Toraldo di Francia price as the protagonist of the film Metti (1941) – one of the Superstudio founders una sera a cena by Giuseppe Patroni Griffi. and also the group “official” photographer The shoot author was Elisabetta Catalano - immortalized their Onos bed produced (1941-2015)42 who had immortalized a by Giovannetti (1968) along with two generation of artists as a portraitist in the black women. The image conceived for the fashion and cinema world. Catalano's market, caring the colours and the career began in the 1960s as the partner arrangement of the subjects with the bed of the photographer Fabio Mauri in the in foreground - highlighted a delicate Roman cultural setting, where, with other social theme as the racial segregation. artists and intellectuals, they carried on The irreverent and nonconforming visual experimentations that would to design object created and communicated overcome the post-war Realism in order by the radical groups became therefore to reach "picture reported" formulas. Her the main subject of artistic choices to monochrome studies fascinated Federico reach broadened public not only for Fellini who consequently chose her for the commercial goals but also to stimulate photo shooting of his movies. deeper interpretations and social The “Superonda/Bolkan” picture challenges. became a symbol of a creative and cultural The same approach characterized women claim: a lady is the creator and the communication for the Bazaar subject of the photo; the Superonda sofa armchair, a rugged polyester resin seat was an household but nonconformist item with double-curved fiberglass shell and which subverted the rules of sitting and acrylic fur produced by the Tuscany firm rest as well as those of space; the model, Giovannetti (1968)44. Florinda, interpreted the feminine beauty, Toraldo di Francia made the shoots the freedom from the social conventions series for this 'pumpkin' seat too45: idyllic as an independent actress to whom the arcadic scenery with young ladies dressed Sapphic partnership with the film vestals playing the flute (and drinking Coca producer Countess Marina Cicogna (1934), Cola) or nude on the pink fausse-fourrure added sensual charm and sexual chair; hippy scenarios set on the brown uninhibitedness claims typical of this peluche Bazaar with blond models or a period43. cheerful black model dressed in red. It is interesting to note that the marketing choice proposed by the “Domus” 42 Barbara Martusciello, “Elisabetta Catalano, fotografa di una generazione magazine, which in January 1970 (No. pionieristica, bellissima principessa per sempre”, 482/1970) devoted a page to January 7, 2015 Superstudio's pumpkin, opting for the http://www.artapartofculture.net/2015/01/07/elis white armchair and brown beaver fabric abetta-catalano-fotografa-di-una-generazione- with family setting scenes (a woman alone pionieristica-bellissima-principessa-per-sempre/ Accessed August 31, 2017. http://www.archivioelisabettacatalano.it/ August 44 Giuseppe Lotti (ed.), La fabbrica bella: 31, 2017. design toscano. Storia e Prospettive, (Florence: 43 Mario Cirrito, Il mondo dorato di Marina Alinea, 2003). Cicogna in mostra a Roma: "Che anni felici con la 45 Toraldo di Francia was the author of Bolkan", Queer Blog, May 27, 2009. almost all the photo shooting for catalogues http://www.queerblog.it/post/5362/il-mondo- Guerrieri, and Poltronova:, Francesca Balena Arista dorato-di-marina-cicogna-in-mostra-a-roma-che- (ed.), Poltronova Backstage. Archizoom,Sottsass anni-felici-con-la-bolkan. Accessed on September and Superstudio. The Radical Era 1962 – 1972, 2017. (Miami: Fortino Editions, 2017).

100 or with a young girl) or at the very least can sink, fall asleep and immerse itself in with a quiet hippy mood. The pumpkin is the new offbeat furniture. The picture to so transformed into a protected be published in magazines showed a environment and in a context anchored to sophisticated model conveniently lay on the bourgeois tradition rather than to the the "Sacco", in an image between the series of Radical transgressive objects. market's compromise and Pop's trends of In widespread imaginary - thanks to the period. advertising and happening - Radical design Among the radical products that alternated reassuring images with others attracted more publicity and criticism was more subversive with regard to the the Up series, designed by Gaetano Pesce customers’ common behaviours. For and produced by Cassina and Busnelli (C & example the Pratone seat produced by B) in 1968. The series made of Gufram (Strum Group des.), denied polyurethane foam combined searches of through the model’s posture, the idea harmonic shapes, flexibility of use and itself of outdoor/indoor space as well as transport thanks to the vacuum packaging. the conventional seating arrangements The most aware of the series was the Up5 and dimensions. In the case of the pvc chair titled Donna for evoking the female Blow Inflatable Chair (Jonathan De Pas, shapes emulating a wraparound womb; Donato D'Urbino, Paolo Lomazzi and Carla this was often together with the Up6, a Scolari des., Prod. By Zanotta in 196746), in spherical footrest. In Pesce’s mind the Up5 the advertising campaign the comfort of and 6 were the symbols of woman's the living room is shifted outdoors, for all imprisonment, victim of male bias48, but and no place in particular, and nice middle the item also lend itself to more free and class ladies, pearl necklace and well sensual interpretations, especially by combed - "rebuild" family environments photographic shootings. on meadows, on the sea, in the city For example, Sean Connery -as streets. To this "reassuring" catalogue James Bond- sitting on Donna and picture, the photographer Veronique photographed by Terry O'Neill in 1971 in Bucossi47 - among the most entertaining Las Vegas on the Diamond Are Forever set, artists who handed down the image of the gets an ambiguous meaning and a strong sixties and seventies - immortalized on sensual connotation. On the other hand Blow in 1968 a sensual Jane Birkin. She the producing company (C & B) conceived had just appeared in a somewhat a descriptive advertising - with a scandalous scene in Blow-up (1966, dir. coordinated image designed by Enrico M. Antonioni) and was going to interpret Trabacchi - focused on the functional the famous song Je t'aime ... moi non plus features of the chair, its transportability (1969). and friendly use. Anyway is a woman – The Sacco chair designed by Piero black-dressed as a mime - the user who Gatti, Cesare Paolini and Franco Teodoro illustrated the steps for transporting and in 1968 (prod. Zanotta) mean the search assembling the Up5. The effectiveness of for a new comfort and adaptation to any the image lied in the contrast between the form and place. It was the embodiment of large and seemingly heavy object, and the relaxes, fitting for a new generation that typically feminine weakness.

46 Zanotta Archives, Nova Milanese. 48 Domitilla Dardi, Gianni Mercurio (eds.), 47 David Wills, Switched on: women who Gaetano Pesce: il tempo della diversità, Catalogue revolutionized style in the 60’s, (Weldon Owen: of the Exhibition, Rome, MAXXI (Milano: Electa, Blue Streak, 2017). 2014).

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Similarly, one of the most sensual language and authors were anyway more and provocative pieces of the Radical or less the same: for the Mario Bellini's period, the Studio 65’s Bocca couch Bambole the photos for the advertising (produced by Gufram 1971), inspired by campaign were realized by Oliviero the surrealistic Salvador Dalí's lounge with Toscani, who made a series of disinhibited Mae West lips (1935) and by the shots of the androgynous model Donna provocative Hollywood stars’ red-hot lips, Jordan, a Pop icon who inspired Andy was published on “Life magazine” along Warhol too. Among the various with "The Girl of the Seventies" - Marisa provocative shots, however, only one of Berenson (1947)49, actress, model and the softer was chosen: the model showed Dali's muse. Once again, Richard Avedon50 only a flash of naked breasts and assumed (1923-2004) mixed radical object and a fairly composite posture, ambiguously at female icons. the limit of the promises of love in the Poltronova published on “Domus” advertising slogan "... Dolls who go away an advertisement rather unconventional on dolls who remain ". of Archizoom's Safari: an ‘imperial’ sofa, The provocative uses of women with Fiberglas structure and faux leopard body in visual communication, as a finish, fabric or leather. The image manifesto of the countercultural design, portrays a thoughtful woman and an and the radical design itself were, as we observing child both sitting on the have seen, somehow controlled and clean modular couch, and a sobering caption in by the magazine editorial board, almost twin languages (English and Italian) says: entirely composed of women. “An imperial piece in the dreariness of This is the case for the magazine your domestic walls. A piece that's finer “Abitare” directed by Piera Peroni (1929- than you. A very beautiful piece that you 1974)51. Particularly in the number 82 would not deserve. Clear your sitting- (1970), devoted to the living room room! Clear even your life!” (“Domus” furnishing and titled "Less pieces 510, 1972). furniture, please"52 despite the author did This ambivalence between not appreciate the radical exaggerations provocative photography and the need to defined "at the limit of the paradox"53 and adhere to the market rules, although in some cases completely rejected54, she mainly related to Radical items, also invested other kind of objects of this 51 period in particular those produced by the Marco Sammicheli, “Piera Peroni e il talento senza gender”, in Raimonda Riccini (ed.), company Busnelli, which was investing in Angelica e Bradamante. Le donne del design, advertising with its marketing director, the (Padova: Il Poligrafo: 2017) 95-102; Annalisa B. photographer Gianni Sassi (1938-1993) Pesando, Design and women through the pioneering nd who founded the semi-annual corporate magazine Stile Industria (1954-1963), 2 MoMoWo magazine Kaleidoscope. The chosen Conference-Workshop, Ljubiana, 2016, Forthcoming. 52 Piera Peroni, “Meno mobili per favore”, 49 Leonetta Bentivoglio, “Marisa Berenson”, Abitare 82 (1970), 2-3. La Repubblica, May 17, 2009; Chiara Caputo, 53 Ead. .5. “Marisa Berenson: icona di stile e bellezza”, 54 Piera Peroni, “No, no questo poi no”, http://d-art.it/moda/marisa-berenson-icona-di- Abitare 92 (1971), 191-198. Without comments, stile-e-bellezza/20074. Accessed September 17, Piera Peroni put on a “NO” written background a 2017; Marisa Berenson, A life in Pictures, (Milan: series of images of homewares considered Rizzoli, 2011). unacceptable, including the Ettore Sottsass’s 50 Jane Livingston, Adam Gopnik, Evidence mirror Ultrafragola, the Studio 65 group’s Pratone, 1944-1994, (New York: Random House, 1994). etc.

102 spend ample space just to radical traditional living room57. Even the Sacco productions, considered as well innovative by Gatti, Paolini and Teodoro was and worthy of attention. In a long article described as "a return to the origins” told of 34 pages, the magazine opened with a as a light sitting-shelter for children and double page dedicated to the Archizoom’s women58. This will to transform the Mies chair. Piera Peroni recognized the revolutionary trigger of the Radical items innovative and imaginative value of the into more reassuring products for Archizoom sitting system, compared to everyday life reveals both the commercial the "often sterile" variations on the theme aim, and the general need - of which many of the armchair. She appreciated its women were interpreters- to bring the essential and geometric taste, the shape politic struggles back to the safer of the rubber seat, which thanks to its household. elasticity accommodates the body, bends Similarly, “Domus” focused on the to all the movements and then returns radical production enhancing its perfectly in line. Presented with the title innovative and non-conforming aspects, "let's lie on the hypotenuse ", the article although the choice of those images was was provided with 5 photos by the Dance oriented to a commercial improvement + Dance studio, founded by Aldo Ballo using a "reassuring" visual communication (1928-1994) - brother of the art historian with mannequin who resembled mothers Guido Ballo - and Marirosa Toscano Ballo and sisters in a bourgeois approach59. (1931), another pivotal woman - daughter “Casabella” directed by Alessandro of the Corriere della Sera photo reporter Mendini (from 1970 to 1976) as one of the Sergio Fedele Toscani and Oliviero Toscani main radicalism amplifiers, dedicated sister55. In the captions only Aldo Ballo instead extensive chapters to was mentioned, while the “Interplanetary Architecture", told as a acknowledgment of the their common method of comprehensive and all-scale work will only be later. project, dealing indeed very little Piera Peroni's article explored then specifically with objects. Gaetano Pesce's Up Series and about the As in previous examples, women Donna chair she preferred to underline its were the authors of most of these "maternal image", its "almost prenatal" reports60 highlighting once again the roles relaxation that protects from daily fears56. they have played as critics, storytellers –in For the Bazaar she exalted its "temple" words and images-, sorters, “groups glue” image, devoted to daily life, alone or and problem solvers. gathered together in a somehow

55 Giovanna Calvenzi and Salvatore 57 Eadem, “Chiacchiere nella conchiglia”, Gregorietti (eds.), Il linguaggio dell’oggetto Abitare 82 (1970), 8-9. attraverso le fotografie di Aldo Ballo e Marirosa 58 Eadem, “Lasciati mettere nel sacco”, Toscani Ballo, (Cinisello Balsamo: Silvana Editoriale, Abitare 82 (1970), 12-13. 2009); Ilaria Defilippo, Catturare su pellicola 59 E.g., the magazine Domus dedicated an l’essenza del design italiano. Conversazione con article to Archizoom’s products presented by Marirosa Toscani Ballo, 24.03.2017, Ettore Sottsass. Domus 455 (1967), 26-31. http://www.alleyoop.ilsole24ore.com/2017/03/24 60 E.g., Daniela Puppa "Molti mobili ma per /catturare-su-pellicola-lessenza-del-design- chi" (Casabella 361 (1972), 56-62); another italiano-conversazione-con-marirosa-toscani-ballo/ character to be studied is Aurelia Raffo (1948), Accessed September 5, 2017. photographer and graphic designer, who was 56 Piera Peroni, “La balia sottovuoto”, charged in recording Ugo La Pietra's cinematic Abitare 82 (1970), 6-7. experience and urban performances.

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Conclusions and Superstudio. The Radical Era 1962 – 1972, Miami: Fortino Editions, 2017 While this very first overview raises Barbero, Luca Massimo, and the tangential nature of women roles in Widenheim, Cecilia (eds.). Time & Place: the design world, in spite of the social Milano-Torino 1958-1968, Moderna changing and costuming trends, on the Museet, Stockolm: Steidl Verlag, 2008 other hand, it is possible to identify the Barthes, Roland. Système de la Radical phase as the one in which the Mode, Paris: Ed. Du Seuil, 1967 disciplinary division, or rather, the Bentivoglio, Leonetta. “Marisa exclusive design management by Berenson”, La Repubblica, May 17, 2009 architects, ceased, somehow thanks to Berenson, Marisa. A life in Pictures, women. Indeed, their liminary works, Milan: Rizzoli, 2011 chased to remedy the closure of the Livingston, Jane, and Gopnik, Adam. "male" project, their educations and Evidence 1944-1994, New York: Random careers as artists, psychologists, journalists House, 1994 and critics have made possible to melt the Brigi, Elena, and Vincenzi, Daniele project, making it increasingly complex (eds.). Atlas Dino Gavina, Mantova: and made of different, new contributions, Corraini, 2010 of which women are often the engine and Bulegato, Fiorella, and Chiesa, Rosa. the main promoters. “Note sull’insegnamento della storia del Design in Italia: 1950-1990”, in Pier Paolo Peruccio, Dario Russo (eds.), Storia hic et nunc. La formazione dello storico del design in Italia e all’estero, Torino: Allemandi, 2015 Bibliography Bussoni, Ilaria, and Perna, Raffaella (eds.). Il gesto femminista. La rivolta delle Alfano Miglietti, Francesca. “Lea donne: nel corpo, nel lavoro, nell’arte, Vergine, la signora della body-art”, in Rome: Derive Approdi, 2014 Maura Pozzati (ed.), Artiste della critica, Calvenzi, Giovanna, and Gregorietti, Mantova: Corraini, 2015, 108-125 Salvatore (eds.). Il linguaggio dell’oggetto Archizoom, “Dressing design”, attraverso le fotografie di Aldo Ballo e Casabella 373 (january 1973), 17-22 Marirosa Toscani Ballo, Cinisello Balsamo: Argenta, Elisa. Decorare, arredare, Silvana Editoriale, 2009 abitare. Tre decenni di design per la casa Caputo, Chiara. “Marisa Berenson: nelle pagine di Domus, Tesi di Laurea, icona di stile e bellezza”, http://d- Politecnico di Torino, 2009, sup. E. art.it/moda/marisa-berenson-icona-di- Dellapiana stile-e-bellezza/20074. Accessed Audrito, Franco, and Didero, Maria September 17, 2017 Cristina. Il mercante di nuvole, Milan: Skira Celant, Germano. “Radical 2015 Architecture”, in E. Ambasz (ed.), Italy: Bailey, Spencer. Tham Ma Da: The The New Domestic Landscape. Adventurous Interiors of Paola Navone, Achievements and Problems of Italian New York: Pointed Leaf Press, 2016 Design, New York: The Museum of Balena Arista, Francesca (ed.). Modern Art, 1972, 380-387 Poltronova Backstage. Archizoom,Sottsass Cirrito, Mario. “Il mondo dorato di Marina Cicogna in mostra a Roma: "Che

104 anni felici con la Bolkan", Queer Blog, May Insulza, Francisca. Studenti, 27, 2009. architetti, città: da facoltà d’élite a http://www.queerblog.it/post/5362/il- università di massa, PHD Dissertation, mondo-dorato-di-marina-cicogna-in- “Storia e valorizzazione del Patrimonio mostra-a-roma-che-anni-felici-con-la- Architettonico, Urbanistico e Ambientale”, bolkan. Accessed on September 2017 Politecnico di Torino 2009, sup. G. Dardi, Domitilla, and Mercurio, Montanari Gianni (eds.). Gaetano Pesce: il tempo Lannoy, Pierre. “L’usine, la della diversità, Catalogue of the Exhibition, photographie et la nation. L’entreprise Rome, MAXXI, Milano: Electa, 2014 automobile fordiste et la production des Defilippo, Ilaria. “Catturare su photographes industriels”, Genèses 80 pellicola l’essenza del design italiano. (2010), 114-133 Conversazione con Marirosa Toscani Lombardi, Laura. “Lara-Vinca Ballo”, 24.03.2017, Masini”, in Maura Pozzati (ed.), Artiste http://www.alleyoop.ilsole24ore.com/201 della Critica, Mantova: Corraini, 2015 7/03/24/catturare-su-pellicola-lessenza- Lonzi, Carla. Sputiamo su Hegel, del-design-italiano-conversazione-con- Milan: Scritti di rivolta femminile, 1970 marirosa-toscani-ballo/ Accessed 1°ed September 5, 2017 Lotti, Giuseppe (ed.). La fabbrica Dellapiana, Elena. “Da dove vengono bella: design toscano. Storia e Prospettive, i designer (se non si insegna il design)? Florence: Alinea, 2003 Torino dagli anni Trenta ai Sessanta”, Malagreca, Miguel. “Lottiamo QUAD. Quaderni di Architettura e Design 1 ancora: Reviewing one Hundred and Fifty (2017), forthcoming Years of Italian Feminism”, Journal of Dellapiana, Elena. “Case e sandali. International Women’s Studies” 4 (May Bernard Rudofsky dalle isole del 2006): 68-89 Mediterraneo al mito dell’anonimo", in A. Maffi, Mario. La cultura Maglio, F. Mangone, A. Pizza (eds.), Underground, Bologna: Odoya, 2009 Immaginare il Mediterraneo. Architettura Martusciello, Barbara. “Elisabetta arti fotografia, Naples: Paparo, 2017, 205- Catalano, fotografa di una generazione 214 pionieristica, bellissima principessa per Gargiani, Roberto. Dall’onda pop alla sempre”, January 7, 2015 superficie neutra. Archizoom Associati http://www.artapartofculture.net/2015/0 1966-1974, Milan: Electa, 2007 1/07/elisabetta-catalano-fotografa-di-una- Genovesi, Giovanni. Storia della generazione-pionieristica-bellissima- scuola italiana dal Settecento a oggi, principessa-per-sempre/ Accessed August Roma-Bari: Laterza, 1998 31, 2017 Golino, Enzo, and Pasolini, Pier Morozzi, Cristina. Il design non è una Paolo. Il sogno di una cosa: pedagogia, cosa seria. Memorie di una ragazza eros, letteratura dal mito del popolo alla radicale, Milan: Rizzoli 2017 società di massa, Bologna: Il Mulino, 1985 Navone, Paola, and Orlandoni, Imperiale, Alicia. “Utopia e/o Bruno. Architettura “radicale”, Milan: Rivoluzione, Politecnico di Torino 1969”, in Documenti di Casabella, 1974 Beatriz Colomina (ed.), Radical Pasolini, Pier Paolo. Saggi sulla Pedagogies, Princeton, 2013-2014, politica e sulla società, Milan: Mondadori, http://radical-pedagogies.com/ Accessed 1999 September 7, 2017

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Pastor, Barbara. Nanda Vigo interni nei movimenti delle avanguardie storiche, ‘60-‘70, Milan: Segesta, 2006 Milan: Mazzotta, 1980 Pesando, Annalisa B. Design and Weiss, Peter. Alessandro Mendini. women through the pioneering magazine Cose progetti costruzioni, Milano: Electa, Stile Industria (1954-1963), 2nd MoMoWo 2000 Conference-Workshop, Ljubiana, 2016, Wills, David. Switched on: women Forthcoming who revolutionized style in the 60’s, Peroni, Piera. “Meno mobili per Weldon Owen: Blue Streak, 2017 favore”, Abitare 82 (1970), 2-3 L’Uomo Vogue 19 (aug- sept. 1972) Peroni, Piera. “No, no questo poi 68-73 no”, Abitare 92 (1971), 191-198 “Abitare l’abito”, Domus 510 (may Pezzato,Stefano (ed.). UFO STORY 1972), 33-38 Dall'architettura radicale al design “Are the Clothes Modern? An essay globale, Prato: Centro Luigi Pecci, 2012 on contemporary apparel” 1944; MoMA Piazza, Mario. “La grafica per il Archives, New York, ‘Made in Italy’“, http://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitio http://www.aisdesign.org/aisd/la-grafica- ns/3159?locale=en accessed September 6, per-il-made-in-italy. Accessed September 2017 10, 2017 “Donna Donna”, rai 1974, Puppa, Daniela. "Molti mobili ma per http://www.teche.rai.it/2015/02/intervist chi", Casabella 361 (1972), 56-62 a-a-pasolini-su-donna-e-famiglia- Sammicheli, Marco. “Piera Peroni e il 21091974/ Accessed August 21, 2017 talento senza gender”, in R. Riccini (ed.), “Vestirsi Arabo”, Domus 537 (august Angelica e Bradamante. Le donne del 1974), 22-25; design, Padova: Il Poligrafo: 2017, 95-102 Sing of Design, Paola Navone, Sottsass Jr., Ettore.”Gli Archizoom”, Televisionet, 3 March 2011 Domus 455 (1967), 26-31 Storia del movimento femminista in Spalla, Martina. Le Origini della Italia – Gli anni Settanta sostenibilità ambientale nel progetto http://www.lastoriasiamonoi.rai.it/puntat italiano. Dibattiti ed esiti tra il dopoguerra e/storia-del-movimento-femminista-in- e la crisi energetica, Tesi di Laurea, italia/739/default.aspx Accessed Politecnico di Torino, sup.. Elena September 5, 2017 Dellapiana, a.a. 2016-17 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v Strada, Nanni. Lezioni. Moda-design =YLIStdNjOeU Accessed Septembre 8, e cultura del progetto, Milan: Lupetti, 2017 2013 http://www.archivioelisabettacatala Vergine, Lea. L' altra metà dell' no.it/ August 31, 2017 avanguardia 1910-1940: pittrici e scultrici

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Experience of the real: Franca Helg 1951-1989

Cristiana Eusepi

“Our architectural culture and our modern architecture”2. Precisely in this design power are based on observation, context, with Anna Ferrieri Castelli3, carried out with penetrating curiosity of Franca Helg wins the design competition things …”.1 dedicated to the creation of single-family According to Franca Helg, dwellings for veterans. The project architecture is to be considered an proposal then is built in the QT8 ‘experience of the real’ rooted in a solid experimental district conceived by Piero cultural basis: this depth towards the Bottoni. space and the things that inhabit the city In this same period, Franca Helg has allowed Franca Helg to share her becomes a member of the Movimento activity as an architect with Franco Albini; Studi Architettura that includes known in this way, she gained the opportunity to architects as Franco Albini, Lodovico play roles that erase a different attribution Belgiojoso, Piero Bottoni, Ignazio Gardella, of an idea or of a result in design. Ernesto Nathan Rogers, but also promising The abstraction of this statement recent graduates as Giancarlo De Carlo, stems from Franca Helg’s biography, Marco Zanuso and Franca Helg herself. which begins in the 40s, when she enrolls In this atmosphere of stimulating in the Department of Architecture at the opportunities, Franca Helg is both Politecnico of Milan, a context still far protagonist and careful observer able to from recognizing a role to a female grasp the tensions that fuel the discussion presence. Here, the young student stands inside and outside of the academic out for her inclination towards institution: her awareness resides in the architecture that allows her to be hired in fact of belonging to a laboratory of the Banfi-Belgiojoso-Peressutti-Rogers excellence engaged in the reflection on (BBPR) studio. the architectural components of a hoped- Graduated in 1945, Franca Helg for renovation of her Country. takes part in the discussion originated by The Venetian experience ends with the VIII Triennale di Milano in 1947, which Franca Helg’s return – alongside with pledges to have a “permanent, Lodovico Belgiojoso – to the University of experimental and living exhibition of Milan. This occasion marks the beginning of the professional partnership with the Albini studio, and of Franca Helg’s

1 Franca Helg expresses this idea in many 2 P. Bottoni, “Il nuovo programma della contexts. The most complete collection of her Triennale di Milano”, Metron 3 (1945), 40. essays and articles is edit by Pierfranco Galliani in: 3 As Franca Helg, Anna Castelli graduated at Antonio Piva and Vittorio Prina (eds.), Franca Helg. the Politecnico of Milan. She was student of Franco La gran dama dell'architettura italiana (Milano: Albini and Ernest Nathan Rogers. She worked with Franco Angeli, 2006), 129-202. Ignazio Gardella until 1973. In 1949 she co- In this essay, all translations from Italian to founded Kartell, a pioneering Italian factory that English have been edited by Stefania Piccialli, BA in continues, at present, to produce plastic objects of English Literature and Communications. daily-use.

107 teaching career at the Milanese ‘trying and trying again’ - with Department of architecture, initially as hypotheses, verifications, Belgiojoso’s assistant and then as a counter-hypotheses - to reach professor of Architectural composition. 4 the most satisfying In academia, distancing herself from architectural proposal.6 a dogmatic attitude that was not usual of her, Franca Helg builds the corpus of her The 50s and the 60s represent a teaching through a skillful method – a link period of experimentation for Franca Helg between operative and didactic activities - regarding her work as architect. Starting aligned with her personal way of from 1951, Franca Helg’s presence in the conceiving and doing architecture; her Albini studio grows in importance and her students are stimulated to continuous relationship to design and to the tests 5 while her approach to design is construction site becomes fundamental. founded on sound cultural premises and Her fruitful dedication is rewarded rooted in the real and concrete experience internationally through the pages of the of architecture. Zodiac magazine: here, Francesco Tentori In Franca Helg’s own words, the underlines that the enormous workload belonging to a rational ideology is to be carried out by the Albini-Helg studio considered in the same way as a method between 1955 and 1965 is “quasi- that understands, every time, the miraculous” in relationship to the condition and context of a project and dimensions and to the organization of the that adjusts reasonably the proposals to facility. effective concrete needs. According to Tentori, the studio’s On this path, the architectural industriousness reached in only a decade project is devolops through: of work is a characteristic that has a lot to do with Franca Helg’s presence. As Tentori a firm understanding of affirms, Franca Helg’s collaboration with the quality, substance and Franco Albini, establishing a relationship needs of the theme; of congeniality and synergy in planning, … an authentic cultural seems to have galvanized the productive honesty in taking problems on energies of the studio.7 The creations and without any preconceptions, buildings of the museum of Palazzo Rosso, and at the same time, a civil of Saint Lorenzo’s treasure, of the maturity regarding the support museum of Saint Augustine, of the Town of precise addresses of hall offices in Genoa, of the INA building in choices; Parma, of the Exhibition of Italian … an attitude of patient, contemporary Art in Stockholm, of the rigorous and tenacious work in Montecatini stand at the Fiera Campionaria in Milan, of the Exhibition on 4 More information can be found in: the Venetian Eighteenth century at Lodovico Belgiojoso, “Ricordo di Franca Helg come assistente e docente universitaria”, Controspazio 1 Palazzo Grassi, of the Olivetti shop in Paris, (1990), 48-49. 5 Franca Helg affirms that "students must 6 Franca Helg, “Alcune riflessioni find a way in themselves ... I solicit every student sull’esercizio della professione”, in Antonio Piva to build a continuous clear critical ability to and Vittorio Prina (eds.), Franca Helg. La gran understand the complexity of reality, influencing it dama dell'architettura italiana, cit., p 199. through their own architectural project", in: Maria 7 More information can be found in: Luisa Dagnino et al., “Le ragioni del progetto”, Francesco Tentori, “Opere recenti dello studio Controspazio, cit., 55. Albini-Helg”, Zodiac 14 (1985), 94-127.

108 of the La Rinascente department store in transversally cover the different design Rome, of housings and social housing, of scales, while the structural and formal villas, furniture, temporary set-ups and of details sink down in the overall drawing, numerous other proposals belong to these modifying it: years. Through drawing it’s In the different projects, the possible to verify the reflection is focused on specific and connection between space and concrete themes – the historical and space, between volume and environmental contexts, the innovation of volume, their proportions, architectural typology, the attention for their expressive values, their detail and construction – developed functional effectiveness. Let's through a syncretic process that ties the remember how dimension is study of the city to the internal and implicit in proposals of great technical components of architecture. In utopias. Which would have perfect accord with Franco Albini, this is been the sense of the Algeri the specificity that Franca Helg claims, Plan of Corbusier if it was not against every overspecialized attitude: its length of many kilometers? architecture, interior design, industrial design and set-ups are all different Depending on each scale, expressions of a unitary demeanor that there are different problems nonetheless requires awareness and levels of detail. The concerning the field in which the single general organization of the projects are developed. project will realize itself In this respect, Franca Helg navigates through large scale studies and with ease the context of the city as well as many drawings: in fact, the the most insignificant architectural detail, first drawing (or the first series rejecting every distinction among different of drawings) will be, at the kinds of projects. According to Franca same time, the interpretation Helg, the integration of the numerous of the environmental context components of a project confirms the and of the intent of the comprehensive meaning of the project. architecture: the studies of public and The large scale will allow interior space, form, volumes, to link the interpretation of proportions, of the whole and of single environmental context and of elements, of structures, chiaroscuros, project to a more wide chromatisms, of functional or expressive situation. reasons – in every work, of every age, of every civilization – constitute the elements The situation of the that are worthy of being studied to be re- environmental context - its built with renovated means. An sense, flows, convergences of interpretative tool provided by this interests and activities - will be attitude is the interest in drawing, showing in the same drawing, considered by Franca Helg as the principal or in a set of drawings, while device of performing architecture. the solutions to any problem According to the architect, the will emerge through movements of the hand constantly conventional and evocative accompany the thought and thus signs that will verify and will link the logic of thinking to the

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specific project. Then, the constructive tools that develop through a general drawing, or at large collective recognition of permanent and medium scale, will be cultural values. confirmed by probe-samples The uniqueness of the Albini-Helg – and more detailed analysis. later with Antonio Piva and Marco Albini 9 To complete the idea of – studio’s method has allowed it to the project, everything will develop solutions dedicated to specific have to be in the form of contexts, employing them, in different drawing: purposes, trend lines, scales, in a museum, in an exhibition, in a intensity of the traffic, size and house, in a piece of furniture and vice nature of the different paths, versa. In this context, the planning of the localization of particular architectural element of vertical elements, mapping of urban connection assumes a great relevance; its connectives and of typologies, characteristic persistence and variability organization of interior and crosses all of the planning themes, periods exterior spaces of buildings, and dimensions: as central core of the details of finishes and building, as a complex urban path, as a technologies.8 corner solution between main and secondary road, as a closed external Franca Helg, capable builder volume, as a simple linear element, as a architect aware of the expressive band hanging from thin ropes or anchored centrality of materials, distrusts to a sunburst beam structure, as a nonetheless the use of technology. The variation in numerous buildings, technical adequacy - the possibilities of museums, apartment complexes, villas, which, united to the professionals’ offices, big department store, designed expertise affect the quality of the product and created by the studio in a forty-year - measures the effectiveness of the time frame. chosen planning solutions. Again in Franca Helg reiterates in many harmony with Franco Albini, Franca Helg occasions that design is a constant reflects on the possibilities of construction application of study and research. Her in relationship to different materials: heritage is the affirmation of a wood, metal, glass and many more. In comprehensive idea of architecture, in architectural design the question is not of which designs are the sublimation of a reaching ‘virtuosity’ with exercises of personal way of being and thinking. style, but rather it is of being aware that The meticulous research in design – every building belongs to a precise theme actualized in many Italian cities – and to the way in which the latter is accompanies Franca Helg in the expressed and narrated in its meaning. exploration of realities that are deeply Moreover, considering her different from the previous ones: in Egypt, architectural experience, Franca Helg in order to design the museums in valorized tradition as the expression of a Alexandria and in Cairo, and then as an sensibility that shows the need of expert for the Commission of the searching for ‘rules of the arts’, International Campaign for the Institution of the Nubian Museum in Assuan; in Saudi

8 Franca Helg, “Alcune riflessioni Arabia to conceive new cultural and sull’esercizio della professione”, in Antonio Piva and Vittorio Prina (eds.), Franca Helg. La gran 9 Antonio Piva joined the Albini-Helg team dama dell'architettura italiana, cit., 201. in 1962 . Marco Albini in 1984.

110 commercial centers, offices and the Law aspects, on the conditions of Court in Riyadh. The opportunity of acting use, on the character of the on the transformation of this last image, and on construction environment constitutes a reflection techniques fluctuate between centered on urban forms, however the the Arab-Islamic Middle Ages way of proceeding essentially returns to by now already invaded by usual methods and cities: to Venice and to ugly and small international Genoa, which due to architectural style skyscrapers and the ubiquity, appear again as eastern cities. uncertain composite The different project contributions, dissatisfaction towards the substantially, are well comprehensible in European culture that is based the contingency of our day: on the continuity of tradition… “In the renovation Among the many experiences project of the center of Riyadh, outside of national borders, in Latin the reflection on the urban America, Franca Helg works as a UNESCO form has been prevailing …; in consultant. In Peru, she actively takes part the traditional Muslim cities of in a vast recovery program of the main the Middle East, of Asia Minor archeological sites of the country and in and of North Africa, the urban the training of architects specialized in the structure, branched off in valorization of historical districts and of walkways, shows efficient public spaces. In this context, Franca Helg, knowledge … The dense urban as a “tireless and curious enquirer visited tissue, made up of repeated all the regional sites”. The recollection of typological elements in a Sylvio Mutal, director of the Lima complex and varied development and cultural Project, renders morphology, the deep Helg’s approach to architecture self- knowledge of the climatic and evident one more time. 10 environmental opportunities … There are a lot of other pieces of Surely analogies in material evidence on Franca Helg's thinking and needs and expressions can be work, for example, the one of Marina found, under all the kinds of Waisman, who focuses on the importance skies and with all the kinds of of the teachings imparted during her weather, and human roots lectures at the University of Cordoba in common to all cultures … then, Argentina: instead of seeking a ‘curtain The first lesson refers to wall’, more or less insulated, achieving an harmonious we have preferred to research balance between the respect in ancient matrixes … spaces, of the past and the affirmation tissues, light, which are of the present, as living inherent to a tradition of a without the values of the past ‘warm country’ and with a can inhibit the power or even conception of life based on the structure of family, but that however comes from a world in heightened technological 10 Sylvio Mutal, “Franca Helg e L’America advancement. Our Latina”, in: Antonio Piva and Vittorio Prina (eds.), considerations on the urban Franca Helg. La gran dama dell'architettura italiana, cit., 40-43.

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boldness of contemporary In a final summary, according to expression. Franca Helg, architecture remains a ‘wise The second lesson is very game’ and a patient research among important … the method of infinite struggles; it is desire to seek, to try Franca in the case of a and to try again; it is to know how to see different culture from her own the past in order to accept the present. – an approach concerning the For her colleagues and for everyone project of the urban centre of who has had the opportunity of sharing Kasr-El-Hokm, Riaydh – is not a working moments or slices of life with her, simple stylistic imitation but a for Franca Helg, making architecture was a careful study on the cultural matter of a simple smile as well. origins of the architecture of For who writes, Franca Helg’s the Region ... In this way, the research represents the awareness of relationship with the site is imagining architecture by observing the authentic, without false world with a piercing curiosity. folklore, it’s different from Franca Helg carries out her usual ideas of European professional and cultural engagement projects in far Countries ... until 1989.

The third lesson is about the architect's humbleness and his or her respect for the city. The current trend of the architect’s craft is to leave an important testimony of his or her work by introducing alien elements to the original fabric of the city so no one can forget his or her passage from there ... Franca Helg’s project in our Institute in Cordoba ... was critical - implacable and understandable – dedicated to correcting this defect and to leading the design along reasonable paths. During her speeches, one of the points of view that struck local architects was her high professionalism, her deep respect for the profession of the architect, her idea about a slow and industrious process for every project ...11

11 Marina Waisman, “Quattro insegnamenti di Franca Helg”, Controspazio 1 (1990), 104-125.

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Bibliography Franca Helg- about and her work Franca Helg/her point of view: and thinking: Helg, Franca, “Riflessioni su Piva, Antonio and Prina, Vittorio trent’anni di museografia”, in Il museo nel (edit by), Franca Helg. “La gran dama mondo contemporaneo: concezioni e dell’architettura italiana. Milano: Franco proposte, Convegno interbnazionale di Angeli, 2006. museologia, Firenze 1982, 281-283. Galbani, Anna Maria (edit by), Donne Napoli: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 1984. politecniche, Atti del convegno e Catalogo Helg, Franca. “Alcune riflessioni della mostra. Milano, 22 maggio 2000, sull’esercizio della progettazione Milano: Libri Scheiwiller, 2001. architettonica”, in Elementi di Leet, Stephen (edit by), Le forme progettazione urbana. Milano città e della ragione. Marco Albini, Franca Helg, territorio, Alberico Barbiano di Belgioso et Antonio Piva architetture e design 1980- al., 9-18. Milano: Clup, 1981. 1995. Venezia: Marsilio, 1995. Helg, Franca. “La tecnologia Leet. Stephen, Franco Albini and his nell’architettura”, in Otto argomenti di studio: Marco Albini Franca Helg Antonio architettura, Barbiano di Belgioso et al., Piva. Architecture and design 1934-1977, 33-43. Milano: Il Formichiere, 1978. New York: Princeton Architectural, 1990. Helg, Franca. “La limitata Waisman, Martina, “Quattro razionalità”, Lotus international 18 (1978): insegnamenti di Franca Helg”, 113. Controspazio 1 (1990), 104-125. Fiori, Leonardo and Prizzon, Boidi, Sergio, “L'architetto e la Massimo. “Intervista all’architetto Helg continuità. La scomparsa di Franca Helg”, sulla Rinascente di Roma”, in Costruire per abitare 77 (1989), sn. Helg, Franca, “Franco Albini – Tentori, Francesco, “Opere recenti Architect and teacher”, in Franco Albini dello studio Albini-Helg”, Zodiac 14 and his studio: Marco Albini Franca Helg (1965): 94-127. Antonio Piva. Architecture and design 1934-1977, Leet Stephen, 13-18. New York: Princeton Architectural, 1990.

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The gender bias on craftsmanship and industrial production in Dutch ceramics (1960-1980)

Ilja S. Meijer

The history of Dutch ceramics in the existence and composition of a possible second half of the 20th century is relatively gender bias within modern ceramics. The well-documented and provides a good evolution of the general conception of representation of women professionals women as linked to nature/earth/craft, to working in this field. In several exhibitions women who understand and publications from the 1970s and industry/technology/rationalism is an 1980s – when ceramics as a craft and art important theme in the process of was in high esteem – the amount of professionalization of women designers, included women ceramic artists is equal or as already recognized in the historical slightly bigger than the amount of male period prior to WWII.3 artists.1 A simple statistic such as this This paper hopes to answer the presents the idea that women were question on how the place of professional equally regarded as men and that a women ceramists has been different with gender bias was absent. In contrast, other respect to the craft, art and industry exhibitions and publications focusing on practice in the Netherlands in this period. industrially, mass-scale produced ceramics Were women limited professionally in any and modern tableware show a completely of these (blurred) areas of ceramic opposite picture, with women making up production by stereotypical role patterns, about a fifth or less of the complete or did they have the possibility to go selection of ceramic designers.2 beyond basic, home-based practices to This observation raises questions on become independent and individual gendered assumptions surrounding designers or artists in their own right? It women and ceramics as a craft, an art and will do so by analysing the work of a an industry. The experimental phase of couple of women ceramicists within the Dutch ceramics from the 1960s onwards, historical context, with special attention to as well as the well-established the used techniques – handmade or historiography of this period, provides the machine – and glazing, the scale of perfect context to investigate the production – large-scale industry, serial or one-of-a-kind – and the attributed

1 Ratio of included ceramic artists in several creative and historical value of the works. exhibitions and books: 36 women and 43 men To properly analyse this, I want to shortly (Spruit-Ledeboer 1976); 42 women and 36 men discuss some of the tensions I (Spruit-Ledeboer 1985); 50 women and 35 men encountered: women and craft; women (Keramiek 1986); 8 women and 7 men (Berkhof and industry; and women and art. 1988). 2 Ratio of included industrial designers working with ceramics in several exhibitions and books: 8 women and 10 men (Spruit-Ledeboer 1981); 5 women and 30 men (Bogaers 1988); 5 women and 24 men (Simon Thomas 2008). 3 Groot 2007, pp. 243-244, and p. 248.

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Women and craft (nature) as Marjan Groot remarks in her book Vrouwen in de Vormgeving in Nederland An all-encompassing list of all 1880-1940 (2008). She further elaborates researches and publications covering the on the tension fields of culture-nature and topic of either gender and handcraft, or rationality-emotionality in the work of specifically gender and ceramic craft, craftswomen and women designers prior would be immense and coming from a to WWII.6 wide range of different disciplines.4 From Pottery and ceramics, as coming the anthropological and archaeological from the earth, is one such craft that is perspectives for example, many local, traditionally associated with women in indigenous or ancient communities line of this argument. ‘Composed of worldwide have been investigated. From a weathered rocks and rainwater, clay has design historical perspective there have an earthy quality as an art material. The also been various efforts to create a Earth has long been understood as “a historical narrative of female artisans and formidable reservoir of female power”’.7 incorporate them in the (male-dominated) Commonly, women are believed to be the grand narrative. More than in first makers of clay objects and the first architecture, art or product design, potters.8 Because of their biological treats women have been able to claim a place in and their social role as mother and this field of research and historiography: nurturer, women are also generally the field of handcraft, artisanship, the ‘arts positioned in the context of the home, the and crafts’, of decorators. place where clay objects have been used Consciously or not, many the most.9 researchers take the assumed connection These historical conceptions persist between handcraft and women as their and can still be recognized in more recent starting point, and see their assumptions times, including perceptions of ceramics confirmed. The association is widespread as ‘an exclusively female activity’ or and finds its origin partially in another ‘naturalized activity linked to females’.10 widespread belief that goes back for To elaborate, Courtney Lee Weida focuses centuries: the belief that women are in her book Artistic ambivalence in clay closer to nature than men. In the 18th (2011) on the ‘tension between the ways century, for example, most of the in which womanhood is broadly linked enlightened philosophers reason in what with ceramics, and yet individual women Levi-Strauss called ‘wild’ thinking: the may be excluded’ from historical research. woman is part of nature, man is part of She frames this and other binaries – culture. There’s such a tight connection subject/object, self/other, and between woman and nature, that male/female – with the term ambivalence, metaphorically speaking, nature is which she finds particularly fitting for the gendered female.5 The connection of ‘contradictions in social associations with women with nature means that they’re women, women’s bodies, pottery, and accounted with an inferior and more clay itself’.11 negative role in the production of culture, 6 Groot 2007, pp. 243-244, and p. 248. 7 Weida 2011, p.18, citing Classen 1998, 4 For this paper, only a small selection of p.86. these publications with a more general scope or 8 Weida 2011, p. 2. design related perspective have been 9 Groot 2007, p. 244; Weida 2011, p. 2. incorporated. 10 Vincentelli 2000, p. 15. 5 Duby 1992, p. 187. 11 Weida 2011, p. 1-4.

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As quoted from Isabelle Anscombe’s industrial revolution and rise of industrial book A Woman’s Touch (1984): capitalism, an increased separation of ‘Women are traditionally work and home coincides with a growing associated with nature rather separation between public and private than culture, a division which, spheres. Men’s work and social life is in design terms, has placed situated increasingly away from home, them in fields where manual while women’s domesticity and role as a dexterity, a feel for texture, a mother is emphasized. This is also familiarity with natural recognizable in the production of materials – such as clay or ceramics: whenever pottery becomes a vegetable dyes – and small specialization or a large-scale production home-based workshops take at a specific time and place, pottery usually becomes a male activity practised precedence over man-made 14 materials, large-scale machine away from the home. Although women production or an eye for three- continue to produce goods within the dimensional form.’12 setting of the domestic industry – and girls and (unmarried) women often work in This quote summarizes the starting factories as well – their contribution and point of this research, since it not only economic value is overlooked as a relevant describes the relationship of women with work force and producers of goods. nature and craft, but more importantly it The industrial ceramic factories have implies women’s juxtaposition to synthetic a clearly gendered labour division: women materials, industrial production, technical mostly paint and apply pottery decors or science, management of large scale do other less skill-full work; only rarely manufacture and the artistic genius. Here women manage to work explicitly as a are two underlying assumptions that have designer of pottery shape and decoration. framed my research: firstly, that women Cheryl Buckley refers to the pottery are not or less capable of rational industry industry in her book Women Potters and on a large-scale and technology; and Paintresses (1990) – covering British secondly, that women are not or less women pottery in interwar years – as a capable of being ‘a creative genius’, thus true patriarchy, where ‘[m]en aren’t able to create ‘great art’ – or great monopolised skilled jobs and controlled design, or great architecture, or basically access to these through the anything extraordinary and admirable. apprenticeship system.’ 15 Buckley also states that women’s presence in the domestic tableware production is often Women and industry (technology) legitimised because women can design ‘for the ladies from a ladies’ standpoint, The relationship of women with for she designs first and foremost to industry is related to the tension field of please herself’. As in other trades, emotionality versus rationality as women’s participation is only welcomed recognized by Groot, because industry is for their intuitive understanding of generally seen as a rational way of domestic matters. In larger factories production and organisation more suited producing modern ceramics, the roles of 13 to men than women. During the women designers are more rigidly defined

12 Anscombe 1986, pp. 13-14. 14 Vincentelli 2000, p. 53. 13 Groot 2007, pp. 243-244, and p. 248. 15 Buckley 1990, p.4.

116 compared to smaller, more flexible always associated with male potters.”20 companies. As noted by Buckley and When women studio potters take op Groot, it is possible, but rather unusual throwing in the 20th century, ‘there is that a woman gets promoted from good evidence that women had to fight decorator to designer, or can work from for their rights to have access to wheel an independent design studio on a technology’. Wheel-thrown pottery can be freelance basis.16 Furthermore, Buckley said to require a level of specialisation, observes that despite successful and mobilisation of capital and technical professional individuals and a growth of knowledge. Despite our western vision of independent small studios, the ‘evolution by technology’, new stereotypes and gender division in the technologies are not always better than ceramics industry still prevail after WWII. traditional ones.21 But based on this 17 vision, by excluding women from certain The division between the individual, technologies, men have been given a great high-skilled working woman in a craft privilege and advantage over women in trade – predominantly practiced at home practicing a ceramic profession. Besides – and a low-rank working woman in a wheel-throwing, there is also large-scale industrial production is a long- documentation of women’s exclusion standing universal fact.18 But influences from glaze and kiln technologies, profit from, for example, the Scandinavian and credit for their own ceramic work, and pottery industry in the interwar years acknowledgement as leaders of the field demonstrate that craft and industrial in studio ceramics that confirm the methods of production don’t have to be existence of such limitations.22 mutually exclusive. High quality pottery is created within a mass-produced context, but with respect for craft processes. Women and art (creative genius) Buckley argues that this approach enables women to design both shape and Elsewhere in her book, Anscombe decoration.19 She recognizes the comments more directly on the limited accessibility for women professionals in capability of women to create art, stating this craft-like approach to industrial that: production. ‘[the] decorative arts – To further explain women’s relation delicate, painstaking, refined – with industry, Vincentelli argues in were thought by the Victorians Women and ceramics: Gendered vessels to be peculiarly suited to (2000) that gender roles are constructed female talents and, indeed, by and expressed in ceramic technology. natures, whereas the fine arts, ‘Handbuilding, burnishing, painting and which required ambition and bonfiring are never exclusively women’s strength and purpose of vision, techniques, but they are predominantly were only suited by to men’. 23 so. […] The use of the wheel accompanied by the adoption of kiln firing is almost She continues:

16 Buckley 1990, pp. 97-99; Groot 2007, p. 20 Vincentelli 2000, p. 34. 249. 21 Vincentelli 2000, p. 48-49; women used 17 Buckley 1990, p. 157. wheels for trimming and turning, but not throwing. 18 Groot 2007, p. 250. 22 Weida 2011, p. 2. 19 Buckley 1990, pp. 134-135. 23 Anscombe 1986, pp. 11-12.

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‘Decorative art, in the their book Old mistresses: Women art and hands of women, was ideology (1995; reprint 2013) observe how considered to be the more the concept of creative genius and successful for gracefully greatness is itself gendered masculine accepting its limitations, in throughout (art) history. As they write: seeking only to enhance the ‘Men are the true artists, they have home, where women guarded genius; women have only taste.’26 love, sanctity and honour Although women can be artists, they are against those very elements of not thought to be capable of greatness challenge and contention so and are therefore neglected within praised in men’s art.’24 historiography. For every outstanding These quotes are related to individual woman whose work and career women’s domesticity on the one hand and is portrayed in either art of design history, to their lack of a creative genius on the countless others who designed textiles, other. decorated tableware, painted murals, designed furniture, etc. have been Besides Anscombe, most authors 27 writing on women and crafts – or women forgotten. and ceramics, or within material gender studies in general – make the same observation: in the hierarchy of the arts, ‘Feminine characteristics’ men are associated with fine arts as the highest form of art and with this creativity, Because historiography is focused on ambition, genius etc.; crafts practiced by the production of men – even within the women or perceived as feminine, for crafts and design – the production of example pottery, textiles and embroidery, women has become the deviant. As Groot are almost universally lower in ranking formulates it: ‘The work of women is defined as differing from the silent norm, and often concerned with objects belonging to the home. As Buckley the ‘masculine’’. This masculine norm is formulates: ‘Women were generally rarely made explicit, but has led to a set of supposed to have a biologically differing, stereotypical characteristics that are perceived as feminine and an determined facility for colour co- 28 ordination, the arrangement of interior expression of the female nature. For the and domestic spaces, and the design of applied arts and ceramics specifically, products for these.’25 This is a repetition of these include: decorativeness the arguments mentioned above, (flowers/figurative; either incised, regarding women-versus-craft and scratched, painted or other); soft and women-versus-industry, but here it refers subtle colour ranges or colourfulness in to the inherent exclusion of women from general; detailed, intricate and delicate, the creation of great art and from the but also raw and primitive; sometimes grand narrative of history. weakness of form; intuitive and emotional Although feminist art history is a full- opposed to rational; handmade instead of grown discourse in itself – too extensive to discuss here – I would just like to mention 26 Parker 2013, p. 13. how Rozsika Parker and Griselda Pollock in 27 Anscombe 1984, pp. 11-12. 28 “The qualification of feminine is always based on a stereotype and is not exclusively 24 Anscombe 1986, pp. 11-12. applicable to the work of women”, freely 25 Buckley 1990, p. 129. translated from: Groot 2007, p. 217.

118 machine; small-scale home or studio leading designers (who were all male) to production instead of large-scale industrial create new modern designs. 31 production; domestic and nursery ware In the 1970s functional ceramics can instead of autonomous art; natural be roughly divided in two main trends: materials instead of synthetic (man- one is inspired by old ceramic traditions, made); nature versus culture.29 for example from East Asia, with simplicity, asymmetry and earth-like glazed colours; the other is invented as a History of Dutch ceramics and some contemporary style, inspired by De Stijl women ceramicists and the Bauhaus, with geometrical and elementary forms, an eye for functionality The above-mentioned stereotypical and made industrially, wheel thrown or by assumptions, generalizations and tensions casting.32 related to the topic of women and One of the few known women who ceramics, will function as a pair of (pink- designs industrially manufactured )coloured glasses in the analysis of the tableware in this period is Lucie Quirina history of Dutch ceramics in the 20th Bakker (1915-2003), who can be placed century. Two publications by Mieke Spruit- within this first trend. After studying at the Ledeboer – the first covering the period art academies of Rotterdam and 1900-1970; the second covering the Amsterdam in the 1930s, she opens her period 1975-1985 – are influential in its own studio on an Amsterdam attic in well-established historiography and 1938. Her work includes a lot of one-of-a- function as a database for this research. kind pieces in a simple, craft-like design Since 1885 the Dutch ceramics with a focus on the glaze. Around 1950 industry of functional wares experiences a she starts to produce serial tableware for wave of innovation with a great number of economic reasons, and with success; at newly established ceramic factories. Slip- the end of the 1950s she employs four casting – already discovered in the 18th workers and has representatives to do her century – is used to create a new modern distribution. From 1968 to 1979 the Royal language, very suitable for large-scale Tichelaar factory in Makkum produces her production and the use of porcelain.30 designs in semi-craft manner, such as the Later, directly after WWII, there is a Quirina tableware: meanwhile, Bakker flourishing of the industrially produced works on singular pieces in her private tableware, helped by governmental studio in Haarlo.33 obligations to produce a stipulated Caused by international concurrence amount of domestic goods to cater to the from East-Europe and Japan many enormous demand. All potteries resort to factories have to close down entirely – pre-war models at first, with one such as Fris in 1970 – or shut down their exception: the company Fris (meaning domestic department – such as Sphinx- fresh in English). After its success, other Ceramique in 1969. In the 1980s there is manufacturers soon follow by employing practically no ceramics industry at all. Surviving potteries produce simple tourist

31 Staal 1987, p. 174. 29 These characteristics are extracted from 32 Spruit-Ledeboer 1981, pp. 5-13. the statements already discussed and the 33 Lucie Q. Bakker has always been able to researched literature in general. pay for her own life support and works until 1990; 30 Spruit-Ledeboer 1976, p. 21. Groot 2007, p. 457.

119 ware, bathroom equipment, tiles and from the industry, but on a much smaller hotel china. This situation offers little scale.36 prospects for potters in industry; freshly One exemplary studio potter and graduated ceramic artists go abroad to producer of small-scale functional ware, is gain experience and find work, for Petra (Nirdosh) van Heesbeen (1949). In example at the companies Rosenthal, 1970 she establishes studio ‘Ronding’ Arzberg and Arabia. Illustrative is one together with her husband and ceramic exhibition on domestic ceramics in Galerie artist Joop Beekwilder, after which she Binnen in Amsterdam at the end of 1986, starts her study at the art academy in Den which is appropriately called These 15 Bosch. She exhibits from early on and designers are in search of an industry.34 begins a collaboration with Beekwilder At the same time, ceramics art and two other artists called becomes one of the most flourishing ‘Grèskompagnons BV’ in Den Bosch after branches of art in the Netherlands. From her graduation. She mostly creates the late-1950s, there is an explosion of functional pottery – mostly wheel thrown creativity in the field of studio-pottery as and made from clay (grès) and porcelain, well as other crafts, partially as a reaction sometimes with incised or pressured of artists against the technological and decoration – but in later years also works consumer-driven society.35 Ceramics on ceramic sculptures.37 The traces of fire develops into an autonomous art form: from her self-built gas and wood ovens from the confinement of making objects have remained important in her work, for domestic use, the ceramist wants to including or similar to the Japanese raku unfold and develop freely, without technique popularized around 1980. In functional restrictions. Instead of being 2014, she celebrated her 40-year work called pottenbakker (potter), they prefer anniversary with an exhibition and the name keramist (ceramicist). As Spruit- documentary.38 Ledeboer explains, this flourishing art Because of the growing interest of form includes one-of-a-kind-pieces the galleries, museums and other (unica), handmade in a private studio or in collectors or enthusiasts and ongoing the communal studio of several co- technical progress, the working- and operating artists. She distinguishes three living-situation of the studio-potter different types of studio pottery: pottery, improves a great deal after 1960.39 By the ceramic sculptures and architectural 1980s there is more technical knowledge ceramics. While pottery serves a utilitarian available, more independently working function, ceramics sculptures are seen as ceramicists and more different styles of autonomous works of art, and ceramics than in any period before.40 ‘The architectural ceramics include wall pieces technical equipment of the studio-potter and tiled decors. Parallel to the has undergone a tremendous evolution in development of ceramics into a respected the course of the century, mainly due to autonomous art form, studio pottery takes the development of electrical equipment. over the production of functional ceramics The approach to the material (clay and

36 Spruit-Ledeboer 1976, pp. 121-124. 37 Spruit-Ledeboer 1981, pp. 16-17. 34 Rosalie Begeer, Pauline Wiertz and 38 Documentary: Vuur en Vorm (translated: Yvonne Kleinveld were three of the participating Fire and Form). designers; Staal 1987, p. 176. 39 Spruit-Ledeboer 1976, pp. 121-124. 35 Simon Thomas 2008, p. 186. 40 Spruit-Ledeboer 1981, pp. 5-13.

120 glazes) has become more scientific,’ as By the end of the 1970s and in the recognized by Spruit-Ledeboer.41 Synthetic 1980s, many exhibitions on Dutch and materials like polystyrene are mixed with international ceramic art – and sometimes the clay to achieve lighter material or a functional ware – take place and various specific surface structure, while others – publications are published. Galleries and like pottery De Moerbei (mulberry in museums argue over hosting particular English) – focus on the sole use of natural exhibitions and many of them try to materials and natural processes.42 There is purchase the newest and best ceramic a renewed interest in hand-building works to their collections. This peak of techniques and the application of interest also marks the end of this decoration, for example drawings flourishing period in the history of ceramic scratched into the unbaked clay or finish art; the public interest dies down, but layer, and stamped textile reliefs. In the many ceramicists continue their work 1960s there is more interest in form and outside the spotlight. Nowadays, Dutch monochrome glazes, resulting in very ceramics is reinvented and has become a clean and abstract designs.43 highly valued discipline again with Pottery with engraved decoration (re)new(ed) women artists and designers, reaches its peak in the years 1956-1962 at such as Wieki Somers, Hella Jongerius, the newly founded Experimental Studio of Nynke Tynagel (Studio Job), Nadine Sterk factory De Porceleyne Fles in Delft, where and Lonny van Ryswyck (Studio NL), Babs young ceramic designers are invited to Haenen, Simone van Bakel and Barbara experiment with pottery, architectural Nanninga. ceramics and other related practices. 44 Over the years, many women work in this department, but Lies Cosijn (1931 – 2016) Analysis of their works can be regarded as one of its leading designers. She is born in Indonesia, moves Based on the general history of to the Netherlands and studies at the art Dutch ceramics in the 1960s-1980s, academy in Amsterdam in the 1950s. Just statistics of organized exhibitions and after graduation she starts working at De published books, and the highlighted Porceleyne Fles. Since 1959 she starts careers of ceramicists, it can be stated moving from pottery to ceramic sculptures that women were active as ceramic and wall pieces, which soon after becomes professionals and that many of them were her only focus. After 1963 she moves on successful, recognized and could make a to become an independent artist. living out of their ceramic work. But to Decoration is important in her work: answer this paper’s leading question – mythological scenes, biblical and phantasy how has the place of professional women figures, animals and people are carved out ceramists been different with respect to of the clay or applied in a different way. the craft, art and industry practice in the She works mostly by hand and is inspired Netherlands in this period – it’s necessary by primitive and non-western cultures in to also analyse the used techniques – many ways.45 handmade or machine – and glazing, the scale of production – large-scale industry, serial or one-of-a-kind – and the 41 Spruit-Ledeboer 1976, p. 124. 42 Spruit-Ledeboer 1976, p. 72 and p.116. attributed creative and historical value of 43 Spruit-Ledeboer 1976, p. 117. the works. 44 Spruit-Ledeboer 1976, p. 122. 45 Spruit-Ledeboer 1976, pp. 162-163.

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Among all three highlighted immodest’. Spruit-Ledeboer places Bakker examples – and other encountered among the artists that replace the high- women artists in general – a craft-like polished pre-war glazes with opaque approach is the norm. They are inspired, earth-coloured glazing and direct the for example, by traditional ceramic attention more to form and material than practices or want to revolt against mass- colour and decoration.47 production and industrial products. They It’s difficult to determine if this is a work in small studios, apply wheel result of the lack of opportunities given to throwing and various hand building women by industrial manufacturers, or techniques, and experience the process of that women themselves prefer to work on creation very directly. Petra Heesbeen, as a smaller scale and choose to become an an archetypical studio potter, is exemplary ‘artist’ instead of ‘industrial designer’. It of this. In an exhibition catalogue, Spruit- can be considered stereotypical that the Ledeboer describes a lidded box of only industrial tablewares designed by Heesbeen as sturdy and robust of shape, women, are created with respect to craft with a beautiful, shimmering, dark brown processes and with the earth-like colours reduction glaze (partially uncovering the so appreciated in studio pottery at that clay) and perfect sitting lid. Inspiration time. from the Far East is obvious, with With respect to form, decoration Korean/Japanese cornered shape and and use of colour – elements that have Chinese/Japanese temmoku glazing.46 been very perceptive to feminization – the This craft-like approach is not only works created by women are very diverse practiced by women, but is the norm for and therefore more difficult to interpret as most of the ceramic artists and – in this a whole. Only few women artists use period in particular – has a very scientific abstract-geometric forms and clean, even- and innovative nature. This can be seen in coloured surfaces. These clean surfaces the experimentation with different glazes are mostly obtained by slip casting (synthetic or natural) and baking methods porcelain or wheel throwing. Later in the and equipment, ranging from the use of 1980s, abstract forms are also applied electrical ovens to high-fire wood-burned within postmodern work. Possibly linked stoves. All of the new techniques and to the advent of postmodernism is the technical knowledge are accessible for invention of new dynamic shapes – women. Still, almost none of the women centralizing the process of creation ceramicists use the more industrially instead of the glazing or final form – and method of slip casting (with porcelain) and the experimentation with colours, almost none of them collaborate with sometimes unprecedented bright and in industrial manufacturers – which can only contrast to the earth-like glazes of earlier be partially attributed to the general low years. Several women ceramicist stand at in ceramics industry. Lucie Q. Bakker is an the forefront of these later developments. exception and possible the only women In general, women are respected for ceramicist from this period who is the quality of their work instead of their acknowledged as an industrial designer. In supposed feminine characteristics. a 1939 newspaper, Bakker’s early work is Although in some texts, the work of their described as ‘showing fresh originality […] women colleagues is called ‘soft’, or In her forms as well as her glazes she ‘emotional’, this is not necessarily creates something singular, without being 47 Groot 2007, p. 457; Spruit-Ledeboer 1985, 46 Spruit-Ledeboer 1981, pp. p. 31.

122 different than what is written on the work definition of ceramics: is it a discipline or of men. And the other way around, many just a material? When is it called art and women (like the examples) were admired when design? When is a ceramicist best for their technical experiments, called a pottenbakker, an autonomous monumentality and powerful imagery. artist or an industrial designer? These Lies Cosijn is rather the exception than the questions have remained unanswered, but rule, with her work being valued for its hopefully have not impaired the main powerful, but also highly emotional and argument and proof of the existence of expressive character. Cosijn is called one this gender bias. of the greatest artists of post-war Dutch Lastly, to end with a thought- ceramics and very influential in its provoking quote, Buckley argued that by development. Cosijn becomes working on singular pieces in small internationally renowned for her unique studios, women potters after WWII could style. The owner of one of her art pieces ‘undermine the hierarchical and gender- says: ‘the brutal beauty of this sculpture is specific divisions in the arts by producing also reflected in the earth-coloured clay- work which can be labelled neither craft glazes, that have been poured over the (women’s) nor art (men’s) [emphasis rough surface in wild action.’48 added]’.49 Maybe a next research topic on gender and ceramics should incorporate queer theory as well. Conclusions

For the period 1960-1980, I think it’s clear that the gender bias surrounding women-craft was still existing within Dutch ceramics: the focus on craft in ceramics made it easier and more accessible for women to create functional ware and make a living out of it. I also think that the bias on women-art was present, because from this bias it’s only obvious that women created autonomous art based on ceramics and pottery (and other crafts such as textile), instead of a traditionally more masculinized practice like painting. In these decades more female artists were acknowledged in these autonomous ‘craft-arts’ than any other fine art. More complicated is the gender bias on women-industry: women created functional ware and did have access to basically all materials and techniques, but in large-scale industry there was no room for them. One problem I faced in this research, is the unclear and much disputed

48 Spruit-Ledeboer 1976, pp. 162-163. 49 Buckley 1990, p. 157.

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The Archives of a Professional: Maria Luisa Spineto, Civil Engineer and 'Thorough Designer'

Roberta Spallone

A female civil engineer between atelier Civil Engineering course, in the Building and building site subsection. During the three last years the In Italy in the 1950s, civil engineering disciplines related to the project - Building was practiced almost entirely by men. Science, Building Technology, Certainly is a singular case the Architectural Composition, Building professional affirmation of a woman who Physics - and those aimed at professional lived and worked in a hilly town with practice - Real Estate Evaluation, Legal fewer than 5000 inhabitants, Arquata Subjects - composed the corpus of the Civil Scrivia in the province of Alessandria, on Engineer's knowledge in the Post-War the slopes of the Ligurian Apennines and period. This program according to the along the road link between Alessandria study regulations and Italian laws allowed and Genova. practicing the profession of Civil Engineer Personal skills and reputation, and signing projects in the field of the familial and individual, surely contributed structure calculation such as architectural to the establishment of a mainly private, project. strong and loyal clientele, but also to the Two final dissertations were recognition of authority and competence submitted by Spineto; they concern the that allowed her to lead the building-site, report to the structural project of a school direct the workers, and interact with the building in Arquata Scrivia, and the contractors and the craftsmen that evaluation for the division of a farm. created technological elements, A short curriculum, dated 18 decorative details and complementary November 1966, along with other archive furnishings, on her drawings. sources, allows reconstructing the first Maria Luisa Spineto was born in steps of her professional activity. Arquata Scrivia in 1926 and prematurely During the first years after died in 1989. graduating she worked for the engineering Following classic studies at the Liceo firm of Adriano Bagnasco in Genova. Classico in Novi Ligure ended in 1944, she Among the works by Bagnasco, graduated in 1950 from the University of already President of the Order of Genova in Civil Building Engineering. In a Engineers and Professor of Building course of forty-one students, only three Technology at the University of Genova, it were women. Among these three women, could remember that designed with the she would be the only one to practice the architect Luigi Carlo Daneri: the complex profession. of high houses in Genova-Foce (1934- The training course included a 1958), realized answering the biennial in Engineering, common to the announcement of an architectural various subsequent specializations and competition for the setting of the new continued, in her case, with the three-year Piazza della Foce.

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One of her first independent works Maria Luisa Spineto, who did not was the competition entry for the marry, drove the car and had an intense reconstruction of Margherita Theater in social life, as evidenced by the pictures of Via XX Settembre in Genova (1955). It is dinners and snow holidays with her circle one of the few documented works that of friends, left the Bagnasco firm in 1957. includes sketches and colour perspectives In the following years, she and demonstrates a particular quality of collaborated with the same firm until the tracing and a fitting use of drawing for death of the holder in 1964, and at the spatial conception. It was a building for same time she carried out her work as an theatrical performances of revue and independent professional, dealing with opera. Among the competitors, engineer architectural project and works direction. Spineto, who was only 29, was the only In 1956 she was a member of the woman. Register of Experts of the Order of The failure of the competition, Engineers of Genova: in the categories of motivated by the Selection Board with the Civilian Buildings and Reinforced Concrete incompleteness of her proposal, that was Structures, Topography and Real Estate in any case considered deserving of the Evaluation there were 3 women out of cost contribution, probably contribute to 268 members, in the category Ordinary induce her to resort to engagements with Roads, women were reduced to 2. private or construction firms' In the Engineer's Register of Genova commitments. of 1964 that included about 1600 In the Archive there is an article members, she was one of the 11 women, published in the Corriere mercantile of and the others mostly were teachers or Genova in May 1955, titled 'Engineers and employees. architects wearing the skirt that work in Among the public assignments there studios and construction sites'1. It contains was the participation in the Building some interviews with young professionals, Commission of the Municipality of Arquata including that with Maria Luisa Spineto. In Scrivia, on appointment of 12 May 1963. the text emerges that the other In the curriculum dating 1966, she interviewees have stopped working when remembered, among the independent they have had a child, or have devoted assignments, the project and the direction themselves to teaching, or were of the works of: eight apartment buildings employees. The chronicler asks to Spineto ranging between 20000 and 30000 mc in whether, when she will marry, she will Arquata Scrivia and Novi Ligure; some give up her professional career and if smaller condominiums and villas close to technical and scientific skills have some the city and in Marina di Bibbona; some utility in domestic activities. No questions buildings for a farm. Among the most about a woman's position in an demanding and prestigious assignments is engineering firm or on her role in the the static testing of the Genova building site; the interviewer merely Sampierdarena skyscraper, identifiable in points out that she is dealing mainly with the so-called 'hospital's skyscraper', in Via residential buildings and not with road Giovanni Battista Botteri 3, a 18-storey infrastructures. 'Drive securely and 70-meter high building, built in 1957 everywhere', she sarcastically concludes. by the construction company Vicari. Her atelier was in a wing of the 1 "Ingegneri e architetti in gonnella al lavoro family home in Arquata Scrivia, where she negli studi e nei cantieri", Corriere mercantile, 29 also had an apartment. May 1957.

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In 1957, she joined the A.I.D.I.A., In the early 1970s she abandoned holder of the card no. 59. the structural calculation, as documented Since 1979 she was a member of the a letter dated 11 September 1974 to Soroptimist of Alessandria, of which she Domenico Debenedetti, who had also had the role of Secretary. commissioned the family tomb: 'The She was a versatile designer: in calculations and the direction of the 1987, together with a friend, she drew and reinforced concrete works must be patented an industrial model of entrusted to another professional since I articulated eye-glasses. have for years ceased to be interested in Subsequent assignments, contracted this activity. On the other hand, I will be by private clients and construction happy to follow and direct the companies, mainly involved residential architectural work if you like it'. projects, condominiums, villas, and Over her last few decades, she funerary architectures; although work for worked on shop outfitting and interior schools, cinemas, farms and industries was furnishings. The clients' names recur, thus also done. demonstrating their satisfaction and The scope of these projects loyalty. extended from her hometown, to Novi It is a sector of professional activity Ligure, Genova, and Livorno. that she had been practicing since the From the early years of independent beginning, as in the furniture of Casa work, Spineto combined the architectural Bellini in Arquata Scrivia, of which she was design to the calculation of structures; the also author of the architectural project, latter task in some cases engaged her dating back to 1958. exclusively as a structural designer. This was one of the first cases in Carrying out the calculation of the which Spineto dealt with a 'thorough reinforced concrete through the slide rule, design', ranging from architectural she applied the principle of the use of the composition, structural calculation, design maximum of steel and used a particular of technological details, and furnishings. strictness in the building site during the Many years later, in November checking of the concrete's composition 1981, the interiors of Casa Bellini were and the laying of the steel armor. published in the magazine Modo, in a The end of the 1960s, in full monographic article by Nives Ciardi economic boom, was the time of several entitled 'Camere d'abitazione' ('Housing realizations in which Spineto reconciled Rooms'). The author of the article puts the architectural and structural project, to readers the question of which is the key to the design of technological elements poetically living. In the following, (windows, roofs,...), finishes (coatings, comparing the concept of dwelling in railings,...), and furnishing details (lamps, Heidegger's and Hölderlin's thoughts, she handles,...). conducts an ideal visit inside the home, The Engineer's Register of the described as a 'memory house', and Province of Alessandria in 1971 is a further retraces the events remembered by the testimony to how rare professional stratification of the family objects. women were: among 267 members, only 4 The interior furnishings in the are women. The other three, beyond Spineto's drawings - great color Spineto, were younger than her and their perspectives, traced with remarkable father was an engineer.

127 accuracy - are still recognizable in the ideation drawings, the physic models, the published photographs2. photographs that the designer used In the same field, she received other checking alternative solutions and significant awards, such as the second studying the building in the context in prize awarded ex-aequo in 1989 by the which it was to arise, were generally Chamber of Commerce of Genova under eliminated. In fact, in the Spineto's the Competition 'Antico è bello' (Antiques Archives there are very few works in are beautiful) for the restructuring and which the technical strictness gives space enhancement of the environment of the to the expressive representation. historic center, through the renovation As we have seen, the residential and the furnishing of a clothing store in architecture, consisting of the high Genova. condominiums of the Sixties, and the Forty years of intense work are single-family villas, is one of the recurring described by the copious iconographic and typologies of Spineto's work. textual materials collected in her Archives The Condominio Libarna, in Viale IV and preserved by her family. An analytical Novembre 7 in Arquata Scrivia, is an H- report is currently under review, but it can shaped eight-storey building, plus a be anticipated that it should include about mansard. Set on a trapezoidal lot, the two hundred projects. oblique side is solved with a stepped façade in correspondence to the interior spaces. The plot owner was the Marquis Among archival documents: selection of Rodolfo Saporiti. Spineto was concerned some emblematic projects with architectural and structural design. The first design drawings date back The documents found in the private to 1967; the building was completed in Archives of Maria Luisa Spineto, generally 1972. The first technical drawing in the in good condition, consist of iconographic presentation dossier, as usual in the materials: drawings, mostly China-inked materials she produced, is a three- on tracing paper, blueprint copies, in a few dimensional view, in this case a two-points cases coloured by pastel or watercolour, perspective, traced in China ink. bills of armor, photographs ..., and textual The ground level, presumably materials: letters, notes, technical originally intended for offices, is covered reports... by ashlar-worked stone, to create a As in most professional Archives, the preserved drawings relate to the final and 3 Carlo Mezzetti (Ed.), Il Disegno executive phase of the project . The dell’architettura italiana nel XX secolo (Roma: Edizioni Kappa, 2003). Roberta Spallone, Francesca Paluan, "Contemporary design drawings as cultural 2 Nives Ciardi, “Camere d'abitazione”, Modo heritage: interpretation and communication. 5, 44 (1981), 23-27. Towards a digital archive of Rosani's industrial 3 On the characteristics of archival drawings projects", in Carmine Gambardella (Ed), Heritage of professionals in the twentieth century see: and Technology. Mind Knowledge Experience Piero Albisinni, Laura De Carlo (Eds.), (Napoli: La scuola di Pitagora, 2015), 283-292. Architettura disegno modello. Verso un archivio Roberta Spallone, Francesca Paluan, "Digital digitale dell’opera di maestri del XX secolo (Roma: Archives for Preserving and Communicating Gangemi, 2011). Architectural Drawings", in Mehdi Khosrow-Pour Fulvio Irace, Graziella Leyla Ciagà, G. L. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Information Science and (Eds.), Design &Cultural Heritage. Archivio Animato Technology, Fourth Edition (Hershey: IGI Global, / Animated Archive (Milano: Electa, 2013). 2017), 5213-5225.

128 diversified design that distinguishes the medical studios, including that of the pilasters and architraves. The other levels owner. are covered with gres tiles, as in the The façades have a strictly fashion of those years, while the top one, symmetrical scheme, while the interiors in which the mansard windows open, is freely respond to the different functions. plastered. Above a basement covered by stone from The main façade, on the Piazza dei Luserna, the façades are plastered. Caduti, is articulated by the deep recess of Luserna stone also emphasizes the central the central body which has a different bodies, protruded on the ground floor, façade layout than the two symmetrical and frames the windows. The roof is slate- wings. covered and supported by Douglas's In the middle of this façade one of wooden corbels among which stand out the two atriums opens, the other faces the the coffers, designed to fit. Wrought iron side street. The interest in such halls, fences and parapets are also crafts on which 'will be particularly attentive to the design. choice of materials and finishes', as the In the interiors the same accuracy Technical Report states, is highlighted by appears in the selection and matching of the drafting of a central perspective that materials, and in the design of furniture. previews its spatiality and denotes the As detailed in the technical report, the particular attention of the designer for large living room on the ground floor has a choosing and matching materials and for terracotta tiled floor with decorations, designing the lamps. while the walls alternate the white plaster, The atrium is set on a strict the stone and brick fireplace, the English- symmetry and has a red granite floor, style Douglas wooden doors, and the while the side walls are partly opaque and libraries in the same wood. Few materials, covered with pink marble slabs, partly carefully chosen and combined, give the semi-transparent and equipped with the house the image of a sophisticated access doors to the vertical distribution country residence. systems. The background wall is covered The project of funerary chapels is in the middle by large ceramic tiles from another of Spineto's recurring Albisola with motifs in relief; in the sides assignments. by wooden panels with vertical slats. On The Cemetery of Arquata Scrivia the side walls there are iron and glass houses at least five, for which the appliqués, artisanally crafted on a design. engineer dealt with the architectural Also the Villa of Doctor Ballestrero, composition, up to the design of the located in Via Martiri della Benedicta in customized lining. Arquata Scrivia, and built between 1968 Among these tombs, the Tomba and 1971, sees Spineto's commitment as a Lasagna, committed by Angelo Lasagna architectural designer, director of works and built in 1969, is distinguished by the and designer of wrought-iron works, rupture of the symmetrical scheme of windows, fireplaces, stairs, and fixed façade present in the other (De Paoli, furnishings. Spineto, Debenedetti-Ottonelli, etc.). The building, a large two-storey with The design phase was rather long: mansard house, which each floor among the dated drawings, the first one measures approximately 250 square was signed in December 1967; the final meters, houses on the ground floor some drawings were drawn up in May 1969.

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Over ten different solutions, A further hypothesis breaks down developed through large-scale technical the symmetry: on the right, an oblique drawings, testify to the various wall lets space to a statue, on the left, the configurations assumed during the design glass is connected to the side wall. process that shows, in its evolution, the Asymmetric steps emphasize the new increase in the available plan surface, compositional choice. while the height remained constant. Another drawing dated 29 April Following is an ideal reconstruction 1968, documents the expansion in length of the sequence. of the plan: it measures 2.80x3.10 m and The 1967 drawings start from a the façade is now on the short side. rectangular plan of 2.80x2.50 m, and the The search for symmetry seems to main façade is on the long side. have been abandoned and the project Three hypotheses propose a volume approaches what will be the ultimate with a symmetrical façade covered by a solution through the splitting of the pitched roof. Two of these have a façade plans. tripartite façade, with a wider central part; The part of the façade on the left of the first one presents a classical style the glazed to full-height entrance is solution, with thin Doric columns and opaque, that on the right is transparent arches, the other one is composed by a and is separated by a pilaster that creates trilithon made up by pilasters and a kind of niche for the statue. The architrave, and has two statues flanking architrave with listels is a modern version the entrance. In the third hypothesis, the of a moulded architrave. tripartition of the façade through the All the hypotheses above described pillars disappears: it is the glazed surface were drafted up to the executive level to that is divided in the two fixed lateral testify, probably, an active role of the parts and in the openable central part, client in the final choice. A letter sent to while the architrave is lowered to contain Angelo Lasagna by the firm that carved the sculptural apparatus that looks like a the statue underlines this role: it stated pediment decoration. that the face of the Virgin Mary is not Five other hypotheses have a flat Nineteenth-century, but modern, as roof and different schemes of façade requested by the clients. maintaining the symmetry. The first one The final project is a clear evolution takes the idea of putting a large of the previous one, as the drawings dated transparent surface between the two side 29th May 1969 evidence. walls and placing the sculptures above the It has a particular movement of architrave. The other four hypotheses planes and a succession of full and empty, resort again to the tripartition of the which constitute the box-volume of the façade: the first one, through corinthian artefact. The vertical walls stay on a two- pilasters and a moulded architrave; the step podium and completely close the two second one, placing the tombstones at the sides, but terminate on the façade in two sides of the entrance; the third one, using different planes. The left wall protrudes in the relationship between opacity and respect to the right and an orthogonal wall transparency where the two walls at the inserts in it forming the background of the side of the glass entrance become the statue of the Virgin. The right wall ends background of two statues; the last one, before and has a small flap in which a thin putting the statues on corbels and having glass, delimited on the opposite side by a a moulded architrave. pilaster aligned to the left wall, is inserted.

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In the center there is the entrance of plan and has oblique sides that accentuate the tomb, made by a hardened crystal the prospective effect. glass wall. Wrought iron columns with stylized At the back, above an altar, a large architectural orders, boiseries, English- window opens up to the ceiling, framed glass doors, characterize the contributing to the inside natural different solutions. lightening. The flat roof features a refined three-listels motive that inserts into the walls with an offset of planes. The top part Conclusion of the roof also has listels. The pavement, the opaque walls, and the vertical surface What value can assume the of the roof are covered by slabs of a grey discovery of the Spineto's Archives and stone called 'Serizzo' placed with vertical what can we learn from a case study like joints that give a plain colour to the this? What generalizations can we aspire outside. The statue of the Virgin, placed to? on a pedestal of the same material, stands I started this research encouraged out in the dark background thanks to the by Caterina Franchini who, in one of our whiteness of Carrara marble in which it is first meetings, told me that were very few carved. The internal walls are also coated female civil engineers operating in the in square slabs of Carrara marble with second half of the twentieth century in alternate joints. The contrast between the Italy of which they had been known and white interior and the dark gray outside studied the activities and the works. emerges. The ceiling, which goes beyond Probably there are several other the façade, is covered by a mosaic of blue female civil engineers, not many, given the tiles, as if to evoke the night sky. Such data of the professional Registers of those ceiling coating is used in other works, such years, which may be interesting to as the Spineto's tomb in the same investigate the stories. These stories can Cemetery. help us to understand their role in the Among the shops, the Boutique studies, in the firms, in the building site; Maria Luisa managed by Mrs. Maria Luisa their way of working, autonomous or in Scalabrino Cottone, in Via Girardengo in group, their relationships with other Novi Ligure, was designed in 1973. The professionals, and to highlight their real shop was much admired so that the owner contribution to the territorial and urban bragged that it was made by a French transformation. architect! As a scholar of the history of design The set-up was removed in the past drawings, in my opinion the documents years, but the accurate drawings remain. found represent a case embodied by a Spineto, for the barrel vaulted woman, in which the drawings and the interiors, drew boiseries, doors and archival materials testify to the role of wrought-iron frames to which pulls 'thorough designer' assumed by Spineto. together furnishings, mirrors and lamps. Indeed, in a period when the Likewise, the drawings for the specialization of knowledge tends not only showcase and mainly those for the to differentiate between the roles of the entrance door are subject to numerous architect and the engineer, but also to studies and variants. Indeed the entrance influence the relationships between door in the intentions is behind the façade professionals devoted to architectural composition, structural calculation,

131 project of technical equipment, she dealt Bibliography with distribution and functional design, structural calculation, and the large scale Piero Albisinni, Laura De Carlo (Eds.), design of finishing and decorative Architettura disegno modello. Verso un elements to be artisanally crafted. archivio digitale dell’opera di maestri del XX secolo. Roma: Gangemi, 2011. Nives Ciardi, “Camere d'abitazione”, Acknowledgment Modo 5, 44 (1981), 23-27. "Ingegneri e architetti in gonnella al I would like to thank Mrs. lavoro negli studi e nei cantieri", Corriere Mariapaola Desimone Spineto for the mercantile 29 maggio 1957. warm hospitality and Professor Natale Fulvio Irace, Graziella Leyla Ciagà, G. Spineto for the information, the tales, the L. (Eds.), Design &Cultural Heritage. help and the attention to the Archivio Animato / Animated Archive. reconstruction work done. Milano: Electa, 2013. Carlo Mezzetti (Ed.), Il Disegno dell’architettura italiana nel XX secolo. Roma: Edizioni Kappa, 2003. Roberta Spallone, Francesca Paluan, "Contemporary design drawings as cultural heritage: interpretation and communication. Towards a digital archive of Rosani's industrial projects", in Heritage and Technology. Mind Knowledge Experience, edited by Carmine Gambardella, 283-292. Napoli: La scuola di Pitagora, 2015. Roberta Spallone, Francesca Paluan, "Digital Archives for Preserving and Communicating Architectural Drawings", in, Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology, Fourth Edition, edited by Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, 5213-5225. Hershey: IGI Global, 2017.

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EDUCATION AND PUBLISHING

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Women in Slovenian Civil Engineering from 1970 to 1990 Education and Academia

Barbara Vodopivec

1. Introduction phenomenon and to contribute to the understanding of the position and role of As of yet, scientific research has not women in Slovenian civil engineering focused on women in Slovenian civil education and academia in the 1970s and engineering. This paper is the first attempt 1980s. to shed light on this thus far neglected Our pioneering research was based topic. Therefore, it was necessary to limit on primary sources from the archives in the scope of our research; this paper educational institutions and on our addresses women in Slovenian civil analysis of the Gradbeni vestnik (Journal of engineering in higher education and Civil Engineering), which was since 1951 academia between 1970 and 1990. We pivotal civil engineering Slovenian journal. touch on the periods before and after this Survey is based on the analyses of time frame in order to facilitate the representation of women among understanding of certain processes and to graduates, masters and PhD holders in introduce comparative perspectives, yet civil engineering at the University of the comprehensive study of the history of Ljubljana and University of Maribor, and of women in Slovenian civil engineering in the representation of women in the civil the twentieth century is beyond the reach engineering academic world: among of this paper. Research into women in the employees at the Faculty of architecture, business sector and industry is only done civil engineering and geodesy of the sporadically, and detailed research into University of Ljubljana (UL FAGG), among this important subject still needs to be the authors of original scientific articles in done. Equally, some important Gradbeni Vestnik and among editors and comparative perspectives with the former members of the journal’s editorial board. Yugoslavian republics are to be explored The results of the quantitative by further steps of the research. analysis of women, who studied civil Even though the civil engineering engineering at the University of Ljubljana sector was still firmly in male hands at the and the University of Maribor are end of the 1960s, the first female PhD in presented in the first chapter. The second civil engineering, which was defended in chapter presents the results of the Ljubljana in 1976, and a larger number of quantitative analysis of editors and female graduates in civil engineering, authors of scientific and professional which can be traced at the University of articles in the Gradbeni vestnik journal and Ljubljana particularly in the 1980s, suggest of women employed as research and that this traditional men's fortress has teaching staff at the UL FAGG. Our findings started to open up for women more are summarised in the final chapter. noticeably precisely in the period under observation. The purpose of this paper is to investigate more in-depth this

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2. Contextual Framework War and to raise fertility, which as a result of growing urbanization and A broader context of gender studies proletarization in countries with centrally and of European, Yugoslavian and planned economies, began to decline soon Slovenian social, political and economic after the war:4 ‘20%‒30% of married history after 1945 (such as enrolment of women were employed in 1960, whilst in the baby-boom generation to faculties),1 1980, that increased to 50%‒75% in a including the development of civil number of countries. The highest rate of engineering field and education,2 is the 87% was reached in the Soviet Union.’5 contextual framework in which results of To set up a contextual framework in analyses are placed. which we observe the emergence of In order to understand the role and women in Slovenian civil engineering in position of women in Slovenian civil higher education and academia after engineering in the observed period, it is 1945, we will derive from the following important to point out that The summarized statement: ‘In the second half Constitution of the FLRJ, adopted in 1946,3 of the twentieth century a model of laid legal foundations for the equal women as mothers and housewives still treatment of men and women; thus, persisted in the West, where endeavours women in Yugoslavia had equal access to for women's rights were led by women's education and employment. The social organizations. In socialist countries the system introduced a number of incentives women's equality movement was taken for women in order to ease their time of over by the state. It granted them a employment and the demanding number of rights, yet in turn it required coordination of one’s professional and them to participate actively in economic family life, such as child allowances, paid and political life. Thus, the scope of their maternity and sick leave, and the duties increased significantly.’6 This establishment of kindergartens. Ivan T. development, along with the slow male- Berendt explains that these measures, oriented mentality shift, defined by which largely followed the Soviet example, gender studies literature as a “glass ceiling were introduced primarily to mobilize the of mental structures”, 7 indicates why female work force following a general lack women’s penetration in professions, of any working force after the 2nd World especially those traditionally dominated by men, was rather slow despite formally given equal rights.8 1 Tony Judt, Povojna Evropa 1945-2005. Prva knjiga (Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 2007). Periods of recession and conjuncture 2 Marta Verginella, Ženska obrobja in the Slovenian construction sector after (Ljubljana: DELTA, 2006); Milica Antić Gaber (ed.), Ženske na robovih politike (Ljubljana: Sophia, 4 Ivan T. Berendt, Gospodarska zgodovina 2011). Peter Vodopivec, Od Pohlinove slovnice do Evrope v 20. stoletju (Ljubljana: ZRC SAZU and samostojne države (Ljubljana: Modrijan, 2010). Modrijan, 2013), 189. Aleš Gabrič, »Od moškega do unisex šolstva,« in 5 Berendt, 20. stoletju, 190. Aleskander Žižek (ed.), Ženska skozi zgodovino 6 Mateja Jeraj, ‘Ženska naj bo mati in (Ljubljana: Zveza zgodovinskih društev Slovenije, delavka (Vloga in položaj Slovenk v socializmu, s 2004). poudarkom na 1945-53),’ in Aleksander Žižek (ed.), Ženska skozi zgodovino (Ljubljana: Zveza 3 Mateja Jeraj, ‘Ženska naj bo mati in zgodovinskih društev Slovenije, 2004), 367. delavka (Vloga in položaj Slovenk v socializmu, s 7 Verginella, obrobja, 127. poudarkom na 1945-53),’ in Aleksander Žižek (ed.), 8 Mateja Jeraj, ‘Ženska v slovenski politiki v Ženska skozi zgodovino (Ljubljana: Zveza socializmu,’ in Milica Antić Gaber (ed.), Ženske na zgodovinskih društev Slovenije, 2004), 368. robovih politike (Ljubljana: Sophia, 2011): 78.

135 the 2nd World War were cyclical and 3. Education changed to above four to ten years.9 After a temporary decline in the 2nd half of the The subjects of our quantitative 1960s, the construction sector began to analysis were women, who graduated recover. Investments were still mostly from selected study programmes, with an directed at heavy industry, as well as at emphasis on the period between 1970 and transport facilities, housing and objects of 1990. In order to place our data in the social welfare. Between 1969 and 1975 context of a longer time period, we the sector thus reached a second peak introduced some comparative aspects (the first one lasted from 1955 to 1964), with periods before and after.12 which was also strongly influenced by Civil engineering and geodesy13 activities abroad and developing graduates at all levels of study at the countries, where the industry shifted, University of Ljubljana and the University especially due to stagnation in housing of Maribor were included in our research, construction.10 As a result of global crisis, while the field of architecture was this deepened decisively after 1973; the omitted.14 The analysis covered engineers period was followed by stagnation and (college-level), university engineers recession, which became evident after (university-level), masters of science (MSc) 1981 in Yugoslavia.11 and doctors of science (PhD). The Interdisciplinary Postgraduate Study Programme of Spatial Planning and Urbanism (IPŠPUP), which was launched at UL FAGG in the study year of 1974‒75, brought together the fields of technical, 15 natural and social sciences. Even though 9 M. Marksel, ‘Vpliv svetovne finančne krize it is not purely a civil engineering study, na gradbeništvo s poudarkom na Sloveniji’ (BA the programme is included in our analysis, thesis, Univerza v Mariboru, 2011), 15. since it reflects the extension of the 10 Saša Skulj, ‘Gradbeništvo včeraj, danes, construction field to spatial planning, jutri,’ Gradbeni vestnik 31/11 (1982): 196. More: Vladimir Čadež, ‘Osnove za perspektivni program urban planning and environmental razvoja gradbeništva in industrije gradbenega materiala 1964‒1970,’ Gradbeni vestnik 13/8‒9 12 Vlasto Zemljič. ‘Študij gradbeništva skozi (1964): 149‒62. Jožica Glažar, ‘Gospodarski položaj 70 let,’ Gradbeni vestnik 39/10‒11 (1990): 198‒ gradbeništva in IGM Slovenije v preteklem in 205. tekočem srednjeročnem obdobju,’ Gradbeni Davorin Žitnik, et al. (ed.). Sto let gradbene vestnik 37/4‒6 (1988): 58‒61. Maks Megušar, šole v Ljubljani in gradbenega šolstva na ‘Program dolgoročnega razvoja v gradbeništvu,’ Slovenskem (Ljubljana: Srednja gradbena šola Ivana Gradbeni vestnik 19/11 (1970): 312‒17. Resolucija Kavčiča Ljubljana, 1989). Ludvik Trauner. ‘30 let o razvoju gradbeništva v SR Sloveniji v prihodnjem študija VTO gradbeništvo,’ Gradbeni vestnik 39/1‒2 obdobju (Skupščina SR Slovenije, 19. 10. 1964). (1990): 2‒4. Gradbeni vestnik 13/11 (1964): 197‒99. Desanka 13 Geodesy is included in the study because Spasojević, ‘Vloga, ekonomski pomen in mesto it was an integral part of the UL FAGG. našega gradbeništva v zadnjih letih,’ Gradbeni 14 Education in architecture see Helena vestnik 23/5 (1974): 142‒48 and Gradbeni vestnik Seražin: First Generations of Women in 23/6-7 (1974): 186‒89. Jože Valentinčič, ‘Poročilo o Architecture and Design at University of Ljubljana; problemih in pogojih za razvoj gradbeništva v SR in the press. Sloveniji,’ Gradbeni vestnik 13/10 (1964): 188‒92. 15 Andrej Pogačnik (ed.), 25 let 11 More: Berendt, 20. stoletja and M. Štor, Interdisciplinarnega podiplomskega študija M. ‘Največje ekonomske krize in njihov vpliv na prostorskega in urbanističnega planiranja (IPŠPUP) svetovne kapitalske trge,’ (BA thesis, Univerza v na Fakulteti za gradbeništvo in geodezijo Univerze Ljubljani, 2002). v Ljubljani (Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, 1998), 2.

136 protection, and in particular, a greater Quantitative analysis of data on UL proportion of women graduates is FAGG graduates reveals that a number of recorded, especially at the level of the significant milestones in education were MSc. reached precisely in the period under observation. In 1976 Darinka Battelino18 3.1 The University of Ljubljana successfully defended her PhD dissertation at the UL FAGG and thus Civil engineering was a field of study became the first female Doctor of Science from the establishment of the University in civil engineering in former Yugoslavia. of Ljubljana in 1919 on.16 After the The first woman to gain a PhD in the Second World War the filed was a subject IPŠPUP programme was Branka Berce of numerous institutional changes. In 1945 Bratko in 1990 and the first woman, who the Faculty of Civil Engineering and won PhD from geodesy, was Andreja Geodesy became an independent member Borec in 2000.19 of the University of Ljubljana; three study Darinka Battelino was also the first programs were established: structures, woman to defend MSc degree in civil hydro engineering and transport. From engineering in 1969. Due to the system of 1950 to 1954 the faculty was part of an rotation between UL FAGG and the Faculty independent Technical High School in of Mechanical Engineering Battelino had Ljubljana. After 1954 the faculty became to defend her thesis on the latter faculty.20 the Civil Engineering and Geodesy Further milestones happened much later; Department of the newly established the second female MSc in civil engineering Technical Faculty of the University of was awarded to Duška Tomšič in 1989. Ljubljana. In 1957 the Technical Faculty However, in the same year all together six was reorganized into several autonomous out of nine masters were defended by faculties, one of which was UL FAGG. women. The first woman to defend her Postgraduate study programmes were MSc thesis in the IPŠPUP study introduced in the study year of 1959‒60. programme was Marija Nose Cerkvenik in In 1995 the faculty split into two separate 1977 and the first geodesy MSc degree faculties: the Faculty of Architecture and was awarded in 1986 to Vesna Ježovnik. 21 the Faculty of Civil Engineering and The first female civil engineer with a Geodesy (UL FGG).17 university degree in Slovenia was Sonja

16 Before, students from Slovenian lands 18 Barbara Vodopivec, ‘Battelino, Darinka,’ studied at the universities abroad, mostly in in Novi Slovenski biografski leksikon, B-Bla, edited Vienna, Graz, Prague, Zagreb. However, the by Barbara Šterbenc Svetina, 179‒180. Ljubljana: tradition has been retained to the certain extend ZRC SAZU, 2017. also after the establishment of the University of 19 The first male PhD in civil engineering at Ljubljana. the University of Ljubljana was awarded in 1935, 17 Bojan Majes (ed.). Fakulteta za the first male PhD in geodesy was awarded in 1965 gradbeništvo in geodezijo: 1989-2009: jubilejni and the first male IPŠPUP doctoral degree was zbornik ob devetdesetletnici Fakultete za awarded in 1986 gradbeništvo in geodezijo Univerze v Ljubljani 20 Jože Stropnik (ed.). Fakulteta za (Ljubljana: UL FGG, 2009), 491‒509. Vladimir strojništvo. 65 let začetka študija strojništva, 40 let Brezar, Miran Saje and Florjan Vodopivec, ‘Faculty visokošolskega študija strojništva v Sloveniji of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy,’ in (Ljubljana: Fakulteta za strojništvo, 1985), 93. 75 years of continuous work of the University of 21 Archives of the UL FGG. The first male Ljubljana 1919‒1994, edited by Mojca Repež, 40‒ MSc degree in civil engineering at UL FAGG was 45. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, 1994. awarded in 1963.

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Lapajne Oblak (1906‒1995) in 1932, 22 A larger increase was recorded among seven years after the first male student engineers. graduated from the programme. However, Considering the entire period the first woman to graduate from between 1935 and 2008, one may observe university as an engineer after the Second that women are best represented among World War was Carmen Jež Gala in 1952. geodesy graduates, which can be Table 1 indicates that during the attributed to the large increase of period under consideration the ratio in graduates after 1970, while they are also favour of women is best among graduates well represented among Masters of of the geodesy engineer study program, Science, which is most likely the result of and women are least represented among the joint treatment of civil engineering, doctors of science. Geodesy accounts for a geodesy and IPŠPUP programs in this field greater proportion of women than civil of study. From the beginning of the engineering, especially after 1990, IPŠPUP program until 2008, 54 students however this does not apply to the period have been awarded the title of MSc, of before 1969. In the 1980s a significant which 26 were women (48%), which is the increase in the number of female highest percentage among all of the engineers can be observed in all study programs observed in this survey. The programs. The number of female percentage of women in this program rose university-graduated geodesy engineers, from 12% in the 1972‒73 academic year for example, exceeds the number of male to 26% in the early 1980s and then engineers for the first time in 1985. stabilized at approximately 45% in the Compared to the first period (1935‒ middle of the decade.23 69) women are represented in all The percent of female civil engineers observed study programs in our over the entire period ranges between considered time period (1970‒90). The 16% and 18%, although a drop in the number of graduated female civil number of graduates can be observed engineers doubled, however the largest between 1970 and 1990. increase was recorded in geodesy engineers. In the two decades after our considered time period (1991‒2008), the 3.2 The University of Maribor number of female doctors and masters of science increased significantly, the Civil engineering studies in Maribor number of university-graduated geodesy were made available in 1959 at the engineers almost doubled, while the Technical College, and students were able number of geodesy engineers remained to continue their studies at the University approximately the same. Following a of Ljubljana. In 1973 a Higher Technical marked increase in the number of female School with a Department of Civil university civil engineers after 1970, their Engineering was established, which number increased only slightly after 1990. became an independent member of the newly established University of Maribor in

22 Archives of the UL FGG; Barbara 23 Andrej Pogačnik (ed.), 25 let Vodopivec, ‘Gimnazija Bežigrad High School, ’ in Interdisciplinarnega podiplomskega študija Momowo. 100 Works in 100 Years. European prostorskega in urbanističnega planiranja (IPŠPUP) Women in Architecture and Design 1918‒2018, na Fakulteti za gradbeništvo in geodezijo Univerze edited byAna Maria Fernández García, et al. 56‒57. v Ljubljani (Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, 1998), Ljubljana, Turin: ZRC SAZU, Momowo, 2016. 14‒15.

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1975. Postgraduate studies were 4. Academia introduced in the 1981‒82 academic year.24 In 1985 the Technical faculty was The next step of the quantitative established, which was divided into four analysis was identifying the proportion of faculties in 1995, among them the Faculty women in the civil engineering academic of Civil Engineering. In 2015, the faculty sphere. It was done on the basis of UL was renamed the Faculty of Civil FAGG annual reports, which revealed the Engineering, Transportation Engineering emergence and proportion of female and Architecture (UM FGPA).25 employees in the observed period There was no civil engineering PhD (teaching and research staff), and by or MSc awarded to a woman before 1990; identifying the emergence and proportion the first female PhD was defended in 1999 of female authors in the Gradbeni vestnik and the first MSc in 1991.26 journal, which is available online. Since In 1963 the first woman became a 1951,30 Gradbeni vestnik has been a civil engineer and the first female pivotal civil engineering journal, publishing university graduate civil engineer original scientific and professional articles, completed her studies in 1978.27 In all reports on major construction activities there were 1781 graduates from all of the and projects, news, and other undergraduate programmes (college and contributions, which is why it was chosen university level), of which 436 were as our case study.31 It is a remarkably rich women, which represents 24% of source not only of construction issues, but population. In the Civil Engineering and also of the history of urbanism, Construction Operation university transportation, energetics, tourism, program which was implemented only in environmental protection, spatial Maribor, 260 students graduated between planning, architecture, cultural heritage 1970 and 1990, of which 77 were women preservation, and the relation between which represent 30% of the population.28 the respective politics and the profession. Women represented 25% to 30% of Issues of Gradbeni vestnik published graduates from undergraduate programs between 1951 and 1990 were analysed. at the University of Maribor and were not represented among the graduates of higher-level study programs.29

24 Gabrič, Aleš. ‘Univerza v Mariboru,’ in Enciklopedija Slovenije, vol. 14, edited by Alenka employed civil engineers, were held in Maribor, Dermastia, 55‒57. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, Kranj, Celje, Murska Sobota, Novo mesto, Postojna 2000; Fakulteta za gradbeništvo, prometno and Velenje. The purpose of those programs was inženirstvo in arhitekturo: www.fgpa.um.si to comply with the new legislation and to raise a (accessed 5. July 2017); Battelino, Darinka and level of education of, above all, construction site Bleiweis, Janko. ‘Gradbeniško šolstvo,’ in managers. As Darinka Battelino pointed out in an Enciklopedija Slovenije, vol. 3, edited by Alenka interview with the author of this paper, the Dermastia, 354. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1989. percentage of women in those programs was 25 More: below 1%, what indicates a small proportion of https://www.fgpa.um.si/eng/Pages/default.aspx women employed in the construction industry. (accessed 8. August 2017) 30 Bubnov, Sergej. ‘Gradbeni vestnik,’ in 26 Archives of the UM FGPA. Enciklopedija Slovenije, vol. 3, edited by Alenka 27 Archives of the UM FGPA. Dermastia, 358. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1989. 28 Archives of the UM FGPA. Gradbeni vestnik: http://www.zveza- 29 Some undergraduate study programs of dgits.si/gradbeni-vestnik (accessed 5. July 2017). the University of Maribor, aimed at already

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4.1 Female Employees at the cooperation between faculties in Slovenia, UL FAGG Austria and Italy. At the Department of Geodesy UL There are more data on the FAGG, the first two women employed employees of the UL FAGG available for were assistants Majda Čuček Kumelj and the second decade of our researched Vesna Ježovnik in 1977. period, which is the period between 1980 An analysis of the UL FAGG reports, and 1990. which have been available since 1981, A booklet issued for the 60th revealed that the percentage of women anniversary of civil engineering studies in employed on the civil engineering and Slovenia, published in 1979, is the most geodesy departments of the UL FAGG in comprehensive source we can rely on for the decade of 1980 to 1990, ranged from the period between 1970 and 1980. 32 A 14% to 20%; the percentage started to list of lecturers is published in the booklet, noticeably increase after 1988. The starting in 1919 and ending in 1979. The greatest increase in the number of female list reveals that the first woman employed employees can be noted among young at the UL FAGG was assistant Carmen Jež researchers. Starting in the mid-1980s, the Gala in 1952. In 1965 she became the first number of young researchers, male and female assistant professor, 33 but she died female, increased rapidly, that is in an accident in the same year. 34 undoubtedly linked to the introduction of In 1964 Darinka Battelino was a national program for young researchers employed as an assistant,35 and in 1987 in 1985. 36 In 1989 there were 41 young became the first female associate researchers at UL FAGG, of which 11 were professor at the UL FAGG. In 1993 she women.37 obtained professorial position at the At the beginning of the 1980s, University of Trieste, where she was women occupied lower positions than mentor to Nelly Zanette, who in 2000, as men at the UL FAGG. In 1983 there were the first woman at the university, two women holding PhDs, one of whom defended her dissertation in the soil was appointed as an assistant professor mechanics field. Battelino was also and the other as an assistant. 1987, when strongly dedicated to establish the first associate professor was appointed, and 1989 were important turning points, when the number of female masters of science increased 32 Vlasto Zemljič (ed.), Fakulteta za arhitekturo, gradbeništvo in geodezijo 1919‒1979. Ob šestdesetletnici visokošolskega študija 36 József Györkös and Tina Glavič Novak arhitekture, gradbeništva in geodezije v Ljubljani (ed.). >30. Več kot 30 let programa Mladi (Ljubljana: UL FAGG, 1979), 183. raziskovalci (Ljubljana: ARRS, 2016). Available at: 33 Vlasto Zemljič (ed.), Fakulteta za https://www.arrs.gov.si/sl/analize/publ/inc/ARRS_ arhitekturo, gradbeništvo in geodezijo 1919‒1979. MR30_zbornik.pdf (accessed 25 July 2017). By Ob šestdesetletnici visokošolskega študija subsidizing employment for doctoral students the arhitekture, gradbeništva in geodezije v Ljubljani national program eased entry into academic world (Ljubljana: UL FAGG, 1979), 100. to a number of young researchers; women were 34 ‘In memoriam Carmen Jež Gala,’ Gradbeni well represented among them. vestnik 14/10 (1965): 193. 37Jože Koželj and Vlasto Zemljič (ed.). 35 Vlasto Zemljič (ed.), Fakulteta za Fakulteta za arhitekturo, gradbeništvo in geodezijo arhitekturo, gradbeništvo in geodezijo 1919‒1979. 1979‒1989. Jubilejni zbornik ob sedemdesetletnici Ob šestdesetletnici visokošolskega študija Univerze v Ljubljani in Fakultete za arhitekturo, arhitekture, gradbeništva in geodezije v Ljubljani gradbeništvo in geodezijo v Ljubljani. Gradbeništvo (Ljubljana: UL FAGG, 1979), 101. in geodezija (Ljubljana: UL FAGG, 1989), 117.

140 significantly as a result of the larger individual female author did not repeat number of women among young until the end of the period under review. researchers. UL FAGG had no female dean, In the 1959/60 academic year, she studied vice-dean or department head in the at the University of Cambridge, and in observed period; the first woman to be 1964 she lectured at the third-level study appointed vice-dean and thus the first program of the Sarajevo Civil Engineering female member of the faculty's Senate,38 Faculty. She started to work at the was civil engineer Maruška Šubic Kovač in Institute of Metal Constructions (IMK) in 2001. The first female full professor at the 1949, when she was still a student, and UL FGG was appointed in 2011 (Tatjana was active there till 1965. She was also a Isaković, b. 1960).39 Today, there are 44 head of IMK’s documentation centre and full professors at the same faculty. Nine of president of the study commission of the them are women: three are full-time civil engineering department at the UL employed and six work as external FAGG. Altogether, her opus comprises 13 collaborators.40 scientific and professional articles in domestic and foreign press. In 1965 she died in an accident. The obituary, 4.2 The Gradbeni vestnik published in Gradbeni vestnik following Journal her death, proves that she was a top expert and an excellent teacher. In her So far there has been no female short career she achieved exceptional editor of Gradbeni vestnik. The first female results, also from the point of view of member of the editorial board was promoting women in the construction chemistry engineer Branka Zatler sector. It can be justly assumed that the Zupančič, appointed in 1983, the 32nd year milestones of women in the construction of the journal being published. Zatler sector would have happened much earlier, Zupančič was a board member until 1992. if fate had not interrupted her scientific The first female author to publish a career so soon.43 contribution in Gradbeni vestnik, was civil In 1963, civil engineer Neža Excel engineer Carmen Jež Gala in 1956. It was published an original article. She prevailed an original scientific article. 41 The same both as an author of original articles and author published two original scientific as the author of articles in the journal articles in the same journal issue a year supplement Informacije ZRMK later, 42 which was an achievement that an (Information on the Building and Civil Engineering Institute, ZRMK), up to 1977. The Informacije ZRMK supplement was 38 Matjaž Mikoš and Romana Hudin (ed.). first published in Gradbeni vestnik in 1967 Poročilo UL FGG za leto 2001 (UL FGG, 2002), 3. and contained news on the institute’s 39 Archives of the UL FGG. innovations and achievements. Female 40 Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering of the University of Ljubljana, list of employees: authors appeared more often in https://www.en.fgg.uni-lj.si/list-of-employees/ (accessed 3 November 2017). plastostatike pri jeklenih konstrukcijah,’ Gradbeni 41 Carmen Jež Gala. ‘Prispevek k računanju vestnik 6/47‒50 (1956‒57): 159‒171. nosilcev na klasični podlagi,’ Gradbeni vestnik 43 ‘In memoriam Carmen Jež Gala,’ Gradbeni 5/39‒40 (1955‒56): 113‒117. vestnik 14/10 (1965): 193; Janez Logar (ed.). 42 Carmen Jež Gala. ‘Današnje stanje raznih Univerza v Ljubljani. Biografije in bibliografije predpisov o stabilitetnih problemih pri jeklenih univerzitetnih učiteljev in sodelavcev. Knjiga 2. konstrukcijah,’ Gradbeni vestnik 6/47‒50 (1956‒ (Univerza v Ljubljani: Ljubljana, 1969): 327. 57): 129‒136. Carmen Jež Gala. ‘Uporaba

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Informacije ZRMK than in Gradbeni vestnik ensures reliable and safe employment, itself in the observed period, which allows should be taken into account. Namely, for the assumption that they were economic crisis, which was evident in relatively well represented among Yugoslavia already at the beginning of the employees of the research institute ZRMK. 1980s, affected education with at least a One of the pioneers was Eda Sovinc. She decade of delay. graduated from the Department of Civil During the researched period (1970‒ Engineering in 1956. Already in 1949 she 90), civil engineering and IPŠPUP gained was employed as a student at the Institute their first female PhDs, and all three study of Civil Engineering (current ZRMK), where programs, civil engineering, geodesy and she worked all her career until 1978, IPŠPUP, received their first female Masters eventually as a head of the Geomechanical of Science. The percentage of women in Laboratory. However, women at the the observed period was 5% among PhD ZRMK, as well as in the economic sector, graduates, 15,8% among MSc graduates still needs to be further researched. and 23,8% among graduates of all Table 6 shows how the number of undergraduate study programs at the UL authors in Gradbeni vestnik changed from FAGG. 1970 to 1990. A breakthrough happened At the end of the 1980s, about 20% in 1985, when for the first time female of the teaching and research staff at the authors outnumbered male authors in the UL FAGG were women, but they still held section of original articles.44 1989 was also significantly lower positions than their a strong year, which is attributable both to male colleagues; in 1990 there were only contributions in the segment of articles two women among 33 doctors of science and reports by ZRMK. at the UL FAGG. Equally, in the 1980s, female authors became a constant both among the authors of original scientific 5. Conclusion articles in Gradbeni vestnik and among the authors of Informacije ZRMK. Both are In the 1970s and 1980s an increased consequences of a larger representation enrolment of students and hence number of women among graduates and are of graduates can be observed in all UL closely related to a national program for FAGG study programs. Women were young researchers, which was introduced gradually more and more represented, in the mid-1980s, and which facilitated which was a consequence of several entry into academia to many young social, political and economic factors. scientists, among whom women were well Access to education and women-friendly represented. social policies affected women’s The results of the quantitative participation in the civil engineering higher analysis presented in this article confirm education and, consequently, in the that civil engineering witnessed a academic side of the field. Additional breakthrough of women precisely during factors, such as baby-boom generation the period we researched, both in effect, the boom in the construction education and academia. However, the industry and, hence, the greater process was complex and challenging; it attractiveness of the profession, which took another 10 to 20 years for women to begin to achieve high positions 44 Four out of seven original articles were comparable to those held by men. Yet, written by female authors; Gradbeni vestnik, differences in management positions both 34/10‒11 (1985).

142 in business sector and in academia and Research Agency (research core funding higher education persist; after all, we are No. P6-0061, conducted at the France still waiting for the first female dean of the Stelè Institute of Art History ZRC SAZU, UL FGG. Ljubljana). We greatly acknowledge the professional advice and support in searching for relevant material and Acknowledgements information by Darinka Battelino, Primož Banovec, Roko Žarnić, Teja Japelj, Research for this paper was carried Elizabeta Adamlje, Jelka Rovanšek (all out as part of the MoMoWo –Women’s related to the UL FAGG), Simona Kosi and Creativity since the Modern Movement Tatjana Rojs (University of Maribor), Borut project, financed by the Culture 2007‒13 Bundara (IMK), Darja Grum Maček, Andrej EU program. The author acknowledges the Sovinc and by colleagues from the France financial support from the Slovenian Stelè Institute of Art History ZRC SAZU.

Brezar, Vladimir and Bleiweis, Janko. ‘Fakulteta za arhitekturo, gradbeništvo in geodezijo,’ in Enciklopedija Slovenije, vol. Sources 3, edited by Alenka Dermastia, 77‒8. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1989. Archives of the UL FAGG. Brezar, Vladimir, Saje, Miran and Archives of the UM FGPA. Vodopivec, Florjan. ‘Faculty of Archives of the Gradbeni vestnik Architecture, Civil Engineering and journal. Available at: http://www.zveza- Geodesy,’ in 75 years of continuous work dgits.si/gradbeni-vestnik (accessed 25 May of the University of Ljubljana 1919‒1994, 2017). edited by Mojca Repež, 40‒45. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, 1994.

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of "Interior Architecture" from '56 to '64, The Choice of Design. The who transmitted - according to her own Production of Anna Maria Fundarò testimony - aptitude to methodological between Project and Graphic rigor in declination of the different Expression1 components of the project. The presence of Vittorio Gregotti at Viviana Trapani and Vincenza Garofalo the Faculty of Architecture of Palermo in the '70s determines the activation of the

chair of industrial design, which was entrusted to a young Anna Maria Fundarò. That was a moment of profound revision Anna Maria Fundarò of university teaching and Gregotti

proposed to restore through Design a Anna Maria Fundarò was the first continuity with a tradition of architectural, professor of Industrial Design, a chair artistic and productive excellence that had instituted in 1971 in the Faculty of characterized Sicily at the end of the Architecture of Palermo on the initiative eighteenth century, especially around the of Vittorio Gregotti. She taught in Palermo figure of Ernesto Basile, master of from the '70s to the late ‘90s. Her modernist European architecture, but also extraordinary commitment as a scholar designer ahead of his time. and teacher has started the institutional Anna Maria Fundarò found in and scientific foundation of a "Sicilian Ernesto Basile's thinking and activity a design school", oriented to the idea of paradigm for a new Sicilian design, sustainable territorial development not catalyst of 'a participatory way of building just from the environmental point of view, a physical environment' able to overcome but also for the social and cultural aspects. the division between manual and A challenge that Anna Maria Fundarò has intellectual work, between major arts and conducted not only as a professor, but minor arts, giving impulse to the also as a "militant" architect, taking all the development of an ‘original material opportunities to confront with her city, 3 culture’ . places, institutions, and the conditions of However, a past rich in excellence the Sicilian territory. was contrasted with a present condition Anna Maria Fundarò enrolled at characterized by a weak and Faculty of Architecture of Palermo in 1954. discontinuous industrial production, She was a student and then assistant to apparently devoid of that tension to Gino Levi Montalcini2, teacher in Palermo productive, technological and typological innovation which instead supported the success in the world at that time of Italian 1 In the sharing of the contents expressed in Design, whose productions and the paper, which is the result of common elaborations, the paragraph Anna Maria Fundarò was written by Viviana Trapani, while the paragraph Attention to the drawing was by taught at the Universities of Palermo, Padua and Vincenza Garofalo. Turin. 2 Luigi Lèvi-Montalcini, (Milan 1902 - 3 Anna Maria Fundarò, “Palermo: Le attività Turin 1974), architect, exponent of the first artigianali nel centro storico”, in Anna Maria rationalist Italian architecture: among his most Fundarò et al., Laboratorio universitario di Design. appreciated works the interior of Palazzo Gualino, Il lavoro artigiano nel centro storico di Palermo 1928, with Giuseppe Pagano, and villa Caudano, (Palermo: Cooperativa Centro Stampa Siciliana, 1935, both in Turin. In the post-war period he 1981), 5.

147 expressions were concentrated in the heritage of manual skills, passed down Milan area. knowledge, and micro-environmental According to Anna Maria Fundarò, structures that characterize urban space. was therefore necessary to carry out a Thus, a great widespread survey of the theoretical elaboration and design craftsmanship of the historic center of experimentation that finally opened the Palermo was started, involving hundreds of way to a "modernity" never fully realized teachers and students in a choral in Sicily, and at the same time began a experience of "territory teaching", with concrete dialogue with a territory still which the project culture returns to defender of knowledge and dialogue with the "Know how" still existing craftsmanship. in the town. Anna Maria Fundarò started a The research was published in the systematic and detailed work that, from volume “Il lavoro artigiano nel centro the beginning of the 1970s to the late storico di Palermo”, an extraordinary 1990s, produced researches, ideas, encyclopedic atlas of crafts which pull experiments, national and international together drawing, historical documentation, relations, also through the commitment narration and that concerns the city, work and cohesion of a group of young spaces, objects, tools, people. The research architects4 that from the beginning, was presented at the XII Compasso d'Oro at helped her to build a "Sicilian way to the Triennale in Milan in 1981, receiving design". awards in various national and international And also the student's subscription contexts. to the studies of industrial design was The same research was replicated numerous and enthusiastic, and in 1981 after about 15 years and reissued in 1997 in contributed to the activation of an a new volume with the same title; in the "experimental address" in Industrial introduction, Anna Maria Fundarò noted Design in the Faculty of Architecture of how the context was changed a lot, as the Palermo - the first one together with oldest crafts of a pre-industrial way of life Milan - and an autonomous Institute5 and have been extinguished, while new young in 1991 a School of Specialization and a craftsmen, sometimes graduates, arrived, Doctorate in "Design, Visual and Applied closer to design to new experiments. Arts " directed by Anna Maria Fundarò. Another aspect of the research For Anna Maria Fundarò the condition developed by Anna Maria Fundarò concerns of handicrafts is a measure of the social and the proto-industrial and industrial Sicilian environmental disintegration of the productions; it refers to a historical-critical southern city, but also tells a precious point of view that considers design as an integral part of industrial culture6, but also to the research of the motives of that 4 Michele Argentino, Marilù Balsamo, Anna "interrupted process of modernity"7, which Cottone, Alfonso Porrello, Antonio Martorana were the first and the closest collaborators of Anna Maria Fundarò; a historical nucleus that in the 6 Vittorio Gregotti, Il disegno del Prodotto 1990s was enriched by many other figures of industriale. Italia 1860-1980 (Milano: Electa, 1986); young researchers, following the establishment of Siegfried Giedion, Mechanization Takes Command the PhD. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1948). 5 In 1981, the Institute of Industrial Design 7 ‘The process of modernity in Sicily has and building construction was established, and in been interrupted. The starting paleoindustrial 1987, following a split from the technological area, situation was certainly brighter than today or at the Industrial Design Institute (1987-98), both least was comparable to that of the rest of Italy. directed by Anna Maria Fundarò. Despite the increased focus on Neapolitan, the

148 in Sicily had become more and more the most experimental and radical area of evident after the first decades of the Italian design. They were theorists of a century, betraying the expectations created broad and "anthropological" approach to by the great season of art and architecture the project, which, by accepting of Palermo and Sicily at the end of the craftsmanship in contemporary eighteenth and early twentieth centuries. productions as a "privileged industry lab", Also on these issues Anna Maria could contribute to the definition of a Fundarò's school carries out a huge cultural design line with "an original role research work, of which we mention only from the specific material and productive the research on productions of Ceramica situation" of Sicily. Florio8, patents in Sicily9, Shipyard, Until the end of the 1980s different foundries and manufactures in Palermo, figures moved to Palermo with the territorial systems such as saltworks and contracts "for clear fame" like Alessandro railways, on the productions of furniture Mendini, Paolo Deganello, Ugo La Pietra, and objects, among which is the Giotto Stoppino, Clino Castelli, Denis excellence of the Ducrot factory, that Santachiara. The testimony of the fervor produced furniture and furnishing of those years remains in the publications designed by Ernesto Basile. produced by the Industrial Design But Anna Maria Fundarò was also Institute, still significant documents in the very attentive to the contemporaneity and Italian design culture. experimentation of the new Italian Design, "Design for Development" is the title which had been attracting international of a series of lectures organized in attention since the 1970s. Palermo in 1982 and a book (1988) 10, In 1982 she called to teach in which designed a broad and transversal Palermo, Ettore Sottsass and Andrea map of the Italian design culture at a time Branzi, who were already well-known in when discipline had not still acquired a full didactic autonomy within the Italian University. Ettore Sottsass, Michele De Borbons had left an entrepreneurial and Lucchi, Andrea Branzi, Enzo Mari, productive fabric that was vital and very articulated on the merchandise level …. It is not Alessandro Mendini, Filippo Alison, by chance that Palermo in 1891-92 became the Roberto Mango, but also Gillo Dorfless, location of a Great Exposition where all its Vittorio Fagone, and many others, art productive capacity, its artistic and design talents, historians, anthropologists, psychologists, all its cards, in short, are played at the highest filmmakers, economists and industrialists, level. But it is the beginning of a involutionary process that will develop over the course of several brought their experiences and ideas to decades and that before becoming macroscopic Palermo's classrooms, confronting the and dramatic, will leave unforeseeable traces of possibility of balanced and sustainable vivacity and cultural and productive vigor'. Anna development for Sicilian territory and Maria Fundarò. “Il processo interrotto della cultural specificity. modernità”, Nuove Effemeridi VIII n. 31, (1995): 13. 11 8 In July 1985 Anna Maria Fundarò with "Design for Development" will Anna Maria Ruta organized the exhibition become an expression that, then repeated Ceramica Florio, Villa Zito, Palermo. The materials were published in the volume: Vittorio Fagone et 10 Alfonsa Cannella, ed. Design per lo al., Ceramica Florio (Palermo: Novecento, 1985). sviluppo. Quaderni di ADS Annuario di Design in 9 The research on patents in Sicily from Sicilia 1, (1988). Unification of Italy in 1945 was published in the 11 'The work that the design team was article: P. Giarratano, Brevetti per modelli interested in over the years has been looking for a industriali”, Nuove Effemeridi VIII n. 31, (1995): 71- strong motivation to place the project in an 7. international setting in the wake of two texts

149 at other times and by other protagonists its historical, artistic, and anthropological of the school, will synthesize a cultural line components. that has in many ways anticipated themes More than ever actual is the research today at the center of the disciplinary for that experimental, open, relational debate: the design for the territory, project that can be achieved mainly in practiced with constant attention to the handicraft production or small series13. The exploitation of resources, traditional ability of design to deal with historic spaces, activities, historical environmental assets, narratives and city experience, is relevant, identified in the connection of places, though with completely new registers and history, productions, abilities. tools. This ability Anna Maria Fundarò In subsequent writings of the ‘90s intensely explored and interpreted. Anna Maria Fundarò lucidally analyzes the limits of the didactic experiments undertaken on the wave of radical Attention to the drawing tendencies, in an involvement ‘mainly for an inclusive ideology and not rigidly 'Representing an object means oriented towards a broad and standardized seeing it, cataloging it, relating it to the production'12; she expresses distance from subject who sees it'14 Margherita De the predominantly formal outcomes of Simone said at the "Design per lo those experiences in student projects, while sviluppo" conference cycle, conceived, emerges again the need to return to "a planned and organized at the Faculty of truer discourse on the applied arts" in Architecture in Palermo by Anna Maria continuity to a craftsmanship of great Fundarò between 1982 and 1983. quality that in Sicily had interrupted in the Anna Maria Fundarò’s approach to '30s. representation is functional for Anna Maria Fundarò, who died early communicating all aspects of the project, in 1999, leaves a solid and appreciated whether it is architectural space or the academic experience, which will lead in design object. 2002 to the establishment of a Bachelor In her academic didactic work she Degree in Industrial Design. has always given great importance to the The most precious part of her work drawing for the representation of objects. remains the great patrimony of her This attention can be seen in her research on the identity of a territory that, impressive work towards the recovery of in comparison with contemporaneity, needs local identity and Sicilian material culture, to be constantly explored and interpreted in done through a vast campaign of survey and reconnaissance of spontaneous design, of which we first talked about. This considered indispensable: Victor Papanek's "Design operation, directed at the end of the '70s for the Real World" and Gui Bonsiepe's "Theory and Practice of Industrial Design", with ethical- political orientations aimed at seeking 13 As Richard Sennett has demonstrated, development that we would now call sustainable, maneuverability, aptitude to solve practical and which we called Design for Development' problems, relate to people and sensitive aspects, Michele Argentino. “Design per lo sviluppo”, in are also today conditions that produce thought Anna Catania (ed.), more E less / nuovi stili di vita e processes, forms of knowledge, and innovative di consumo, (Palermo: Flaccovio, 2009), 15. hypotheses. 12 Anna Maria Fundarò. “Presentazione”, in 14 Margherita De Simone, “Modi di Giovanni Ragonesi (ed.), Giotto Stoppino. Dalla rappresentare l’oggetto”, Design per lo sviluppo. natura dei materiali al progetto. Quaderni di ADS Quaderni di ADS Annuario di Design in Sicilia 1, Annuario di Design in Sicilia 6, (1994): V. (1988), 152.

150 within the Chair of Artistic Design for coordinates with regard to projection Industry of the Faculty of Architecture in planes, easily reconstructed even in Palermo, was published in the relation to the space it refers to’16. These aforementioned volume “Il lavoro drawings also allow us to understand the artigiano nel centro storico di Palermo”. In assembly processes of the represented it the craftsmanship, at times still in the objects. historical center of Palermo, is The representation way is functional represented through the planimetric for transmitting the surveyed object data location of its workshops, the survey and and for understanding its function or representation of the working processing process that it needs to get it. environment with the tools necessary for This is the case for the production of cane the production process (tools, machines, objects: a sequence of two-dimensional utensils), the objects of artisan production woven patterns explains in detail all and, in some cases, techniques and phases of processing the base of the production phases. ‘The first problem is "fascedda", a container used to make knowledge, that is, survey as a method cheese. 'The interweaving of the base with the aim of describing the existing starts with the “cross” form (the number one’15. of threads in the "cross" depends on the Physical contact with objects, size that the container must take).  ... . A through direct survey, generated the further weave allows radially arranged student’s the understanding of its size and wires to assume an orthogonal position shape in space; the redesign developed with respect to the base' 17. the ability to illustrate a product and In the drawings, realized in china, describe its constructive, morphological according to the use of time, the and dimensional features. Knowledge of perceptual representation of materials or object-making techniques also shadows is obtained by dotted technique. approached the student to understand the The light and dark thus obtained allows to production process. These drawings, true make the shape of the represented object tools of analysis of the existent, also more evident, as in the case of the table constituted preparatory exercises for the concerning the production of a metal project. craftsman. In it the objects are Surveyed objects and environments represented in plan and front view, in a were studied and represented in all their direct correspondence, together with the parts and redesign allowed their tools used for metalworking. understanding. Student drawings Survey is a recurrent knowledge tool document and explore objects in Anna Maria Fundarò's university exhaustively through plans, sections, front courses. In the 1980's, students of the views, details. In other cases, in the Decoration course surveyed the exploded axonometric view, ‘the object production of Empire-style furniture. This shrinks in all its parts, and with extreme exercise, a real design lesson, is an clarity denounces its dimensions and its 16 Margherita De Simone, “Modi di rappresentare l’oggetto”, Design per lo sviluppo. 15 Anna Maria Fundarò, “Palermo: Le attività Quaderni di ADS Annuario di Design in Sicilia 1, artigianali nel centro storico”, in Anna Maria (1988), 162. Fundarò et al., Laboratorio universitario di Design. 17 Anna Maria Fundarò et al., Laboratorio Il lavoro artigiano nel centro storico di Palermo universitario di Design. Il lavoro artigiano nel (Palermo: Cooperativa Centro Stampa Siciliana, centro storico di Palermo (Palermo: Cooperativa 1981), 3. Centro Stampa Siciliana, 1981), 285-6.

151 opportunity to read a piece of furniture (in So, in the case of the axonometry of the its form, structure and decoration) that Foyer of the Teatro Biondo in Palermo, the represents the testimony of an era in emphasis is on the set-up of the scenic which the culture of interior and living instrument which is shown in its entirety played a decisive role. The representation and in relation to the architectural of the object borrows, sometimes, a partition of one of the long sides of the language of other artistic forms. This is space. A window opens on the two- the case, for example, of the survey of a dimensional surface of the sheet of paper: folding chair that is part of the materials the scenic space is shown through a for a decorative arts museum in Sicily (fig. frame, which represents, in continuity, the 8). The chair is represented in lateral view plan and the section of the environment. in its closing motion by simultaneous In this case a "special" axonometry20 was overlapping of three positions (opening, chosen, like those made by John Hejduk in closing, and intermediate). A dynamic and the 60s to represent some houses, which at the same time synthetic composition of almost appear as a frontal representation. the movement, which brings together and The adoption of this axonometry allows to freezes three consecutive views, as in a focus attention on the elements that exalt review of an Etienne-Jules Marey the formal features of the space and chronophotography experiment18 or as in occupy the entire drawing: the two Giacomo Balla's “Dinamismo di un cane al symmetrical terraces forming the scenic guinzaglio” picture. instrument, the double head stairs and the The professional activity of Anna flat central platform that constitutes the Maria Fundarò has often focused on the scene. The reference to architectural interior design that, as she has stated, space is the ceiling design and the allowed her to practice the profession of partition of the back wall, marked by five architect with that experimental attitude openings, spaced by pairs of pilasters. often denied to the great architectural In the case of the axonometry of the intervention19. contact lenses laboratory in Palermo, In these cases, architecture and space, vacuum is represented as if it were architectural space are represented as a transparent solid. The focus is on the objects and the use of axonometry allows articulation of volumes and space, full and penetration within the project, inspecting empty. So in the sections and in the and analyzing it, to make spatial axonometry the space is represented as complexity comprehensible. an object, out of context and without any Depending on the choice of point of reference to the thickness of the walls or view, or the way in which Cartesian axes its location. The only references are are oriented in space, the representations provided by the writings negozio di ottica of the physical environment are different preesistente - piano terra (pre-existing and express precise "cultural tensions". optician shop - ground floor), ‘tunnel di collegamento’ (link tunnel), nuovo reparto 18 Chronophotography was a photographic lenti a contatto (new contact lenses method experimented to fix the movement through successive shots. Cfr. Étienne-Jules Marey, 20 In this type of axonometry the plan and La Chronophotographie, nouvelle méthode pour the front view do not deform: the first moves analyser le mouvement dans les sciences physiques vertically and the second is parallel to the plane of et naturelles, (Paris: Georges Carrè, 1891). projection. The directions of the y and z axes 19 Anna Maria Fundarò, “L’interno: strategie coincide and they are both orthogonal to the x axis di progetto”, ADS Annuario di Design in Sicilia 1983 (so only the elements of the drawing lying on 2, (1984): 88-91. planes parallel to the xy and xz planes are visible).

152 department). The definition of red coating References material for the back walls, the floor and the staircase is entrusted to the dotted. Argentino, Michele. “Design per lo The oblique axonometry of the sviluppo”, in more E less / nuovi stili di vita contact lenses laboratory, in the choice of e di consumo, edited by Anna Catania, 11- language, recalls the axonometries of the 15. Palermo: Flaccovio, 2009. Ettore Sottsass jr. Furnishing Concept (multi-purpose cabinet system) or the Branzi, Andrea. Merce e metropoli. Habitation Unit of Studio Zanuso (Marco Esperienze del “nuovo design” italiano. Zanuso and Richard Sapper) for the New Palermo: Edizioni EPOS, 1983 Domestic Landscape exhibition by Emilio Ambasz, organized in 1972 by MOMA in Branzi, Andrea. “La casa calda”, ADS New York21. Annuario di Design in Sicilia 1983 2, The work of Anna Maria Fundarò has (1984): 70-75. always shown her great attention to the theme ‘of drawing as a moment “for”, Cannella, Alfonsa, ed. Design per lo “toward” the project'22. Such attention has sviluppo. Quaderni di ADS Annuario di certainly been manifested in her designer Design in Sicilia 1, (1988). work, but, more so, in her teaching activity. Fagone, Vittorio. “Il museo delle arti The representation, for Anna Maria decorative. Modelli storici ed esperienze Fundarò, was functional to the testimony attuali”, in Anna Maria Fundarò ed. Design of the represented thing, whether it is in e musei. I musei siciliani, allestimenti e embryo (project) or it comes from museografia. Quaderni di ADS Annuario di tradition (survey). In the second case, the Design in Sicilia 3. (1992): 43-48. great value of this testimony lies in having historically fixed the story of a handicraft Fundarò, Anna Maria, “Design e that has largely disappeared today. cultura materiale. La produzione industriale del Palermitano tra la fine dell’800 e i primi del’900”, La cultura materiale in Sicilia. Atti del I Congresso internazionale di studi antropologici siciliani. Quaderni del Circolo Semiologico Siciliano 12/13 (1980): 599-609.

Fundarò, Anna Maria, et al. Laboratorio universitario di Design. Il lavoro artigiano nel centro storico di Palermo, Palermo: Cattedra di Progettazione artistica per l’industria, Facoltà di Architettura, Università di Palermo, 1981. 21 Emilio Ambasz (ed.), Italy: The new domestic landscape: Achievements and problems Fundarò, Anna Maria, et al. “Teatro of Italian design (New York: Museum of Modern Art, NY, 1972), 161, 164, 165, 191. Biondo. Strumento scenico nella sala del 22 Anna Maria Fundarò, Design per lo Ridotto”, ADS Annuario di Design in Sicilia sviluppo. Quaderni di ADS Annuario di Design in 1983 2, (1984): 64-65. Sicilia 1, (1988), 150.

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Giedion, Siegfried. Mechanization Fundarò, Anna Maria, et al. Takes Command. New York: Oxford “L’interno: strategie di progetto”, ADS University Press, 1948. Annuario di Design in Sicilia 1983 2, (1984): 88-89. Gregotti, Vittorio. “Problemi del design”, Edilizia moderna 85 (1964): 1. Fundarò, Anna Maria. “Sull’ordinamento e sull’allestimento”, in Gregotti, Vittorio. Il disegno del Anna Maria Fundarò ed. Design e musei. I Prodotto industriale. Italia 1860-1980. musei siciliani, allestimenti e museografia. Milano: Electa, 1986. Quaderni di ADS Annuario di Design in Sicilia 3. (1992): 9-11. La Pietra, Ugo. La conversazione elettronica. Firenze: Alinea, 1985. Fundarò, Anna Maria. “Presentazione”, in Giovanni Ragonesi ed. Maldonado, Tomás. La speranza Giotto Stoppino. Dalla natura dei materiali progettuale. Torino: Einaudi, 1970. al progetto. Quaderni di ADS Annuario di Design in Sicilia 6, (1994): V. Martorana, Antonio, ed. Storie e progetti di un designer italiano. Quattro Fundarò, Anna Maria. “Il processo lezioni di Ettore Sottsass jr. Firenze: Alinea, interrotto della modernità”, Nuove 1983. Effemeridi VIII n. 31, (1995): 13-18. Pirrone, Gianni, ed. Palermo 1900, Fundarò, Anna Maria. “Il disegno Palermo: Storia della Sicilia Società industriale”, in Per una storia della Facoltà Editrice, 1981. di Architettura di Palermo, edited by Cesare Ajroldi, 280. Roma: Officina Ragonesi, Giovanni ed. Il lavoro Edizioni, 2007. artigiano nel centro storico di Palermo, catalogo della mostra, Palermo: Biblioteca Comunale, 1997.

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Women Architects in Gipuzkoa Enkarni Gómez, Izaskun Aseguinolaza, Itziar Rodríguez and Koldo Telleria

In order to have the information arranged and to make them more Hypothesis dynamic, we prepared a survey divided in two parts. The aim of the first part of the The aim of this article is to show the survey was to obtain some objective and results of an empirical research carried out basic information about the women we among women architects in Gipuzkoa, and were going to interview, for example: age, with the purpose of seeing what is the where they have studied, where do they relation between women and different work, if they have children, if their partner aspects related to architecture. More is an architect, etc. The second part of the precisely, we1 try to figure out what kind survey was focused in questions related to of relation has been built in Gipuzkoa gender and architecture. It is possible to during the last decades between women examine the survey in a document and architecture in different spheres: attached to this article. studies, work, motherhood, and We considered these two events as architectural projects. qualitative information and we will use it in this way. On the other hand, we realized that Methodology only interviewing a few women architects On the one hand, two meetings we could risk to obtain biased results. were arranged with women architects Then we also prepared the survey in from Gipuzkoa. Each of them brought digital format, in order to send it by email together 5 women architects from to all women architects who are members different age groups. We tried also that of the Basque Navarre Official Association young students could take part in these of Architects (COAVN) in Gipuzkoa. In this meetings which were informal and lasted Official Association of Architects, in approximately one hour and a half. Gipuzkoa, there are 1127 members, among them, 418 are women architects. 1 We are a group of professors from the The contact database from the Association School of Architecture in Basque Country University (UPV-EHU), Enkarni Gomez Genua, of Architects made us possible to get 413 Koldo Telleria Andueza, Itziar Rodríguez Oyarbide email addresses and the survey was sent and Izaskun Aseguinolaza. We and another woman to all of them. from the administration department (Ana In order to see how the youngest Reboredo) are members of the Equality generation lived these topics we also sent Commission of School. The last academic year some students made the survey to the girls of 3rd year of the up a group who wanted to promote feminism Bachelor’s Degree in Architecture who between them, it was called FEMISTARK. They study in University of the Basque Country asked for help and also showed the interest for and are from Gipuzkoa. All of the girls participation with the Equality Commission so all asked answered, they were 6. together prepared some activities for this academic year. Between this activities is this, We got 77 answers. Nevertheless taking part of MOMOWO. So this is the beginning some of the answers were not considered of a work we think needs to be done in our School valid as they were not filled with relevant of Architecture.

155 information or there was some we have 337 women and 374 men information unfilled. Finally, we have inscriptions. studied 72 answers. As we send the survey Since we have received the in Basque and also in Spanish, we got information from the Association of answers in both languages, specifically we Architects in order of enrollment we have got 32 in Basque and 45 in Spanish. analyzed the ratio of women/men every We could get from this mailing 100 enrollments. In the following graphic quantitative and qualitative information, we can appreciate the relation of because we use the same questions we women/men inscriptions. It is significant had used in the two personal meetings. the increasing of the amount of women during the XXI century, specially considering that not all the new architects Results. Quantitative results decide to join this Association, on the contrary of the situation during the 60s, As a first approach to the topic 70s and 80s, when all the architects felt studied in this research, and as we have the interest in joining this Association. told previously, we have selected all The analysis of the digital surveys, women architects from the contact specially the first part of it2, give us the database from the Basque Navarre Official profile of the women architects that Association of Architects in Gipuzkoa. At answered it. As we have already the beginning this selection had one only mentioned we have analyzed 72 answers. aim: to obtain the email address of each Most of the answers (33) are from women woman to make them receive our digital aged between 41 and 50 years. Women survey. But, while we were doing this between 31 and 40 are also abundant work we could realize how the ratio of (26). Even if we have to take into women and men joining the Association of consideration that women architects Architects has changed over the years. above 50 are not common, results from We have decided that this event these women above 50 were very few, 3. could be relevant as a starting point to About the youngest women architects, analyse the data received through the younger than 30, we have to say that digital survey. We have to say that these answers are also few, specially although the first man architect joined the considering that among 10 only answers 6 Association in 1958 there was not until are students. 1971 any woman joining the Association, Women who answered are and during that year two women joined fundamentally from San Sebastian3. There the Association (Raquel Martínez de Ubago in 1971 and María Amada Celaya in 2 The part in which we ask for the age, 1971). At that time, there were 38 men. where they live, where they have studied, where During the next decade, until 1990, 13 do they work, if they have children, if their partner is an architect, if they have familiar referents in more women joined the Association and architecture, when did they start and finish their 147 men. The amount of women joining studies, which are their references in architecture the Association increased during the last or which has been their professional itinerary. 3 decade of the 20th Century. Between San Sebastian is the biggest city in 1991 and 2000, 66 women and 159 men Gipuzkoa, it has got about 180.179 inhabitants. San Sebastián metropolitan area includes 10 joined the Association. The bigger increase towns (Rentería, Hernani, Lasarte-Oria, of women joining the Association Hondarribia, Pasajes, Andoain, Oiartzun, Urnieta, happened during the 21st century. Here, Lezo, Usurbil, Orio and Astigarraga, between which Rentería is the biggest with 39.905 inhabitants),

156 were exactly 35 from San Sebastian, 20 their professional group´s name: SANAA, living in San Sebastián´s metropolitan RCR, MVRDV, Smithson, Atelier BOW area, 17 in towns of Gipuzkoa and 2 living BOW, Lacaton&Vassal, Eames. This way abroad (Holland and London). Kazuyo Sejima from SANAA, Carme Pigem Two thirds of them are mothers, from RCR, Nathalie de Vries from while one third is not. MVRDV, Momoyo Kaijima from Atelier Most of the women that answered BOW BOW and Anne Lacaton from the survey studied in San Sebastian, the Lacaton&Vassal got 1 mention each. We rest studied in different cities of Spain and have to say that 35 different men only three studied outside Spain. architects are mentioned, among those Nearly all of them don’t have a Mies Van der Rohe, Alvaro Siza, Le familiar referent in architecture, and the corbusier, Alvar Aalto, Frank Lloyd Wright few ones (12) that do, in general it is a and Moneo in that order are the most man architect (father, grandfather or mentioned. brother). The figure has been done giving About their architectural references tipografic scale as many times those we can say that are mostly men as we can names are mentioned. The color shows see in the following graphic. References of the gender of the architect. women architects are few, among them The table and graph below we can find direct mentions to: Zaha summarizes the number of architects Hadid, 6 times mentioned, Kazuyo Sejima, mentioned and how many times they have Edith Girad, Anne Tyng, Zaida Muxi, been mentioned. Isabela Velazquez and Jane4 Jacobs , Finally, the survey asked ‘Where do mentioned once. There are other you work?’. Answers to this question has mentions to women architects through been given in different senses, some answered relating to the city they worked with 324.511 inhabitants, data from last year, in, and some other understood the 2016, from EUSTAT Instituto Vasco de Estadística question in a different way so they http://www.eustat.eus/bancopx/spanish/id_2212/ answered which area was the one they are indiceRR.html. Gipuzkoa´s inhabitants are nearly 710.699, working in (administration, studios, so on). data from last year, 2016, from EUSTAT Instituto So we have only considered the ones Vasco de Estadística relating to the town they work in, and http://www.eustat.eus/bancopx/spanish/id_2212/ most of them work in San Sebastian, the indiceRR.html. San Sebastián´s metropolitan area is capital city of Gipuzkoa. the most populated area but we can also find big towns with more than 10.000 inhabitants as Eibar About their professional profile we (27.158 inhabitants), Zarautz (23.040.011 can say that they mostly develop their inhabitants), Mondragón (21.903 inhabitants), profession in studios, shared (25) or as Tolosa (19.041 inhabitants), Hondarribia (17.902 directors (26), only a few ones (6) work in inhabitants), Bergara (14.905 inhabitants), Azpeitia the administration, 5 don’t have a job, and (14.812 inhabitants), Beasain (13.863 inhabitants), Azkoitia (11.852 inhabitants), Elgoibar (11.481 very few work for a construction company inhabitants), Oñate (11.275 inhabitants). (2) or in education (1). 4 Jane Jacobs is not an architect, she was an American-Canadian journalist and activist best known for her influence on urban studies, Results. Qualitative results sociology, and economics. She has been one of the best influences introducing everyday urban life issues into a urban design concepts by her book The second part of the digital survey “The Death and Life of Great American Cities” we sent gives as qualitative information (1961).

157 together with the contents got in the ‘During the first classes dialogues in the work-cafes we arranged. the teacher's comment was: To express this results we will relate to generally women pass this different items in other to organize the subject as I can´t see a woman information got: studies, work, crying’9. motherhood, state of the profession and their opinion about feminist proposals. ‘On the other hand, the situation that a friend suffered when she went to Studies tutoring project correction of final project If we analyze the discourse of the of her degree, where they (the teachers) women during their studies, they show made more comments about her different opinions depending on their age flowerish painted nails than about her and time in which they studied. project. Absolutely, outrageous’’Another All the women interviewed, report question they underline is that during sexist comments from some professors their studies they did not have any woman while attending classes. But while those professor, or had only 1 or 2, and all that started earlier (early 60s and 70s) architects referred to in class were men. think they did not suffer any So all references were male architects and discrimination during their studies and professors. Some say they missed to have take away this comments, those that more women to share with. started later (80s and 90s), find these comments are inacceptable. Work Even if the study time is lived in a We reproduce here some of the different way by older and younger comments they heard while they were women, they all agree that they really felt studying: discrimination when they started to work ‘...architecture is not for as architects. Most of the women women’5 ; interviewed report discrimination and ‘... don´t know what for I sexist comments in a way or another. They Am going to explain this… you feel the building site is very masculine and are not going to understand’6; a woman has to prove their capacity the double than a man. For example while ‘... you come to look for they are pregnant or showing themself 7 husband’ . masculine and with a strong character. These results are reinforced taking Most of the building workers show into account the opinion of the women reticences to work with women, prefer that answered the online survey. Some of male interlocutors, and when a woman the sexist comments they write are: architect and a man architect go together to meetings the woman is considered to ‘Machismo coming from be the secretary or the decorator teachers was obvious and sometimes offensive’8;

apruebo a las mujeres porque no puedo ver a una 5 “...la arquitectura no es para mujeres” mujer llorar". 6 “... no se para que os voy a explicar esto… 9 “Por otra parte, la situación que vivió una no vais a entender”. compañera cuando fue a una tutoría a corregir un 7 “... venis a buscar marido”. proyecto de fin de carrera, donde le hicieron más 8 “El comentario del profesor en las comentarios sobre sus uñas pintadas con flores primeras clases de primero: "yo generalmente que sobre el proyecto. Indignante. “

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The comments during the interviews agree that women have a different are: sensibility to create more inclusive ‘... it had to be a spaces and think more about people woman’10. that cares. These feelings and opinions are also reinforced by the women that took part in Motherhood the online survey. Motherhood, becoming mothers, is a question that appears very often during ‘They started paying me the interviews and survey. It is a key a 10% less than two other man question for the women architects. Most workmates who started of the women interviewed are mothers, so 11 working at the same time’ ; they haven’t resigned to have children. ‘...but what I felt was Only one says she had resigned because that my colleague was better her priority was to open an own studio. received than me just because Women who are mothers live he was a man’12. motherhood as a problem in their professional development. First of all they They also observe paternalist find discriminatory that they are asked attitudes about their intention about having ‘the first real job I got, I children during the interviews when think it was because I am a looking for a job, while their male mates woman, by a kind of are not asked. Once they have a job, or paternalism of the boss, that open their studios (alone or with partners) thought it was easier to they find a lot of difficulties in combining control us, he always used to work and breeding. Those that share hire girls that just had finished studio with husbands report less studies’13. difficulties that the ones that work for a company or alone, but anyway find Most of the women that motherhood and fatherhood is not the answer the survey declare that when same, and that their couples (or husbands) working with a man in the studio, had it easier. they both share and do the same work even if it is not recognized Profession outside the studio (construction, Another aspect women point out building workers, even clients…) so and agree, in all cases, is that they feel they feel in this way there are not that the profession of architect has been differences, meanwhile they mostly devalued during the last decades. They find nowadays is worst paid and architects 10 “...mujer tenía que ser”. are not as well considered as before. 11 “Me empezaron pagando un 10% menos Moreover, they think that architects now que a otros dos compañeros hombres que have to do ‘everything’ in a project while entraron a la vez que yo”. 12 some decades ago they were much more “...pero sí vi que era mejor recibido mi socio por ser hombre. respected. 13 ...“En mi primer trabajo de verdad, creo They also felt discriminated because que lo conseguí por ser mujer, por una especie de colleagues used to organize meetings in paternalismo del jefe, que pensaba que era más places and times where they could not fácil controlarnos, siempre contrataba chicas assist (only men clubs, for example, or too recién salidas de la carrera”.

159 late in the evening when they had to be society must face social home with children.) injustices’16. As mentioned before most of the ‘Of course, they are women think profession has changed in necessary. They provide the last decades to worst and that the another point of view about profile of architect society needs now is function and uses of spaces’17. not taught in the architecture schools. They think it is necessary to reflect about ‘Yes. Women live things what an architect should be nowadays and in a different way and that can rebuilt the profession skills. be reflected in architecture and urbanism’. ‘I think it has to be reinvented and updated ... it is It is specially mentioned the relation still based on the same between public space and the different models’14. knowledge about it that both genders have or develop. The knowledge of the Some of the women mention the space depends on the experiences people case of couples both being architects and have in it, that means activities done and working together that the one who enrolls time spend in it; they mention that the Architects Association or contract the 15 historically, women have taken care of the civil insurance is the man in order to family, children and old people, and this have less expenses. in a couple work they means they spend more time and in a also mention that the clients use to speak different way in the public space. money matters with the man and decoration matters with women. ‘Yes, I think that there is often a difference in the Feminist proposals design of public space, we Nearly the half (%45) of the women know better the public space interviewed find that proposals coming because we use it more from feminist movement are necessary frequently that is why we can and important for a better development improve the needs and 18 of the architectural work, a better design shortcomings.’ of the spaces and taking into account a ‘They are very necessary. major diversity of population. These The cities in which we live comments reflect in a way that feminist would be very different if they proposals are not only good for women but for all the society: ‘Absolutely needed. Architecture as part of the

16 “Totalmente necesarias. La arquitectura como parte de la sociedad tiene que hacer frente a las injusticias sociales“. 17“Por supuesto que son necesarias. Aportan otro punto de vista sobre la función y usos 14 “Creo que tiene que reinventarse y de los espacios”. actualizarse...sigue basándose en los mismos 18 “Bai. Uste dut askotan espazio publikoa modelos”. diseinatzerakoan badagoela aldea, batez ere 15 Enrolling the Architects Association and emakumeok sarriago erabiltzen dugulako espazio the Social Security and contracting a Civil Insurance publikoa eta horregatik hobetu dakigulako zeintzuk are necessary to build in Spain. diren beharrak eta gabeziak.”

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they would have been thought Discussion and designed by women’19. We can also find some of them Studies those that think feminism and architecture Women that nowadays are around are not related 40 years old are much more aware, and were aware also during their study time of ‘I can't see the relation the discriminative attitudes of professors between feminism and towards them than the women around 60- 20 architecture or urbanism’ . 70 years old. Our hypothesis is that for the ‘Don´t know… I don't later, the fact of being able to reach know rather I understand that university studies, and specially feminism needs to make architecture studies, in a society in which specific proposals… we are university studies were not so widespread people making projects.’21 among the population, and the architect profession was a well recognised Or also some women think that in profession and very few women chose it, reality we must make only differences made that these women felt in a way between good and bad urbanism and privileged comparing to the rest of the architecture, and not whether these population23. proposals come from feminism or not. In contrast, the women that are now ‘In my opinion good around 40, studied in a more egalitarian architecture o good urbanism environment not only if we consider that is not something related to the number of men and women studying gender. Rather men or women architecture was around 50%, as it is con design quality spaces. shown in the graph below, but also There are good architects and because in the 80s and 90s to do bad ones, regardless of university studies was more common in gender.’22 the area (Gipuzkoa) we are studying. Moreover, the feminist claims had echo in

these women probably, and sexist comments in the classroom would not be tolerated. We can see how, the first step to become an architect is not easy for women in any case. If we analyze the

23 Agudo Arroyo, Yolanda, et 19 Son muy necesarias. Las ciudades en las al.”Construyendo un lugar en la profesión: que vivimos serían muy diferentes si hubieran trayectorias de las arquitectas españolas”, estado pensadas y diseñadas por mujeres. FEMINISMO/S Revista del Centro de Estudios sobre 20 “No veo la relación entre feminismo y la Mujer de la Universidad de Alicante, no. 17 arquitectura o urbanismo”. (2011): 161. 21 “No se... No se si veo que el feminismo María Antonia García de León también trata tenga que hacer propuestas específicas...somos esta cuestión en las dos siguientes referencias: personas proyectando”. García de León, María Antonia, Élites 22 “En mi opinión la buena arquitectura o el discriminadas: (sobre el poder de las mujeres) buen urbanismo no son cuestión de género. Tanto (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1994) y García de León, hombres como mujeres pueden diseñar espacios María Antonia, Herederas y heridas: sobre las de calidad. Hay arquitectos buenos y malos, élites profesionales femeninas (Madrid: Cátedra, independientemente del género.” 2002).

161 opinion of the women in order of the ‘We are the ones who study time we can see how this first step have to go ahead’24. in the way to become an architect is not ‘We are the ones who done in a very welcoming environment for need to change’25. women.

Work Profession If we analyze the experiences that The fact that when in a studio of women architects have while developing architects (married or not) only the man their profession we observed that in this enrolls the Architects Association means aspect there is not that much difference that even if women work like men do they between women of all ages. Or we could are not the ones signing the projects, this probably say that changes happen slower supposes invisibility for these women or that at the university. leaving away opportunities to build a In is also worth pointing out that proper cv usable in the future. crisis and massification of the profession This reminds when Mileva Maric has supposed a devaluation of it in a (first wife of Einstein, and mathematician) moment when much more women are use to say for her was not necessary to becoming architects, so the devaluation of sign the papers together because they the profession happens in a moment were Ein-stein (one stone in German) but when more women are choosing she never was mentioned in the work of architecture as profession. The Einstein nor in the novel prizes. We could devaluation of the profession of course is conclude that women give up easier not due to the entry of more women, but because they don’t feel professional 26 it is important to see how men disappear prestige is so important in their lives . looking for better opportunities, while women remain.From our point of view Feminist Proposals this could be a topic that needs more As it is known we can find lots of 27 research in the area of architecture. bibliographic references claiming for

Motherhood 24 “somos nosotras las que no damos pasos Motherhood is lived as a difficulty. adelante”. 25 Not only pregnancy but also breeding and “Tenemos que cambiar nosotras”. 26 taking care of children. It is worthy Trobuhovic-Gjuric, Desenka, A la sombra de Albert Einstein: la trágica vida de Mileva pointing out that many women Einstein Maric (Barcelona: La tempestad, 1992). interviewed think that men and women 27 “…Algunos colectivos sociales nos parece are genetically different and this should be que requieren una atención especial y, por lo something positive but claim for more tanto, es necesario hacer emerger sus inclusive politics to help mothers in their aspiraciones. Las mujeres, en primer lugar, con sus demandas de accesibilidad o de iluminación, como daily life. That means that they don’t share también respecto a su horario laboral, y tantos care-work in an egalitarian way with their otros aspectos que se escapan a los "responsables husbands and in a way think it is not only a masculinos". (Borja-Muxi.2000, 40). social problem but a personal problem of “… las teorías urbanísticas del siglo XX han the women themselves. Some of the querido imponer un orden semejante al que impusieron las religiones, separando lo sagrado de comments were: lo profano, la verdad de la falsedad, para crear una realidad en la que el hombre es la verdad y el centro, y la mujer es “lo otro”, la alteridad.” (Anna Bofill 2013, 423).

162 women protagonism in architecture and language and the equality vindication and urbanism. Some Gipuzkoan women they also make fun about gender architects are also aware about men perspective of urbanism or architecture. protagonism in those disciplines but we This attitude can also be understood as a find their opinions are contradictory. way of self defense as Agudo and Even if we can see that some are Madariaga report in their analysis. very conscious that women need to be It seems necessary to introduce a taken into consideration when designing gender issue in our private and public the city or a building, and think that spaces as most architects have told. This feminist claims and proposals are not only means to change not only the point of necessary but important for the personal view, but also the beginning point to re- lives and for their development, most of design a scenario that guarantees equal the woman declare not to suffer use and enjoyment of all the spaces. It is discrimination or take away the important in one hand to begin from our discriminative or sexist comments they universities, eradicating and denouncing have suffered. any discriminatory attitude, and in the It seems that in a way they have other, to change the way we analyze and what we have called a ‘hidden discourse’, teach architecture as objective and that means that consciously they say one deconstruct the false idea of objectivity of thing but it is contradictory with what they the male model as neutral and universal. have lived and think about architecture The plurality of models, the differences, issues. the nuances, and the subjectivity must be valued. This article wanted to be a tribute to Conclusions and future goals Gipuzkoan women architects as this 2017 has been the 50th anniversary from which The fact that not many women over women became member of the Basque their 60s did not answer to the survey Navarre Official Association of could mean they are not really interested Architects28. in the issues of feminisms or think the We wanted to achieve two goals: profession goes beyond feminism. From the first one was the visualization of our point of view this could also be a women architects in Gipuzkoa and the reflection of the interest this topic has study of the evolution of their presence in among the women architects of different the Gipuzkoan architecture. As we have ages, and how the time they lived in seen still work needs to be done for influences their thinking. developing these goals: visualization We can also conclude that women in needs to be done and also work needs be Gipuzkoa talk about equality but don´t done to reach equality. accept that there is discrimination even if As a working a group in University, with their comments show that there is we (Equality Commission and clear discrimination. As we have seen their FEMINISTARK)29 have detected the need comments reflect sexism and a big lack of for building a gender consciousness total equality. between students, professors and Younger women are conscious about administration workers of our School of the discrimination and the injustice this Architecture in the Basque Country. This means. Nevertheless they all fell bothered with the feminist discourse, the non-sexist 28 See footnote number 1. 29 See footnote number 2.

163 will be our next goal. So, all together, we Bibliography have prepared some activities for this academic year. Among these activities is Agudo Arroyo, Yolanda, et this, taking part in MOMOWO. So this is al.’Construyendo un lugar en la profesión: the beginning of a work we think needs to trayectorias de las arquitectas españolas’, be done in our School of Architecture. FEMINISMO/S Revista del Centro de Estudios sobre la Mujer de la Universidad de Alicante, no. 17 (2011): 155-182. Bofill, Anna, Hacia modelos alternativos de ciudad, en Estudios urbanos, género y feminismo. Teorías y experiencia en Salamaña i Serra, Isabel et al ‘Estudios urbanos, género y feminismo: teorías y experiencias’ (Barcelona: Col·lectiu Punt 6, 2013): 423-434. García de León, María Antonia, Herederas y heridas: sobre las élites profesionales femeninas (Madrid: Cátedra, 2002). García de León, María Antonia, Élites discriminadas: (sobre el poder de las mujeres) (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1994). Borja, Jordi and Muxi, Zaida, El espacio público, ciudadanía y ciudad (Barcelona: Electa, 2000). “Instituto Vasco de Estadística”, EUSTAT http://www.eustat.eus/bancopx/spanish/i d_2212/indiceRR.html. (accesed September 14, 2017).

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Female Architects in Spanish Architecture Magazines An Analytic Research (1973-1990)

Lucía C. Pérez Moreno and Penélope Santamera

Currently, parity in Spanish Schools of Architecture is a reality. Inés Sánchez de Maradiaga's research points that more Education & Political Context: Women in than half of the students in the first- Architecture Studies in Spain degree courses in architecture are feminine since 2007. At the same time, The first woman to finish her several studies remark the lack of women architecture studies in Spain was Matilde in Spanish architecture culture, which Ucelay, in Madrid in 1936, at the same leads to an invisibility of the professional time as the end of the Second Republic work done by female architects. and therefore, the beginning of the Civil The end of Franco's Regime (1939- War (1936-1939). Her status as the first 1975) was a turning point for female Spanish female architect has been the education in Spain. For nearly four subject of various academic studies that decades, women were not educated have rediscovered her life and work, and similarly than men. Fortunately, the contextualized it within the architectural following decade was characterized by a currents of the era1. Just three other profound political and cultural change that women studied architecture in Madrid involved women rights. The increase of before the Civil War. They were: Lali female architects is one of the facts that Úrcola, who never finished her studies singularized these years; however, it is not and, Cristina Gonzalo and Rita Fernández- easy to establish neither the numbers nor Queimadelos, who graduated in 1940 and the names of these pioneer women. This 1941 respectively. In the two following paper proposed an approach to study the decades only five women studied visibility of female architects in Spanish architecture: Margarita Mendizábal architecture culture. By analysing the graduated in 1945, María Eugenia Pérez presence of women in a selected group of Clemente in 1957, and Elena Arregui2 in architecture magazines it would be possible to create statistics that examines 1 Inés Sánchez de Madariaga, Matilde the way they worked (alone, in pair, in Ucelay. Una vida en construcción (Madrid: teams...), the specialization they focused Ministerio de Fomento, 2012); Javier Vílchez, (building, landscape, urban planning, ‘Matilde Ucelay. Primera mujer arquitecta en editing,...), and, in parallel, to propose a España’ (Tesis doctoral, Universidad de Granada, genealogy of female names whose work 2012). 2 Yolanda Agudo Arroyo, Inés Sánchez de was outstanding, so that, they would need Madariaga, ‘Construyendo un lugar en la profesión: further research. trayectorias de las arquitectas españolas’, Feminismo/s 17 (2011): 159.

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1958, all in Madrid. In 1962, the her life, the woman [was] subjected to an Architecture School in Barcelona issued its education process whose purpose [was] to first degree to a woman, Margarita make her accept, as something natural, Brender. At the end of the decade, the role that a capitalist and patriarchal coinciding with Spain's economic society [gave] her: as housewife, that is, development, the number of female wife and mother at the service of the architects increased to around forty, with man’.4 the inclusion of a new school in Seville, This situation meant that equality at which opened its doors in 1958. However, work between men and women was non- although the numbers were growing, they existent. Roles with greater responsibility were still very low in comparison with the remained barred to women; the most numbers of men. In 1974, the magazine obvious being that of head of state. Triunfo published a study on 'The work of Women were also excluded from the women in Spain'3, which showed that the defence forces, military careers, and the percentage of women in technical colleges Merchant Navy. In addition, professions in the year 1970-71 was 1.2% compared considered being male domains, such as with 43.3% for men; that is just 2.8% of architecture, engineering, and the legal the students of engineering and professions5, were dominated by men. architecture were women. This psycho-social idea remained fixed This lack of equality in the academic within a great number of families in the world extended to the work environment. 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, and even, in Several social history studies on gender all certain parts of the country in the 1970s indicate that the ideology promoted by and 1980s. Although the numbers of the Franco Regime, with the support of women enrolling in universities increased the Catholic Church and the Falange constantly -in the year 1960-61 there were women's organization, promulgated a 13,788 women which by 1970-71 had discriminatory education for women, increased to 55,0666-, the majority of constraining them from entering women chose to study professions university and finding jobs. One of the first considered to be more suitable for acts of the Franco Regime was to repeal females, such as teaching or nursing; for those laws passed by the Second Republic example, in the year 1970-71, 56.5% of designed to promote and advance equal student teachers were women and also rights and the legal status of women. 84.9% of those training to be nurses. The In 1977, with the Regime finally study of architecture in technical schools finished, the magazine Vindicación was confined to a minority, normally from Feminista dedicated its tenth issue to the few families during the period that reviewing what had constituted women's retained liberal ideas. education in the preceding years. With the title ‘Women's Education: The Great

Swindle’, the Spanish historian Amparo 4 Amparo Moreno, ‘Educación de la mujer: Moreno stated that what had been the La gran estafa’, Vindicación Feminista 10 (1977): unspoken reality during the Regime, was 29-37. 5 that ‘to analyse the education of women Women were barred from becoming was to consider the most important, magistrates, judges or prosecutors, except in the legal jurisdictions of minors and the work place. relevant and damaging experience that This exclusion was finally repealed on 28 December she suffered. From birth, and throughout 1966, although prejudices remained. 6 Data from the National Institute of 3 Triunfo 609, June 1, 1974, 32-37. Statistics.

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were also committed to the cause and Social & Political Context: The ‘Transition’ some such as Cuadernos para el Diálogo as a Turning Point and Triunfo, published issues concerned with examining the life of women and the In 1975, with the end the Regime, conditions they suffered; for example the came renewed hope to construct a December 1965 issue of the former, and democratic and egalitarian Spanish the April 1971 and the already mentioned society, resulting in a continuous struggle July 1974 issue of the latter. At the same for women's rights and their entry into the time, Spanish translations were published work place7. There had already been of the canonical texts of feminist literature critical voices against the oppressive such as The Feminine Mystique by Betty situation of women, essentially linked to Friedan and The Second Sex by Simone de resistance movements to the dictatorship, Beauvoir, both published in 19669. and conscious of the work of American In parallel, the number of women and European feminists. The Spanish studying architecture continued to rise. historian Ángeles Larumbe pointed out The first generation of architects educated two principal focal points for demands for in the last years of the late Franco era and women's rights at this time: academic during the ‘Transition’ were the first to be research and newspaper articles8. One of able to practice their profession in a the pioneers in analyzing legal, social and democracy. In spite of the sexist nature of anthropological aspects of the woman's their education -since the architecture situation during the Franco regime was schools of those years were still filled with Lidia Falcón, leader of the Partido male teachers and the architects of Feminista de España (PFE), director of the reference were all men (and unfortunately magazine Vindicación Feminista (1976- continue to be so)-, these female 1979), and author of numerous studies architects were the first who could make like: Los derechos civiles de la mujer (Civil their career in a society whose values Rights for Women) (1963), Los derechos were evolving towards equality. laborales de la mujer (Labour Rights for Women) (1964) and Mujer y Sociedad (Woman and Society) (1968), among Architecture & Media: New Spanish others. Other authors that protested Architecture Magazines against the oppression of Spanish women were Aurèlia Capmany, Ángeles Durán, Along with political, social and and many others, with titles such as De cultural changes, new architecture profesión mujer (The Woman's Profession) magazines began to be published, which (1975) and El trabajo de la mujer en greatly expanded the publishing market España (The work of women in Spain) dominant during the Regime. In Spain, (1972). Cultural magazines of the period there were two main cultural focal areas, emanating from the provinces of Madrid 7 Lucía C. Pérez-Moreno, ‘The ‘Transition’ as and Barcelona. This stemmed from the a turning point for a female agency in Spanish predominance of the two Spanish schools Architecture’, in Ruth Morrow, Harriet Harris, of architecture with the greatest tradition, James Brown, and James Soane, A Gendered Profession (London: RIBA, 2016), 108-115. 8 María Ángeles Larumbe, ‘Los primeros 9 María Ángeles Larumbe, Una inmensa pasos’, in Las que dijeron no. Palabra y acción del minoría. Influencia y feminismo en la Transición feminismo en la Transición, (Zaragoza: Prensas (Zaragoza, Prensas Universitarias de Zaragoza, Universitarias de Zaragoza, 2004), 45-62. 2002), 167.

167 the first in Madrid, founded in 1844, and work done by male and female architects the second in Barcelona, founded in 1875. in all the country. The cultural polarisation between these two provinces was sharpened during the Regime by the most notable specialist Architecture & Media: Women in Spanish architecture magazines of the respective Architecture Magazines cities. In Madrid, the journal Revista Nacional de Arquitectura (later As a first statistical approach to the Arquitectura) was the official monthly theme, six architectural journals of magazine of the Madrid College of particular relevance have been selected to Architects and became the promotional be analyzed: the two most traditional organ for modern Spanish architecture. In ones, Arquitectura and Cuadernos de Barcelona, Cuadernos de Arquitectura Arquitectura y Urbanismo, both linked to (later, Cuadernos de Arquitectura y the Official College of Architects of Madrid Urbanismo, and Quaderns d'arquitectura i and Barcelona; and four of recognized urbanisme) had a similar purpose. Other cultural impact, Arquitecturas Bis, relevant architecture journal were Hogar y AVMonographies, Arquitectura Viva and El Arquitectura, the journal of the Obra Croquis. The chronology of this analysis Sindical del Hogar (OSH) – a state body has been limited to the articles published responsible for the construction of in each of them between 1973 and 1990, subsidized housing-, Nueva Forma, a the years of the political ‘Transition’ to private journal associated with the democracy (1973-1982) and its patronage of the Huarte family, and consolidation (1982-1990)10. Informes de la Construction, a publication As Figure 1 exposes11, along with the associated with the Technical Institute of seventies the presence of architecture Building and Cement -the two former work and (or) writings done by female disappeared after the Regime whilst the authors was almost nonexistent; visibility last one continues until today. ranges from 2% to 9%. These results seem Since the mid-seventies, new to correspond to the political and socio- magazines with different editorial policies cultural context of the time. The low and scopes appeared, such as number of women in the Schools of Arquitecturas Bis (1974-1985), 2C Carrer Architecture corresponds with a low de la Cità (1975-1982), CAU (1975-1982), percentage done by female professionals. Nuevo Ambiente (1975-1976) and Jano This slow (but increasing) visibility along (1975-1978), all of them based in the 1980s is related to the fact that more Barcelona, and Ciudad y Territorio (1975- women were involved in the architecture ongoing) based in Madrid, as Figure 1 profession. Since 1985, the percentage of shows. Some years later, and established female authors increases to 12% and in Madrid, appeared other ones that still maintained a slightly upward trajectory continue publishing nowadays –with high international relevance-, such as Av 10 Usually, for cultural studies 1973 is Monografias (1987-ongoing), Arquitectura considered the beginning of the ‘political Viva (1988-ongoing) or El Croquis (1988- transition’ in Spain, when Luis Carrero Blanco died ongoing). These magazines served as the - he was a Spanish politician close to Francisco Franco. platforms to reflect on the architectural 11 Penélope Santamera, ‘Análisis de la obra culture of the time, and to disseminate the y escritos de arquitectas en las revistas especializadas españolas (1973-1990)’ (Degree diss, Universidad de Zaragoza, 2017).

168 until 1990, where the percentages of this number seems to be high, most of the visibility reach 23% in the journal AV articles with their authorship were done in Monographs. collaboration with male professionals. Once analyzed the data from a Thus, only twenty of them saw their name global perspective, it is important to published more than three occasions. examine the results according to other Table 2 shows the list of the fifteen parameters. Thus, the articles with female women with more articles. authorship are classified within the Of all of the different female names, different ways of women were able to the Catalonian architect Carme Pinós work: alone, in pair with a male highlights. She graduated in 1978 from the professional, and as part of a team. In Barcelona School of Architecture, but her parallel, the authorship is differentiated successful career has been eclipsed and between being the author of an over-shadowed for years by the name and architectural (or urban planning) project greater recognition given to her partner or the writer of the texts published in the and professional colleague from the magazine12. Regarding the last one, it is beginning of the 1990s Enric Miralles. She also important to set apart articles written was the first female Spanish architect to by women with texts written about female be awarded the FAD (Promotion of Art architects and urban planners. All in all, it and Design) prize for her project for the could be possible to have a better ‘Cemetery of Igualada’ in 1991 - the award understanding of the role of women was shared with Miralles, co-author of the involved in the architecture profession. project. However, it is noticeable that a It is important to notice that during considerable amount of writing about the these years female architects had a high joint work of Miralles-Pinós has tended to presence in architecture magazine as leave her in the background. This situation critics, especially in the journals worsened when she began to work for Arquitectura, Arquitectura Viva and herself. As she herself states, it was thanks Cuadernos de Arquitectura y Urbanismo. to the support of foreigners like Wolf Prix In terms of overall results, articles written and Thom Mayne that she managed to re- by female architects (12.7%) and articles establish herself after her professional written by women in collaboration with separation, giving classes in Austrian and male architects (6.2%) reach a higher American universities. In addition, her percentage than any other working decision not to have a family was critical in models. In addition, according to the data, being able to dedicate herself fully to women usually publish more writings being an architect. alone (12.7%) than in collaboration with a The second female name that group of male professionals (1.5%). As it pointed out is Roser Amadó. She studied could be predicted, articles that show the also in Barcelona finishing her studies in work done by women are practically non- 1968. Her professional career is linked to existent. In fact, it is not until 1976 when that of Lluís Domenech Girbau, with the first article dedicated to a female whom she shares an architectural office. architecture was published, and she was Their work was published in all the not Spanish; she was Eileen Gray, in the journals studied, although the magazine of journal Arquitecturas Bis. the Official College of Architects of As a result of the analysis, more than Catalonia was the dominant. It is 200 female names appeared. Although important to remark that Roser Amadó is the first female Spanish architect that 12 Ibídem.

169 comes out in texts on Spanish Architecture secondly, landscape started to appear as a history; Antón Capitel, highlights her name field for women, mainly in Barcelona; and, in the seminal book Arquitectura Española finally, any women was working alone del siglo XX13. during the years studied. Of the rest of the names, there are several linked to writing, and architecture critic. Marta Cevelló collaborated in the Ideas for further research magazine of the Official College of Architects of Catalonia between 1986 and It is clear that a deeper study on the 1991, Sara de la Mata did it in the way female architects started to highlight magazine Arquitectura between 1986 and in Spain architecture culture is necessary 1992. Therefore, the female name that to create new models for young architect outstands as critique is María Teresa students. The six magazines studied do Muñoz. She graduated in 1972 in the not represent completely the architecture School of Architecture of Madrid, and scene of the time. It would be necessary continued her education at the University to expand this research to other of Toronto in Canada. On her return to magazines that were important in these Spain, she translated into Spanish the years, such as Jano or Ciudad y Territorio, book Meaning in Architecture14, by George among others shown in Table 1. Thus, the Baird and Charles Jencks, and published research should be completed with other several articles in the magazine parameters. Despite architecture Arquitecturas Bis, thus initiating a long magazines reflect architecture culture career as one of the foremost architecture they are not equivalent so that it would be critics on cross-cultural relations between important to study the presence of Spanish architecture and the British and women in exhibitions, national and American English speaking world. Towards international awards, and other relevant the end of the 1970s, with a group of recognitions. Nevertheless, this analysis architect colleagues, she edited the provides us clues for an approach to this magazine Arquitectura for a period of two time from a gender perspective. years, being the first woman to participate actively in the management of such a prestigious magazine. After a career that produced more than twenty books and scientific articles, in 2008 she became the first women to be awarded the FAD prize in a new category that focus on criticism. On top of the this, the analytical research presented in this paper drives us to three ideas: firstly, most of the women involved with architecture magazines pointed out as architecture critics;

13 Miguel Ángel Baldellou and Antón Capitel, Summa Artis : Historia General del Arte. Vol. 40, Arquitectura española del siglo XX (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1995). 14 George Baird and Charles Jencks, Meaning in Architecture (New York, G. Braziller: 1969).

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Bibliography Pérez-Moreno, Lucía C., “The ‘Transition’ as a turning point for a female Agudo Arroyo, Yolanda, and Sánchez agency in Spanish Architecture”, in Ruth de Madariaga, Inés, “Construyendo un Morrow, Harriet Harris, James Brown, and lugar en la profesión: trayectorias de las James Soane, A Gendered Profession arquitectas españolas”, Feminismo/s 17 (London: RIBA, 2016), 108-115. (2011), 159. Sánchez de Madariaga, Inés, Matilde Baldellou, Miguel Ángel, and Capitel, Ucelay. Una vida en construcción (Madrid: Antón, Summa Artis : Historia General del Ministerio de Fomento, 2012). Arte. Vol. 40, Arquitectura española del siglo XX (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1995). Santamera, Penélope, “Análisis de la obra y escritos de arquitectas en las Baird, George, and Jencks, Charles, revistas especializadas españolas (1973- Meaning in Architecture, New York, G. 1990)” (Degree diss, Universidad de Braziller, 1969. Zaragoza, 2017).

Larumbe, María Ángeles, Las que Triunfo 609, June 1, 1974, 32-37. dijeron no. Palabra y acción del feminismo en la Transición, (Zaragoza: Prensas El País, 06-07-2015, Universitarias de Zaragoza, 2004). http://elpais.com/elpais/2015/07/02/eps/ 1435850356_281571.html Larumbe, María Ángeles, Una inmensa minoría. Influencia y feminismo Vilchez, Javier, “Matilde Ucelay. en la Transición (Zaragoza, Prensas Primera mujer arquitecta en España” Universitarias de Zaragoza, 2002). (Tesis doctoral, Universidad de Granada, 2012).

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The influence of the Architectural Association on Zaha Hadid´s early career (1972-1988)

Nuria Álvarez Lombardero

Introduction recently Zaha Hadid (1972-77)2. These three women, in particular, have stated at Since its foundation in 1847, the multiple occasions the benefits of studying Architectural Association (AA) has always at the AA. Despite the fact that each of been an independent school. Originating them were enrolled in the school during a as a `reaction against the prevailing different decade, all highlighted the conditions under which architectural importance of the open environment and training´ was taught in Britain in the mid- diversity of perspectives to their studies 1 nineteenth century , the school’s and later career development. curriculum was not controlled by any Reviewing these women architects´ institution or university. This allowed the background are equally exciting school a great deal freedom when defining investigations. However, this paper will its pedagogic agenda. particularly review this institution Over the years, the school had environment and education system in the evolving visions on how to teach 1970s that allowed Hadid to develop a architecture in an open-minded manner distinct way of understanding space and with a very diverse environment, where its representation. foreign students, men and women were studying together. The first three female students enrolled in 1917 and now make 2 up more than half of the student body. In his lecture on Jane Drew, scholar Iain This environment of openness changed Jackson mentions how she enjoyed the `company and camarade at school´ in a reduced unit group the life of some female pioneers who environment. Meanwhile Denise Scott-Brown influenced the practice in architecture and mentions in an Architect´s Journal magazine urbanism with their work. Among many interview that she `found her identity as both an others, some women architects can be architect and a woman there´. Iain Jackson, highlighted, such as Jane Drew (1929-34), “From Croydon to Chandigarh: Jane Drew and the Creation of Tropical Modernism” (paper Denise Scott Brown (1952-55) and more presented at the Architectural Association, London, United Kingdom, April 28, 2015) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AKDAZIlS3G0 (accessed September 1, 2017); Emily Booth, 1 Edward Bottoms, “Introductory” (paper “Denise Scott Brown: ‘The best women architects presented at the Archives for London & the get is student life’”, The Architects´ Journal, March Twentieth Century Society, London, United 22 (2013) Kingdom, February 20, 2010). https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/home/denise http://www.aaschool.ac.uk/AASCHOOL/LIBRARY/a -scott-brown-the-best-women-architects-get-is- rchiveonlineresources.php (accessed July 20, student-life/8644587.article (accessed September 2017). 1, 2017)

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Finding herself: A student in the 70s at as `paper-architecture4´. This particular the AA. (1972-77) situation was possible because of its visionary director at that moment, Alvin Since her childhood, Zaha Hadid was Boyarsky, who allowed differences in surrounded by an open environment. She visions for education within the school. grew up in Baghdad in the 1950s and In this unstructured and diverse 1960s, during which Iraq was building a environment, Hadid found her own new identity closer to Western culture. interests from the beginning. As early as Modern and ancient architecture were her first year, she joined a group of coexisting in her city and society was open students who were interested in designing to Western ideas of modernization. architecture. In her own words, the school 3 Women had a place in this vision ; in fact, at that moment was for an `anti-design´ in there was already an older generation of a `movement of anti-architecture5´. Her female architects practicing in Baghdad initiative to talk to the school director and when she was a child, there were many ask for more architectural content within girls of her age who wanted to become the AA helped her to survive in that architects as well. This atmosphere moved chaotic environment and find her own Hadid and her family to embrace new path. Initiative was one of the main school ideas and strive for the most progressive pedagogic agenda basis at that time. and innovative education. This aim moved Therefore, following her request of her to apply in the AA among other designing buildings, Boyarsky allowed her influence international schools at that to organize some seminars on architects moment. In 1972, Hadid travelled to and buildings with her classmates, starting London to study at the AA School of a shift from `metaphysical working´ to Architecture. building within the school. Unfortunately, the British Her choices of mentors in the architectural environment at that moment following years at the school demonstrate was not the most ideal for a student with this interest in designing buildings. In her an aim of building her new ideas in third year, she entered Leon Krier´s design architecture. The building sector was in studio Unit 10, which was the closest brief crisis and society was very critical of to architecture of all the options at the poorly-built post-war constructions. In Intermediate studies level6. Following that opposition to this building crisis, the AA brief, `Project on the City: Cities versus became the place of progressive ideas and Megalopolis´, whose research and design innovation. In British architect Nigel goal was to `challenge the one- Coates´ words, the school was a `house of dimensional zoning policy by complex creativity´ where new proposals were discussed and drawn in what was defined 4 Ibid. 5 Zaha Hadid, “Zaha Hadid in Ideal Practice: Architecture and Education” (lecture at the 3 In an interview, Hadid mentions that there Architectural Association, London, United was already an old generation of women architects Kingdom, June 20, 1996) practicing in Baghdad when she was a child. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bpyw-IB3B3k Actually, in her generation, there were many (accessed July 22, 2017) women who wanted to become an architect. Alan 6 Intermediate studies correspond to 2nd Yentob and Roger Parsons, “Who Dares, Wins, and 3rd year at undergraduate level in the Zaha Hadid” (BBC Documentary, 2013) Architectural Association. The Architectural https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9n0EQBa7dQI Association. AA Projects review 1974-75 (London: (accessed July 22, 2017) AA Publications, 1975) 28-40.

173 architectural proposals´, Hadid proposed consisted in taking a segment of the in the longest brief a U-shaped enclosed arkhitektons to be superimposed on the block defined by terraced walls as an urban fabric. urban nucleus over a railway. For Hadid, After this brief, Hadid proposed for this year was an opportunity for her to her fourth-year design a horizontal confront the urban scale7. composition departing from a Malevich´s A year later, for her diploma studies sculpture, placing it over the Thames in her fourth and fifth years, she decided River. Later, following her interest on how to join Unit 9, taught by Elias Zenghelis to radically transform the city of London and Rem Koolhaas, being for the latter his with architecture10, the tectonic object first years teaching at the AA. Both tutors became an inhabitable bridge with a hotel were renowned figures of the radical and a social condenser or workers’ club11. architecture at that moment. As such, The relation between art—in this their brief was aiming to `rediscover and case a sculpture—and architecture develop a form of urbanism to the final established by the design studio brief, part of the 20th century: new types of allowed Hadid not only to freely compose architectural scenarios that exploit the her proposal out of functionalist unique cultural possibilities of high architecture, where a certain composition densities´ resulting in a critique to or typology was straight-related to a `Metropolitan lifestyle8´. For that purpose, program, for the first time, but also to they introduced abstract compositions by acquire a strategy when confronting a new Gerrit Rietvield, Kazemir Malevich, and project. In the project description by her Russian Suprematists to their students. tutors, they describe how: Specifically, they showed three- [She] undertook in her dimensional models done by Malevich horizontal tektonik the task of from 1923 to early 1930s, called handling the “mutation” factor arkhitektons9. Afterwards, the exercise for the architectural and programmatic requirements of the project single-handed. 7 Alvin Boyarsky, “Alvin Boyarsky interviews Ignoring the rules, she Zaha Hadid”, in Zaha Hadid, Planetary architecture designed the whole thing, two, (AA Publications, London: Architectural discovering in Malevich’s Association, 1983) 8 The Architectural Association. AA Projects apparent random composition review 1975-76. (London: AA Publications, 1976) “a method” for meeting his and The Architectural Association. AA Projects demand: this method was review 1975-77. (London: AA Publications, 1977) called tic-tic12. 9 From 1923 to the early 1930s, Malevich produced several three-dimensional models called arkhitektons. These assemblages of abstract forms Modern architecture (Oxford: Oxford University white plaster models made up by several Press, 2002) 123. rectangular blocks added one another `sought to 10 Zaha Hadid, “Zaha Hadid and demonstrate the timeless laws of architecture Suprematism” (interview at Tate Modern Talks, underlying the ever-changing demands of function London, United Kingdom, October, 2014) (…) (and) resemble early De Stijl compositions in https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GF_qPKnrrHo which ornament is non-figural and ‘form’ and (accessed July 21, 2017) ‘ornament’ are differentiated only by scale. These 11 Ibid. studies are purely experimental and the buildings 12 Elias Zenghelis, and Rem Koolhaas, have no function and no internal organization.¨ “Malevich´s Tektonik London, 1976/77” in Zaha Drawings accompanying the construction of the Hadid, Exhibition catalogue: projects 1977-81 models were called planits. Alan Colquhoun, (London: AA Publications, 1981), 1.

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These words anticipate a section´ on site to represent the proposal methodology used later by Hadid in her interiority16. building proposals as a practitioner to Furthermore, she looked again to represent those elements that had Neoplasticism and Suprematism paintings potential for motion in the composition13. to expand previous exercise on volumes to In this manner, what was initially a work, this time with layers. For this student exercise about breaking the rules purpose, she started slicing the proposal imposed by Malevich’s sculpture became vertically and horizontally and separated the origin of a work field in Hadid´s later these layers in the space. This can be career. observed in the site plan for the latest A year later, Hadid continued the bridge proposal. There, the initial ideas and representational techniques volumetric composition is scattered in explored in her final thesis: “The Museum different planes that form the bridge. The of Nineteenth Century in London”. This plans show rotated planes that contain time, she needed to design with more different programmatic elements. This `correspondence with its historical and decomposition of planes will be a key cultural context14´. To achieve this aim, element in her later work, allowing her to she needed to add more definition to the design unthinkable architectural proposal, as a technique to calibrate compositions at that time. better the building relation to existing Right after her graduation from the context. In her words: AA in June 1977, Hadid started I tried to draw things collaborating with her mentors, Zenghelis which presented the idea even and Koolhaas, in their newly founded if they were not always Office of Metropolitan Architecture. realistic. I think that through a Following their teaching agenda at the AA, set of drawings one discovers the office was focused on experimentation and creation of visions for the city. In certain things which otherwise would not have been possible. addition, graphic representation of their You look at a project in so ideas was fundamental for their work. The many different ways that it contribution of the two other foundational begins to unveil certain things. members: artists Madelon Vriesendorp Drawing is not only about the and Zoe Zenghelis, was key to this. final product15. Hadid´s first collaboration at the office that year was the competition for In this exploration on how to draw a the Dutch Parliament Extension in The proposal as a design technique, Hadid Hague The Netherlands. This period of again found new tools to build her later training allowed her to develop her work work methodology, like the `collapsed in two ways. On the one hand, she got to know the graphic work of Vriesendorp and

16 Despite Zaha mentions in different interviews this process started in her fourth year, 13 Hadid, “Zaha Hadid and Suprematism” we can recognize from the AA archives that the 14 Elias Zenghelis, and Rem Koolhaas, graphic exercise was fully developed in her fifth “Museum of 19th century London, 1977/78” in year. The images captured from the AA 1977-78 Zaha Hadid, Exhibition catalogue: projects 1977-81 Projects Review witness a change in representation (London: AA Publications, 1981), 20. techniques. The Architectural Association. AA 15 Boyarsky, “Alvin Boyarsky interviews Zaha Projects review 1977-78. (London: AA Publications, Hadid” 1978)

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Zenghelis, working the former in full- and stressful aspects of coloured paintings for the competition. political and public life20. The intensity of their drawings at that For this purpose, the two moment prompted Hadid to take new programmatic pieces, or houses, are steps, moving from black and white separated into two entities, but connected drawings to large-scale contrasted 17 by a covered walkway in an `exclusive use coloured drawings . On the other hand, of adjacency´ with a spatial organisation her contribution to the competition that `has been abandoned in favour of panels, an exploded drawing of layers, spatial interpenetration21.´ Volumes are allowed her to represent all the interior here intersected by planes combining components of the proposal in a non- 18 those design tools developed in her diagrammatic way . formative years at AA with Krier, Zenghelis and Koolhaas. Additionally, she wanted to push both `the notion of explosion in Hadid´s First Works architecture (…) to a certain limit where it doesn’t become ridiculous´, where she After her experience in the office, was `much in control, and it erupts where Zaha founded her own architectural it is possible22´, and the idea of carving. practice in 1979. At the same time, she The former took the form of an erupted also started teaching in the AA alongside triangular shape intersecting the guest her mentors. In these first years as a house, shaped by the latter with an practitioner, research-through-drawing 19 interior courtyard to maintain the privacy was the major focus of her work . Her of the inner rooms. This is the first time first solo project was a proposal for the that Hadid worked with an `artificial Irish Prime Minister´s House and State landscape´, a design concept that would Guest House competition, whose main later be repeated in later proposals and aim was, in Hadid’s words: 23 briefs . …to create a Despite the fact that this proposal weightlessness, a freedom did not win the competition, which her from the stress of public life. mentors from OMA also participated in, it (…) The forms of the plan are had an impact in London architectural designed to induce a feeling of scene. Boyarsky, who was still director of freedom from gravity, a feeling the AA, was impressed by this proposal of liberation from bureaucratic and organized an exhibition at the school

17 As Zaha admits, despite Madelon 20 Zaha Hadid, “Taoiseach´s Residence, Vriesendorp was not her teacher per se in the Dublin, Ireland” in Brett Steele and Francisco school, she was `obviously around when Mad[elon] Gonzalez de Canales, ed., First works: emerging was doing the great acrylic painting for OMA´. architectural experimentation of the 1960s & 1970s Shumon Basar, and Stephan Truby (ed.) The world (London: AA Publications, 2009) 246. of Madelon Vriesendorp: paintings, postcards, 21 Patrick Schumacher, “Commentary” in objects, games (London: AA Publications, 2008) 68. Brett Steele and Francisco Gonzalez de Canales, 18Her drawings were included in an ed., First works: emerging architectural exhibition of this project at the Guggenheim experimentation of the 1960s & 1970s (London: AA Museum in New York. Hadid, “Zaha Hadid and Publications, 2009) 254. Suprematism”. 22 Boyarsky, “Alvin Boyarsky interviews Zaha 19Mohsen Mostafavi, “Landscape as Plan. A Hadid” conversation with Zaha Hadid”, in Zaha 1983-2004, 23 Mostafavi, “Landscape as Plan. A El Croquis 103 (2004) 34. conversation with Zaha Hadid”, 6

176 to recognize `the power of Zaha’s `programmatic inventiveness as well as an project24.´ From the institution, and overwhelming significance in relation to, especially with Boyarsky as director, there and as a relief from, the congestion of the was a support for those students and city itself 26´. This relief was defined by tutors who were starting their Hadid as a zero-gravity situation in which professional practice that usually the buildings could float over the combined research and design. This first landscape. However, this flotation was exhibition in 1980, that later went to Van- only possible with the thrust of some Rooy Gallery in Amsterdam, helped Hadid elements onto the site. Vertical and not only to introduce herself as an horizontal elements, slabs and beams, architect in London, but also to start being were embedded into the landscape, like a known as the most radical one. `knife cutting butter, devastating In these early years, Hadid was also traditional principles and establishing new working on two or three commissions, like ones, defying nature but not destroying the conversion of a three floors house for it27.´ This composition was creating, like at her brother in 59 Eaton Place, London. As the Irish Prime Minister’s residence, an it was more an interior design, in this artificial landscape inserted into the proposal `each object was seen as a piece natural one28. of architecture. The objects were designed The challenge for Hadid was to as if they were buildings25´. For this describe this proposal through drawings. purpose, all drawings explored how to She mentioned later that some drawings show all interior spaces and their impact were more than illustrations of the on the building exterior. These drawings, building, while some others had a story mostly deep perspectives, were used here related to her real design intentions29. both as a means of representation and a Drawings were used to tell a story, a design technique to define all surfaces. narrative, like: This radical design concept broke with the …the exploded isometric conventional way of understanding of the Peak, shows the architecture in the 1980s in a British evolution of the building, with architectural environment still dominated the landscape as a backdrop; by Post-Modernism. In 1982, the proposal the beams appear from was awarded with the Gold Medal nowhere and intersect the Architectural Design (AD) British landscape, ending up with a Architecture Awards and exhibited at the finished object, which is the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA), building itself. (…) the slabs, bringing her even more attention. which shows the context of However, her most acknowledged the entire Hong Kong scene, work of these early years in practice was the competition entry for the Peak International Club in Hong Kong, 1983. This proposal was to create a building, a club, to be the architectural landmark of 26 Hong Kong city. Located on the top of a Alvin Boyarsky, and Arata Isozaki, Arata, mountain, the brief demanded certain Zaha M. Hadid (Tokyo: ADA Edita, 1986) 66. 27 Boyarsky and Isozaki, Zaha M. Hadid, 66. 28 Mostafavi, “Landscape as Plan. A 24 Schumacher, “Commentary”, 254 conversation with Zaha Hadid”,12. 25 Boyarsky, “Alvin Boyarsky interviews Zaha 29 Boyarsky, “Alvin Boyarsky interviews Zaha Hadid” Hadid”

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changed to suit (…) a Reaffirming her practice agenda, teaching superimposition on that city30. at the AA. (1977-87) Drawings were composed of static elements and dynamic ones that were Another important aspect related to visible thanks to both a deconstruction of education and the first years of Hadid´s its volumes into layers and the disturbing practice is her teaching at the AA. Right eighty-nine degrees perspective point. Her after graduating, she started collaborating idea was to blur distinctions between the with her mentors Zenghelis and Koolhaas city and the building. For this porpoise, in Diploma Unit 9. For three years, Hadid she fragmented both elements into layers taught with them, learning their and scattered them into the landscape. educational method of relating research This graphic deconstruction allowed her with design and a great interest in future not only to bring all these parts into the conditions of architecture in Metropolitan same level, but also to better design them. cities. In 1980, Hadid starts teaching by Hadid’s entry won first prize. herself, following this previously Japanese architect Arata Isozaki, who was developed agenda. part of the competition panel of jurors, In general terms, her main ideas commented that her work was so unusual were related to a creative process in and different from all other proposals that which drawings were `a mean of investigation (…) done throughout a it was not selected by the group. However, 33 the `uniqueness of its expression and the process .´ They were the ultimate tool to strength of its logic´ in the few drawings design and bring information about submitted allowed him to convince the different design aspects. Drawing was a tool to `travel through the project and rest of the jurors to select it as the 34 winning proposal among 600 entries31. understand the result .´ These can be Although it was never built, it became an perceived when reviewing Projects Review pages that summarized Diploma Unit 9’s opportunity for Hadid to be acknowledge internationally and to put her in the work throughout her teaching years international spotlight. Following this (1980-87). A collection of linear black and success, the Boyarsky decided to do a white drawings showed design intentions, retrospective exhibition of her work in the giving very little space or importance to AA under the name “Planetary the text explaining ideas behind. Architecture two” in 1983. This time, the Despite her mentors’ strong AA was not only supporting her again, but legacies, Hadid started introducing her also allowed her to show all research on main interests and methodology drawing and real building developed in her previously explored in early works, such as first years of practice to colleagues and the previously mentioned tic-tic method, students, at the same time she was the decomposition of volumes into planes teaching there32. or the idea of an artificial landscape. For Hadid, these years were `very 35 instrumental ´, as she could develop these interests with students to build her

30 Some of the proposal drawings where scenes of the project narrative, like “The divers” or 33 Luis Rojo, “Conversation with Zaha Hadid” “Day view from Courtyard”. in Zaha 1983-1995, El Croquis, 1995. 31 Boyarsky and Isozaki, Zaha M. Hadid, 7. 34 Ibid. 32 Zaha Hadid, “Zaha Hadid in Ideal Practice: 35 Zaha Hadid, “Zaha Hadid in Ideal Practice: Architecture and Education” Architecture and Education”

178 practice agenda more consistently. During Architecture” exhibition at the Museum of her first year of teaching, she introduced Modern Art (MOMA) in New York in 1988. the idea of producing newness by Curated by Phillip Johnson and Mark `exhilarating dynamic architecture´ for the Wigley, the exhibition was to `mark a future twenty-first century36, a common different sensibility, one in which the obsession in all studio briefs. Two years dream of pure form has been disturbed´, later, she continued asking the students to and thus, `form has become explore `randomness´ as for her it `has an contaminated40´. Hadid’s Peak proposal inherent logic37´. To that end, she looked drawings were exhibited along with works to a very well-define typology, the Russian from Frank Gehry, Daniel Libeskind, Rem fortress, to play with it formally. We can Koolhaas, Peter Eisenmann, Coop also highlight the idea of `artificial Himmenblau and Bernard Tschumi. All had landscape´ in her last year teaching at the in common an evolution from Russian AA, a concept that propelled her Prime constructivists and Suprematism Minister’s Residence and Peak languages, by using pure forms `to proposals38. In this case, the restructuring produce “impure”, skewed geometric in layers of this artificial landscape shaped compositions41´. However, after this short the basis of the project as an urban form review of the origins of her work, it can be in the industrial wasteland located on the presumed that she was through her northern side of the Royal Docklands of intuitions the very originator of what was London39. Curved lines and floating later called the Deconstructivist geometries could be identified in all movement in the late 1980s and early students’ work as a way of defining space. 1990s, as none of these architects were One of her more advanced students at following this path in the 1970s at her that time was Ben van Berkel, who early years as a student at the AA, where it explored this later in his office UN Studio, all started. and would soon start his development of digital graphic tools.

Conclusions

In 1987, Hadid decided to end her teachings at AA, as she felt the school did not support her as strongly as it used to. From then on, she looked for other platforms to expand her design research interests, and that opportunity came through the “Deconstructivist in

36 The Architectural Association. AA Projects review 1980-81. (London: AA Publications, 1981) 37 The Architectural Association. AA Projects review 1982-83. (London: AA Publications, 1983) 38 She also explores this in her proposal for 40 Mark Wigley, “Deconstructivist Competition La Villette Park for the twentieth-first architecture” in Deconstructivist architecture century in Paris 1982. exhibition catalogue, (New York: Museum of 39 The Architectural Association. AA Projects Modern Art, 1988) review 1986-87. (London: AA Publications, 1987) 41 Wigley, “Deconstructivist architecture”

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Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani COBISS.SI-ID=297170944 ISBN 978-961-05-0136-7 (pdf)