ENCYCLOPEDIA of GEOBIOLOGY Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GEOBIOLOGY

Volume Editors Joachim Reitner is Professor of Paleontology, Head of the Department of Geobiology, and Managing Director of the Museum, Collections and Geopark, at the University of Göttingen, Germany. He is also Editor-in-Chief of Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences (Springer), Co-Editor of Facies (Springer), and Associate Editor of the Geomicrobiology Journal (Taylor & Francis). Dr. Reitner’s research focuses on the interplay between organ- isms and their metabolic processes with various abiotic parameters. Many geological processes can be understood as geo-physiological processes, allowing chemical reactions to proceed that would never occur under standard thermodynamic conditions. Therefore, a major thrust of Dr. Reitner’s research is the investigation of the evolution of these processes, which are visible in biosignatures and biomineralization patterns, and in their interaction with biogeochemical cycles. Among his many honors and accolades, Dr. Reitner is the recipient of the G. W. Leibniz Award from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. Volker Thiel is Professor of Organic Geochemistry in the Geoscience Center at the University of Göttingen, Germany. Dr. Thiel has been involved in geobiological research for some 15 years, with a focus on the use of organic molecules as chemical tracers (biomarkers) for biogeochemical path- ways. His research interests include lipid biomarkers as indicators for biogeochemical processes, molecular fossils, biological formation, and turn- over of methane, and microbial control on mineral formation. The results of his studies have significantly contributed to the characterization of microbial processes associated with methane turnover in modern and ancient environments. Much of Dr. Thiel’s current work is devoted to new approaches to enhance the spatial resolution of biomarker analysis in geobiological systems. He is member of the Editorial Board of the journal Geobiology (Wiley-Blackwell).

Editorial Board Hans-Joachim Fritz Pamela Reid Courant Research Centre Geobiology Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science University of Göttingen University of Miami Goldschmidtstr.3 4600 Rickenbacker Cswy 37077 Göttingen Miami FL 33149 Germany USA

Andreas Kappler Xingliang Zhang Center for Applied Geoscience (ZAG) Department of Geology Sigwartstraße 10 Northwest University 72076 Tübingen Xian 710069 Germany China

Kurt O. Konhauser Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences University of Alberta, Edmonton Alberta, T6G 2E3 Canada

Aims of the Series The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists. These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatolo- gists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See http://www.springer.com for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series.Gotohttp://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series” on-line.

About the Series Editor Professor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than 8 volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25 years he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education & Research Foundation (CERF) and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Research Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of the University of Western Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company of Canada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Caribbean; South America; SW Pacific islands; south- ern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA.

Founding Series Editor Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA of GEOBIOLOGY

edited by

JOACHIM REITNER VOLKER THIEL University of Göttingen Germany Library of Congress Control Number: 2010936497

ISBN: 978-1-4020-9211-4 This publication is available also as: Electronic publication under ISBN 978-1-4020-9212-1 and Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-1-4020-9213-8

Published by Springer P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands

Printed on acid-free paper

Cover illustration: Iron- and sulfide-oxidizing microbial mats in the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory, Oskarshamn, Sweden (photograph by Joachim Reitner)

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgment may be made in subsequent editions.

All Rights Reserved © Springer Science þ Business Media B.V. 2011 No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Contents

Contributors xiii Animal Biocalcification, Evolution 53 Gert Wörheide and Daniel J. Jackson Preface xxvii Animal Skeletons, Advent 58 Acetogens 1 Guoxiang Li, Maoyan Zhu and Zhe Chen Kirsten Küsel and Harold L. Drake

Acid Rock Drainage 5 Archaea 64 Lesley A. Warren Volker Thiel

Acidophiles 8 Arsenic 69 John F. Stolz and Ronald S. Oremland Acritarchs 8 Asteroid and Comet Impacts 69 Charles S. Cockell Aerobic Metabolism 8 Heribert Cypionka Astrobiology 73 Jack D. Farmer Algae (Eukaryotic) 10 Thomas Friedl, Nicole Brinkmann and Kathrin I. Mohr Bacteria 81 Michael Hoppert Alkalinity 20 Andreas Reimer and Gernot Arp Bacterioplankton 89 Thomas Pommier Amber 24 Eugenio Ragazzi and Alexander R. Schmidt Banded Iron Formations 92 Nicole R. Posth, Kurt O. Konhauser and Anaerobic Oxidation of Methane with Sulfate 36 Andreas Kappler Katrin Knittel and Antje Boetius Basalt (Glass, Endoliths) 103 Anaerobic Transformation Processes, Microbiology 48 Ingunn H. Thorseth Bernhard Schink Beggiatoa 111 Anammox 53 Heide N. Schulz-Vogt

Entries without author names are glossary terms vi CONTENTS

Biodeterioration (of Stone) 112 Calcite Precipitation, Microbially Induced 223 Christina Beimforde Tanja Bosak

Bioerosion 117 Calcium Biogeochemistry 227 Aline Tribollet, Gudrun Radtke and Anton Eisenhauer Stjepko Golubic Cap Carbonates 229 Biofilms 134 Joachim Reitner Joachim Reitner Carbon (Organic, Cycling) 230 Biofilms and Fossilization 136 Amber K. Hardison and Elizabeth A. Canuel Joachim Reitner Carbon (Organic, Degradation) 234 Biogeochemical Cycles 137 Steven T. Petsch

Biological Control on Diagenesis: Influence Carbon Cycle 238 of Bacteria and Relevance to Ocean Acidification 137 Carbon Isotopes 238 Fred T. Mackenzie and Andreas J. Andersson Carbonate Environments 238 Biological Volcanic Rock Weathering 143 Eberhard Gischler Charles S. Cockell Carbonates 261 Biomarkers (Molecular Fossils) 147 Martin Dietzel Jochen J. Brocks and Kliti Grice Cathodoluminescence Microscopy 266 Biomarkers (Organic, Compound-Specific Walter Vortisch Isotopes) 167 Kliti Grice and Jochen J. Brocks Chemolithotrophy 271 Volker Thiel Biomining (Mineral Bioleaching, Mineral Biooxidation) 182 Cherts 272 Douglas Eric Rawlings Volker Thiel

Bioprotection 185 Chondrites 273 Carlos Rodriguez-Navarro, Maria T. González-Muñoz, Concepción Chroococcidiopsis 273 Jimenez-Lopez and Manuel Rodriguez-Gallego Burkhard Büdel

Biosignatures in Rocks 189 Clay Authigenesis, Bacterial 274 Frances Westall and Barbara Cavalazzi Kurt O. Konhauser

Biosilicification 201 Coccolithophores 277 Volker Thiel Black Shales 201 Wolfgang Oschmann Cold Seeps 278 Robert G. Jenkins Breakup of Rodinia 206 Zheng-Xiang Li Comets 290

Calcareous Algae 211 Commensalism 290

Calcification 211 Community 290

Calcified Cyanobacteria 211 Copper 290 Robert Riding Stephan M. Kraemer CONTENTS vii

Cosmic Molecular Clouds 292 Endoliths 348 Joachim Reitner Bettina Weber and Burkhard Büdel

Critical Intervals in Earth History 293 Endosymbiosis 355 Frank Wiese and Joachim Reitner Evaporites 355 Cryobiosphere 306 Exoenzymes 355 Cyanobacteria 306 Kathrin Riedel and Alexander Grunau Kathrin I. Mohr, Nicole Brinkmann and Thomas Friedl Extracellular Polymeric Substances (EPS) 359 Alan W. Decho Deep Biosphere of Salt Deposits 313 Helga Stan-Lotter and Sergiu Fendrihan Extreme Environments 362 Volker Thiel Deep Biosphere of Sediments 317 Fe(II)-Oxidizing Prokaryotes 367 Deep Biosphere of the Oceanic Deep Sea 317 Kristina L. Straub Kristina Rathsack, Nadia-Valérie Quéric and Joachim Reitner Fe(III)-Reducing Prokaryotes 370 Kristina L. Straub Deep Fluids 322

Degradation (of Organic Matter) 322 Fermentation 373

Denitrification 322 Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH) 373 Natuschka M. Lee, Daniela B. Meisinger, Desert Varnish 322 Michael Schmid, Michael Rothballer and Randall S. Perry Frank E. Löffler

Detachment 325 Foraminifera 393 Alexander V. Altenbach Diatoms 326 Nicole Brinkmann, Thomas Friedl and Frutexites 396 Kathrin I. Mohr Marta Rodríguez-Martínez, Christine Heim, Nadia-Valérie Quéric and Dinoflagellates 331 Joachim Reitner

Divalent Earth Alkaline Cations in Seawater 331 Fungi and Lichens 401 Anton Eisenhauer Bettina Weber and Burkhard Büdel

Diversity 336 Gallionella 411 Karsten Pedersen Dolomite, Microbial 336 Jennifer A. Roberts and Paul A. Kenward Geobacter 412 Kristina L. Straub Early Earth 341 Geochronology 413 Early Precambrian Eukaryotes 341 Volker Liebetrau Joachim Reitner Geomycology 416 Ecological Niche 342 Geoffrey M. Gadd

Ediacaran Biota 342 Geyserite 433 Dmitriy Grazhdankin

Entries without author names are glossary terms viii CONTENTS

Glass 433 Isotope Fractionation (Metal) 502 Ariel D. Anbar and Silke Severmann Glaucophytes 433 Isotopes (Methods) 511 Gold 433 Veit-Enno Hoffmann Isotopes and Geobiology 511 Jochen Hoefs Gondwanaland, Formation 434 Joseph G. Meert Isotopes, Radiogenic 516 Bent T. Hansen Great Oxygenation Event (GOE) 436 Karst Ecosystems 521 Green Algae 436 Annette S. Engel

Guild 436 Lateral Gene Transfer 533 Hans-Joachim Fritz Habitat 437 Leptothrix 535 Halobacteria – Halophiles 437 David Emerson Helga Stan-Lotter Magnetotactic Bacteria 537 Mihály Pósfai Haptophytes 441 Manganese (Sedimentary Carbonates and Sulfides) 541 Heavy Metals 441 Michael E. Böttcher

Histology 441 Mass Extinctions, Phanerozoic 543 Michael Gudo, Gerta Fleissner and Joachim Reitner Guenther Fleissner Mat-Related Sedimentary Structures 547 Hot Springs and Geysers 447 Hubertus Porada Brian Jones and Robin W. Renaut Metagenomics 553 Hydrogen 451 Wolfgang Liebl Tori M. Hoehler Metalloenzymes 558 Hydrothermal Environments, Fossil 454 Michael Hoppert Joachim Reitner Metallogenium 563 Hydrothermal Environments, Marine 456 Joachim Reitner Gilberto E. Flores and Anna-Louise Reysenbach Metals, Acquisition by Marine Bacteria 565 Hydrothermal Environments, Terrestrial 467 Alison Butler and Vanessa V. Homann Robin W. Renaut and Brian Jones Meteoritics 568 Hypersaline Environments 479 Mark A. Sephton

Ichnology 481 Methane Oxidation (Aerobic) 575 Murray Gingras and Kurt O. Konhauser Helmut Bürgmann

Immunolocalization 482 Methane, Origin 578 Michael Hoppert and Christoph Wrede Carsten J. Schubert

Iron Isotopes 486 Methanogens 586

Iron Sulfide Formation 486 Microbial Biomineralization 586 Jürgen Schieber Christine Heim CONTENTS ix

Microbial Communities, Structure, and Function 592 Nickel, Biology 684 Michael W. Friedrich Martin Krüger

Microbial Degradation 596 Nitrification 685 Erika Kothe Nitrogen 686 Microbial Ecology of Submarine Caves 599 Volker Thiel Francesco Canganella and Giovanna Bianconi Nitrogen Fixation 690 Microbial Mats 606 Joachim Reitner Ores, Microbial Precipitation and Oxidation 691 Beda A. Hofmann Microbial Silicification – Bacteria (or Passive) 608 Kurt O. Konhauser and Brian Jones Organic Carbon 697

Microbial Surface Reactivity 614 Organomineralization 697 David A. Fowle and Kurt O. Konhauser Christian Défarge

Microbialites, Modern 617 Origin of Life 701 Christophe Dupraz, R. Pamela Reid and Michael J. Russell Pieter T. Visscher Origins of the Metazoa 716 Microbialites, Stromatolites, and Thrombolites 635 Daniel J. Jackson Robert Riding Parasitism 721 Microbial-Metal Binding 654 Kurt O. Konhauser and David A. Fowle Pedogenic Carbonates 721 Eric P. Verrecchia Microbiocorrosion 657 Aline Tribollet, Stjepko Golubic, Gudrun Radtke Permafrost Microbiology 726 and Joachim Reitner David A. Gilichinsky and Elizaveta M. Rivkina

Microsensors for Sediments, Microbial Mats, Phosphorus, Phosphorites 732 and Biofilms 658 Karl B. Föllmi Dirk de Beer Photosynthesis 736 Molar-tooth Structure 662 Kerstin Schmidt Brian R. Pratt Piezophilic Bacteria 738 Moonmilk 666 Jiasong Fang and Li Zhang Joachim Reitner Pore Waters 742 Mud Mounds 667 Sabine Kasten Marta Rodríguez-Martínez Protozoa (Heterotroph, Eukaryotic) 746 Mutualism 675 Jens Boenigk

Mycorrhizae 675 Pyrite Oxidation 750

Nan(n)obacteria 677 Radioactivity (Natural) 751 Muriel Pacton and Georges E. Gorin Beda A. Hofmann

Nanocrystals, Microbially Induced 681 Radiolaria 754 Susan Glasauer Volker Thiel

Entries without author names are glossary terms x CONTENTS

Raman Microscopy (Confocal) 754 Soda Lakes 824 Jan Toporski, Thomas Dieing and Stephan Kempe and Jozef Kazmierczak Christine Heim Soda Ocean Hypothesis 829 Reduction Spheroids 761 Stephan Kempe and Jozef Kazmierczak Beda A. Hofmann Soils 833 Reefs 762 Erika Kothe

Remineralization (of Organic Matter) 763 Species (Microbial) 836

Rhodophyta 763 Speleothems 836 Roman Aubrecht RNA-World 763 Sponges (Porifera) and Sponge Microbes 840 Saline Lakes 765 Friederike Hoffmann and Marie-Lise Schläppy Carol D. Litchfield Stromatactis 847 Salinity History of the Earth’s Ocean 769 Roman Aubrecht L. Paul Knauth Stromatolites 850 Scanning Probe Microscopy (Includes Atomic Force Microscopy) 772 Subsurface Filamentous Fabrics 851 Michael Hoppert Beda A. Hofmann

Sediment Diagenesis – Biologically Controlled 777 Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria 853 Kurt O. Konhauser, Murray K. Gingras and Heribert Cypionka Andreas Kappler Sulfide Mineral Oxidation 856 Selenium 784 D. Kirk Nordstrom John F. Stolz and Ronald S. Oremland Sulfur Cycle 859 Shales 785 Michael E. Böttcher Jürgen Schieber Sulfur Isotopes 864 Shewanella 791 Michael E. Böttcher Nadia-Valérie Quéric Symbiosis 866 Siderite 792 Sharmishtha Dattagupta and Frank Zielinski Volker Thiel Syntrophy 870 Siderophores 793 Stephan M. Kraemer Terrestrial Deep Biosphere 871 Christine Heim Silica Biomineralization, Sponges 796 Hermann Ehrlich Thioester World 876 Joachim Reitner Silicoflagellates 808 Thiomargarita 877 Sinter 808 Heide N. Schulz-Vogt Robin W. Renaut and Brian Jones Thiotrophic Bacteria 877 Skeleton 814 Heide N. Schulz-Vogt

Small Shelly Fossils 814 Thrombolites 880

Snowball Earth 814 Tidal Flats 880 Paul F. Hoffman Meinhard Simon CONTENTS xi

TOF-SIMS 883 Whale and Wood Falls 901 Peter Sjövall and Jukka Lausmaa Steffen Kiel

Trace Fossils: Neoproterozoic 886 Zinc 905 Sören Jensen, James G. Gehling and Matthias Labrenz and Gregory K. Druschel Mary L. Droser Author Index 909 Tufa, Freshwater 889 Akihiro Kano Subject Index 911 Waulsortian Mud Mounds 893 Marta Rodríguez-Martínez

Entries without author names are glossary terms

Contributors

Alexander V. Altenbach Christina Beimforde Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich Courant Research Centre Geobiology Richard-Wagner-Str. 10 University of Göttingen 80333 Munich Goldschmidtstr. 3 Germany 37077 Göttingen [email protected] Germany [email protected] Ariel D. Anbar School of Earth and Space Exploration Giovanna Bianconi and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Department of Agrobiology and Agrochemistry Arizona State University University of Tuscia Tempe, AZ Viterbo USA Italy [email protected] [email protected]

Andreas J. Andersson Jens Boenigk Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences Institute for Limnology 17 Biological Station Austrian Academy of Sciences Ferry Reach, St. George’s Mondseestr. 9 Bermuda 5310 Mondsee Austria Gernot Arp [email protected] Geobiology Group Geoscience Center Antje Boetius University of Göttingen Department of Molecular Ecology Goldschmidtstr. 3 Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology 37077 Göttingen Celsiusstrasse 1 Germany 28359 Bremen [email protected] Germany [email protected] Roman Aubrecht Department of Geology and Paleontology Tanja Bosak Faculty of Natural Sciences Department of Earth Comenius University Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences Mlynská dolina-G Massachusetts Institute of Technology 842 15 Bratislava Cambridge, MA 02139 Slovakia USA [email protected] [email protected] xiv CONTRIBUTORS

Michael E. Böttcher Elizabeth A. Canuel Geochemistry & Stable Isotope Geochemistry College of William and Mary Marine Geology Section Virginia Institute of Marine Science Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research P.O. Box 1346 18119 Warnemünde Gloucester Point, VA 23062 Germany USA [email protected] [email protected]

Nicole Brinkmann Barbara Cavalazzi Geobiology Group Centre de Biophysique Moléculaire CNRS Geoscience Center Université de Orléans University of Göttingen Rue Charles Sadron Goldschmidtstr. 3 45071 Orléans 37077 Göttingen France Germany [email protected] Zhe Chen State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy Jochen J. Brocks Chinese Academy of Sciences Research School of Earth Sciences 210008 Nanjing The Australian National University China Building 61, Mills Road Canberra, ACT 0200 Charles S. Cockell Australia Planetary and Space Sciences Research Institute [email protected] Open University Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA UK Burkhard Büdel [email protected] Plant Ecology and Systematics Department of Biology University of Kaiserslautern Heribert Cypionka P.O. Box 3049 University of Oldenburg 67653 Kaiserslautern 26111 Oldenburg Germany Germany [email protected] [email protected] Sharmishtha Dattagupta Helmut Bürgmann Courant Research Centre Geobiology Department of Surface Waters University of Göttingen Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Goldschmidtstr. 3 Technology 37077 Göttingen Seestrasse 79 Germany 6047 Kastanienbaum [email protected] Switzerland [email protected] Dirk de Beer Microsensor Research Group Alison Butler Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology Department of Chemistry Celsiusstrasse 1 University of California 28359 Bremen Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9510 Germany USA [email protected] [email protected] Alan W. Decho Francesco Canganella Department of Environmental Health Sciences Department of Agrobiology and Agrochemistry Arnold School of Public Health University of Tuscia University of South Carolina Viterbo Columbia, SC 29208 Italy USA [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xv

Christian Défarge Hermann Ehrlich Institut des Sciences de la Terre d’Orléans Biominerals, Biocomposites & Biomimetics Group Unité Mixte de Recherche 6113 Institute of Bioanalytical Chemistry Université d’Orléans Dresden University of Technology and Bergstr. 66 Université François-Rabelais de Tours 1062 Dresden Ecole Polytechnique de l’Université d’Orléans Germany 8 rue Léonard de Vinci [email protected] 45072 Orléans France [email protected] Anton Eisenhauer IFM-GEOMAR Thomas Dieing Leibniz-Institut für Meereswissenschaften Wissenschaftliche Instrumente und Technologie GmbH Christian Albrechts Universität zu Kiel Lise-Meitner-Strasse 6 Wischhofstr. 1-3 89081 Ulm 24148 Kiel Germany Germany [email protected] [email protected]

Martin Dietzel David Emerson Institute of Applied Geosciences Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences Graz University of Technology West Boothbay Harbor, ME 04575 8010 Graz USA Austria [email protected] [email protected]

Harold L. Drake Annette S. Engel Department of Ecological Microbiology Department of Geology and Geophysics University of Bayreuth Louisiana State University 95440 Bayreuth E235 Howe-Russell Geoscience Complex Germany Baton Rouge, LA 70803 [email protected] USA [email protected] Mary L. Droser Department of Earth Sciences University of California Jiasong Fang Riverside, CA 92521 College of Natural and Computational Sciences USA Hawaii Pacific University [email protected] Kaneohe, HI 96744 USA [email protected] Gregory K. Druschel Department of Geology University of Vermont Jack D. Farmer 321 Delehanty Hall School of Earth and Space Exploration 180 Colchester Ave. Arizona State University Burlington, VT 05405 Tempe, AZ USA USA [email protected] [email protected]

Christophe Dupraz Center for Integrative Geosciences – Marine Sciences Sergiu Fendrihan University of Connecticut Bioresource Center and Advanced Research Association 354 Mansfield Road Aleea Istru nr. 2C, bloc A14B sc. 8, et. 2, apt. 113, sect. 6 Storrs, CT 06269-2045 061912 Bucharest USA Romania [email protected] [email protected]; [email protected] xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Gerta Fleissner Hans-Joachim Fritz Institute for Cell Biology and Neurosciences Courant Research Centre Geobiology Goethe-University Frankfurt University of Göttingen Siesmayerstr. 70 Goldschmidstr. 3 60323 Frankfurt a. M. 37077 Göttingen Germany Germany [email protected] [email protected]

Guenther Fleissner Geoffrey M. Gadd Institute for Cell Biology and Neurosciences Division of Molecular Microbiology Goethe-University Frankfurt College of Life Sciences Siesmayerstr. 70 University of Dundee 60323 Frankfurt a. M. Dundee DD1 5EH Germany Scotland [email protected] UK [email protected] Gilberto E. Flores Department of Biology James G. Gehling Portland State University South Australian Museum 1719 SW 10th Avenue Adelaide, SA 5000 Portland, OR 97207 Australia USA [email protected] [email protected] David A. Gilichinsky Karl B. Föllmi Institute of Physicochemical & Biological Problems in Institute of Geology and Paleontology Soil Science University of Lausanne Russian Academy of Sciences 2015 Lausanne Pushchino Switzerland Russia [email protected] [email protected]

David A. Fowle Murray K. Gingras Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences University of Alberta University of Alberta Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E3 Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E3 Canada Canada [email protected] [email protected]

Thomas Friedl Eberhard Gischler Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute for Plant Sciences Institut für Geowissenschaften University of Göttingen Facheinheit Paläontologie Untere Karspüle 2 J.W. Goethe-Universität 37073 Göttingen Altenhöferallee 1 Germany 60438 Frankfurt am Main [email protected] Germany [email protected] Michael W. Friedrich Microbial Ecophysiology Susan Glasauer Faculty of Biology/Chemistry Department of Land Resource Science University of Bremen University of Guelph 28359 Bremen Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 Germany Canada [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Stjepko Golubic Michael Gudo Department of Biology Morphisto Evolutionsforschung und Anwendung GmbH Boston University Institut für Evolutionswissenschaften 5 Cummington Street Weismüllerstr. 45 Boston, MA 02215 60314 Frankfurt am Main USA Germany [email protected] [email protected]

Maria T. González-Muñoz Bent T. Hansen Departamento de Mineralogía y Petrología Department of Isotope Geology Universidad de Granada University of Göttingen Fuentenueva s/n Goldschmidtstr. 3 18002 Granada 37077 Göttingen Spain Germany [email protected] [email protected]

Georges E. Gorin Amber K. Hardison Department of Geology-Paleontology College of William and Mary University of Geneva Virginia Institute of Marine Science 13 rue des Maraîchers P.O. Box 1346 1205 Geneva Gloucester Point, VA 23062 Switzerland USA [email protected] [email protected]

Dmitriy Grazhdankin Division of Precambrian and Cambrian Paleontology and Christine Heim Stratigraphy Geobiology Group Russian Academy of Sciences Geoscience Centre Prospekt Akademika Koptyga 3 University of Göttingen Novosibirsk 630090 Goldschmidtstr. 3 Russia 37077 Göttingen [email protected] Germany [email protected]

Kliti Grice WA Organic and Isotope Geochemistry Centre Jochen Hoefs Department of Applied Chemistry Department of Isotope Geology Curtin University of Technology University of Göttingen Perth, WA 6845 Goldschmidtstr. 1 Australia 37077 Göttingen [email protected] Germany [email protected]

Alexander Grunau Department of Microbiology Tori M. Hoehler Institute of Plant Biology Exobiology Branch University of Zurich NASA-Ames Research Center Winterthurerstrasse 190 Mail Stop 239-4 8057 Zurich Moffett Field, CA 94035 Switzerland USA [email protected] [email protected] xviii CONTRIBUTORS

Paul F. Hoffman Robert G. Jenkins Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences Faculty of Education and Human Sciences Harvard University Yokohama National University Cambridge, MA 79-1 Tokiwadai USA Hodogaya-ku [email protected] Yokohama City 240-8501 Japan [email protected] Friederike Hoffmann Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology Sören Jensen 5008 Bergen Area de Paleontología Norway Universidad de Extremadura [email protected] 06006 Badajoz Spain [email protected] Veit-Enno Hoffmann Department of Sedimentology Concepción Jimenez-Lopez and Environmental Geology Departamento de Mineralogía y Petrología University of Göttingen Universidad de Granada 37077 Göttingen Fuentenueva s/n Germany 18002 Granada [email protected] Spain [email protected] Beda A. Hofmann Brian Jones Earth Science Department Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Natural History Museum Bern University of Alberta Bernastrasse 15 1-26 Earth Sciences Building 3005 Bern Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E3 Switzerland Canada [email protected] [email protected]

Vanessa V. Homann Akihiro Kano Department of Chemistry Department of Evolution of the Earth and the University of California Environment Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9510 Graduate School of Social and Cultural Studies USA Kyushu University [email protected] Fukuoka 819-0395 Japan [email protected] Michael Hoppert Institut für Mikrobiologie und Genetik Andreas Kappler University of Göttingen Geomicrobiology Group Grisebachstraße 8 Center for Applied Geoscience 37077 Göttingen University of Tübingen Germany Sigwartstrasse 10 [email protected] 72072 Tübingen Germany [email protected] Daniel J. Jackson Courant Research Centre Geobiology Sabine Kasten University of Göttingen Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research Goldschmidtstr. 3 Am Handelshafen 12 37077 Göttingen 27570 Bremerhaven Germany Germany [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xix

Jozef Kazmierczak Erika Kothe Institute of Paleobiology Institute of Microbiology Polish Academy of Sciences Friedrich Schiller University Jena ul. Twarda 51/55 Neugasse 25 00-818 Warszawa 07743 Jena Poland Germany [email protected] [email protected]

Stephan Kempe Stephan M. Kraemer Department of Physical Geology and Global Cycles Department of Environmental Geosciences Institute for Applied Geosciences University of Vienna University of Technology 1090 Vienna Schnittspahnstr. 9 Austria 64287 Darmstadt [email protected] Germany [email protected] Martin Krüger Paul A. Kenward Geomicrobiology Department of Geology Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources University of Kansas Stilleweg 2 Lawrence, KS 66045-7613 30655 Hannover USA Germany [email protected] [email protected]

Steffen Kiel Kirsten Küsel Geoscience Center Institute of Ecology Geobiology Group Friedrich Schiller University Jena University of Göttingen 07743 Jena Goldschmidtstr. 3 Germany 37077 Göttingen [email protected] Germany [email protected] Matthias Labrenz IOW-Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research L. Paul Knauth Section Biology Arizona State University Seestrasse 15 Box 871404 18119 Rostock-Warnemuende Tempe, AZ 85287-1404 Germany USA [email protected] [email protected]

Katrin Knittel Jukka Lausmaa Department of Molecular Ecology SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology Chemistry and Materials Technology Celsiusstrasse 1 Box 857, SE-501 15 Borås 28359 Bremen Sweden Germany [email protected] [email protected] Natuschka M. Lee Kurt O. Konhauser Department of Microbiology Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Technical University of Munich University of Alberta Emil-Ramann-Str. 4 Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E3 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan Canada Germany [email protected] [email protected] xx CONTRIBUTORS

Guoxiang Li Joseph G. Meert State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology Geological Sciences and Stratigraphy University of Florida Chinese Academy of Sciences 274 Williamson Hall 210008 Nanjing Gainesville, FL China USA [email protected] [email protected]; [email protected]

Zheng-Xiang Li Daniela B. Meisinger Department of Applied Geology Department of Microbiology Curtin University of Technology Technical University of Munich GPO Box U1987 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan Perth, WA 6845 Germany Australia [email protected] [email protected] Kathrin I. Mohr Volker Liebetrau Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute for Plant Sciences Leibniz Institute of Marine Sciences University of Göttingen IFM-GEOMAR Untere Karspüle 2 Research Division 2: Marine Biogeochemistry 37073 Göttingen Wischhofstr. 1-3 Germany 24148 Kiel and Germany Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research [email protected] Braunschweig Germany [email protected] Wolfgang Liebl Department of Microbiology D. Kirk Nordstrom Technische Universität München U.S. Geological Survey Emil-Ramann-Str. 4 3215 Marine St. 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan Boulder, CO 80303 Germany USA [email protected] [email protected]

Carol D. Litchfield Ronald S. Oremland Department of Environmental Science & Policy Water Resources Division, MS 480 George Mason University United States Geological Survey 10900 University Boulevard 345 Middlefield Road Manassas, VA 20110 Menlo Park, CA 94025 USA USA [email protected] [email protected]

Frank E. Löffler Wolfgang Oschmann Department of Microbiology and Geologie and Paläontologie Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of Frankfurt University of Tennessee Senckenberganlage 32 Knoxville, TN 37996 60325 Frankfurt USA Germany [email protected] [email protected]

Fred T. Mackenzie Muriel Pacton Department of Oceanography Geological Institute School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology ETH Zurich University of Hawaii Sonneggstrasse 5 Honolulu, HI 96822 8092 Zurich USA Switzerland [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxi

Karsten Pedersen Brian R. Pratt Department of Cell and Molecular Microbiology Department of Geological Sciences Göteborg University University of Saskatchewan Box 462 Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2 405 30 Göteborg Canada Sweden [email protected] [email protected] Nadia-Valérie Quéric Randall S. Perry Geobiology Group Department of Earth Science and Engineering Geoscience Center Imperial College University of Göttingen London Goldschmidtstr. 3 UK 37077 Göttingen [email protected] Germany [email protected] Steven T. Petsch Department of Geosciences Gudrun Radtke University of Massachusetts Amherst Hessisches Landesamt für Umwelt und Geologie Amherst, MA 01003 Rheingaustr. 186 USA 65203 Wiesbaden [email protected] Germany [email protected] Thomas Pommier Microbial Ecology Centre Eugenio Ragazzi UMR 5557 CNRS-Université Lyon 1; USC 1193 INRA Department of Pharmacology and Anaesthesiology CNRS-Université lyon University of Padova 43 bd du 11 November 1918 35131 Padova 69622 Villeurbanne Italy France [email protected] [email protected]

Hubertus Porada Kristina Rathsack Geoscience Centre Geobiology Group University of Göttingen Geoscience Center Goldschmidtstr. 3 University of Göttingen 37077 Göttingen Goldschmidtstr. 3 Germany 37077 Göttingen [email protected] Germany [email protected] Mihály Pósfai Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Douglas Eric Rawlings University of Pannonia Department of Microbiology P.O. Box 158 University of Stellenbosch 8200 Veszprém Private Bag X1 Hungary Matieland 7602 [email protected] South Africa [email protected] Nicole R. Posth Geomicrobiology Group R. Pamela Reid Center for Applied Geoscience Marine Geology and Geophysics – RSMAS University of Tübingen University of Miami Sigwartstrasse 10 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway 72072 Tübingen Miami, FL 33149 Germany USA [email protected] [email protected] xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Andreas Reimer Jennifer A. Roberts Geobiology Group Department of Geology Geoscience Center University of Kansas University of Göttingen Lawrence, KS 66045-7613 Goldschmidtstr. 3 USA 37077 Göttingen [email protected] Germany [email protected] Manuel Rodriguez-Gallego Departamento de Mineralogía y Petrología Joachim Reitner Universidad de Granada Geobiology Group Fuentenueva s/n Geoscience Center 18002 Granada University of Göttingen Spain Goldschmidtstr. 3 [email protected] 37077 Göttingen Germany [email protected] Marta Rodríguez-Martínez Departamento de Geología Robin W. Renaut Facultad de Biología Department of Geological Sciences Universidad de Alcalá University of Saskatchewan 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2 Spain Canada [email protected] [email protected] Carlos Rodriguez-Navarro Anna-Louise Reysenbach Departamento de Mineralogía y Petrología Department of Biology Universidad de Granada Portland State University Fuentenueva s/n 246 Science Building 2 18002 Granada 1719 SW 10th Avenue Spain Portland, OR 97207 [email protected] USA [email protected] Michael Rothballer Department Microbe-Plant Interactions Robert Riding Helmholtz Zentrum München Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences German Research Center for Environmental University of Tennessee Health (GmbH) 1412 Circle Drive 85764 Neuherberg Knoxville, TN 37996 Germany USA [email protected] [email protected]

Kathrin Riedel Michael J. Russell Department of Microbiology Planetary Science & Life Detection Institute of Plant Biology Jet Propulsion Laboratory University of Zurich California Institute of Technology Winterthurerstrasse 190 4800 Oak Grove Drive 8057 Zurich Pasadena, CA 91109-8099 Switzerland USA [email protected] [email protected]

Elizaveta M. Rivkina Jürgen Schieber Institute of Physicochemical & Biological Problems in Department of Geological Sciences Soil Science Indiana University Russian Academy of Sciences 1001 E 10th Str Pushchino Bloomington, IN 47405-1405 Russia USA [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Bernhard Schink Mark A. Sephton Department of Biology Department of Earth Science and Engineering University of Konstanz Imperial College London Konstanz London SW7 2AZ Germany UK [email protected] [email protected]

Silke Severmann Marie-Lise Schläppy Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences and Department Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology of Earth and Planetary Sciences Bremen Rutgers University Germany 71 Dudley Road [email protected] New Brunswick, NJ USA [email protected] Michael Schmid Department Microbe-Plant Interactions Helmholtz Zentrum München Meinhard Simon German Research Center for Environmental Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Health (GmbH) Environment 85764 Neuherberg University of Oldenburg Germany 26111 Oldenburg [email protected] Germany [email protected]

Alexander R. Schmidt Peter Sjövall Courant Research, Centre Geobiology SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden University of Göttingen Chemistry and Materials Technology Goldschmidtstr. 3 Borås 37077 Göttingen Sweden Germany [email protected] [email protected] Helga Stan-Lotter Division of Molecular Biology Kerstin Schmidt Department of Microbiology Institut für Ökologie University of Salzburg Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Billrothstr. 11 Dornburger Str. 159 5020 Salzburg 07743 Jena Austria Germany [email protected] [email protected] John F. Stolz Carsten J. Schubert Bayer School of Natural & Environmental Sciences Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science Department of Biological Sciences and Technology Duquesne University Seestrasse 79 600 Forbes Avenue 6047 Kastanienbaum Pittsburgh, PA 15282 Switzerland USA [email protected] [email protected]

Kristina L. Straub Heide N. Schulz-Vogt Biogeochemie/Umweltgeowissenschaften Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology University of Vienna Celsiusstr. 1 Althanstr. 14 28359 Bremen 1090 Vienna Germany Austria [email protected] [email protected] xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Volker Thiel Lesley A. Warren Geobiology Group School of Geography and Earth Sciences Geoscience Center McMaster University University of Göttingen Hamilton, ON Goldschmidtstr. 3 Canada 37077 Göttingen [email protected] Germany [email protected] Bettina Weber Plant Ecology and Systematics Ingunn H. Thorseth Department of Biology Centre of Geobiology and Department of Earth Science University of Kaiserslautern University of Bergen P.O. Box 3049 Allegaten 41 67653 Kaiserslautern 5007 Bergen Germany Norway [email protected] [email protected] Frances Westall Jan Toporski Centre de Biophysique Moléculaire CNRS Wissenschaftliche Instrumente und Technologie GmbH Université de Orléans Lise-Meitner-Strasse 6 Rue Charles Sadron 89081 Ulm 45071 Orléans Germany France [email protected] [email protected]

Aline Tribollet Frank Wiese Institut de Recherche pour le Développement Courant Research Centre Geobiology BP A5 University of Göttingen 98848 Nouméa, Nouvelle-Calédonie Goldschmidtstr. 3 France 37077 Göttingen [email protected] Germany [email protected] Eric P. Verrecchia Institut de Géologie et Paléontologie Université de Lausanne Gert Wörheide Anthropole Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences 1015 Lausanne Palaeontology and Geobiology Switzerland Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München [email protected] Richard-Wagner-Str. 10 80333 München Germany Pieter T. Visscher [email protected] Center for Integrative Geosciences – Marine Sciences University of Connecticut 354 Mansfield Road Christoph Wrede Storrs, CT 06269-2045 Institut für Mikrobiologie und Genetik USA University of Göttingen [email protected] Göttingen Germany [email protected] Walter Vortisch Prospektion und Angewandte Sedimentologie Department für Angewandte Geowissenschaften und Li Zhang Geophysik Faculty of Earth Sciences Montanuniversität Leoben China University of Geosciences Leoben Wuhan, Hubei 430074 Austria China [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxv

Maoyan Zhu Frank Zielinski State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy Department of Environmental Microbiology Chinese Academy of Sciences Biotrophic Plant-Microbe Interactions 210008 Nanjing Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ) China Permoserstr. 15 [email protected] 04318 Leipzig Germany [email protected]

Preface

Geobiology is a highly cross-disciplinary field that Kenneth Nealson and William Ghiorse collegues pro- explores the present and past relationships that life has vided, in a conceptual review written for the American with non-living matter. “Biosphere meets Geosphere” per- Academy of Microbiology (Nealson et al. 2001), haps most parsimoniously describes the fundamental con- a modern and concise perception of Geobiology as cept of Geobiology. In 1991, Peter Westbroek, a Dutch “Exploring the interface between the Biosphere and the paleontologist and influential protagonist of Geobiology Geosphere”. defined the field in a book entitled “Life as a Geological The interplay between biological and geological pro- Force: Dynamics of the Earth”, thus motivating a new cesses has shaped the Earth and driven the evolution way of thinking in the geosciences. His fundamental work of its biodiversity from the early dawn of life, some on processes of biomineralization in coccolithophorid four billion years ago. Since then, organisms have been algae (Westbroek and de Jong, 1983) greatly contributed responding to a changing global environment and in turn, to the understanding of metabolic processes controlling have themselves altered the chemical and physical settings mineral formation. Westbroek’s thinking was influenced on our planet. Geobiology strives to identify these cause- by James Lovelock’s Gaia concept (Lovelock, 1988) and-effect chains in both modern environments and the which advocated the importance of biological processes geological record. Its goal is to provide, on different with regard to global change over time. Other early pio- time and spatial scales, an ‘organismic’ biological per- neers of the Geobiology concept were the Russian scien- spective on Earth’s environmental evolution (Knoll and tist Georgy Adamovich Nadson (1903), who recognised Hayes, 1997). microorganisms as geological agents, and the Swiss geol- Shifting their focus from traditional morphological ogists Johannes Neher and Ernst Rohrer who discovered studies made by paleontologists, geobiologists continue the role of microbes in dolomite formation (Neher and to develop their ability to relevant chemical and molecular Rohrer 1958) and their presence in the deep biosphere of signatures within living and non-living materials, and to crystalline rocks (Neher and Rohrer 1959). In 1971, the interpret these signatures to better understand the geolog- German geoscientist Gerd Lüttig introduced a new disci- ical record and better predict our course into the future. pline that merged aspects of geology and biology and A key issue in most geobiological studies is the elucida- called it “Lithobiontik”. This was the first time that tion of ancient environmental states, and to understand research on geological and biological interactions the evolution of biological processes and their geological received a well-founded definition: consequences. Meaningful signatures that reveal such pro- “Die Erdgeschichte ist umschreibbar als eine ständige cesses are not limited to visible remains, but also encom- Auseinandersetzung zwischen Gesteinswelt (lithos) und pass for instance, organic molecules, minerals, Lebewelt (bios). Die Gesamtheit der entsprechenden petrofabrics and isotope patterns. Organisms may alter Vorgänge zu erforschen, ist Aufgabe der Lithobiontik, einer their chemical environment, thereby giving rise to the pro- Forschungsrichtung im Grenzgebiet zwischen Geologie und duction or destruction of minerals, rocks, atmospheric Biologie.”—Earth history can be described as a permanent gases and even fossil fuels. An understanding of these pro- interaction between the geosphere (lithos) and life processes (bios). To investigate these processes is the mission of cesses creates enormous potential with respect to issues of Lithobiontics, a new research discipline between Geology environment protection, public health, energy and and Biology. resource management. Geobiological research and xxviii PREFACE education is therefore rapidly growing, with topics becom- Pamela Reid, and Xingliang Zhang, and we wish to ing more common in University and High School curric- express our sincere thanks to them for their invaluable ula. With Geobiology issues including many spectacular support and encouragement. aspects (e.g., early life, deep biosphere, gas hydrates, black smokers etc.), public interest also increases Göttingen, October 2010 concomittantly. The Editors-In-Chief Moving beyond the borders of classical core disci- Joachim Reitner plines, scientists from a broad range of disciplines are Volker Thiel actively involved in geobiological studies. There is no common perception of a ‘typical’ geobiologist, but as an References underlying requirement, scientists need to adapt concepts Knoll, A. H., and Hayes, J. M., 2000. Geobiology: problems and and utilize methodologies from other disciplines to exploit prospects. In Lane, R. H., Steininger, F. F., Kaesler, R. L., the full potential of Geobiology. Fields united under the Ziegler, W., Lipps, J. (eds.), Fossils and the Future - Paleontol- umbrella of geobiology include, but are not limited to: ogy in the 21st Century. Senckenberg-Buch Nr. 74, Frankfurt a. M.: Kramer, pp. 149–153. geology and paleontology, mineralogy, microbiology, Lovelook, J. E., 1988. The Ages of Gaia. New York: Norten. molecular biology, genomics, organic and inorganic geo- Lüttig, G., 1971. Lithobiontik – Aufgabengebiet, Tätigkeiten, chemistry, oceanography, astrobiology and (paleo)ecol- zukünftige Ziele (Lithobiontics – scope, activities, future goals). ogy. This incomplete list provides an impression of the Geol Jb (in German), 89, 575–582. implications of geobiological research, and that the Nadson, G. A., 1903. Microorganismi kak geologitsheskie dieiatieli super-discipline of Geobiology is ‘greater than the sum (Microorganisms as geological agents). I. Tr. Komisii Isslect. of its parts’ (Nealson et al. 2001). Min. Vodg. Slavyanska (in Russian), St. Petersburg, 1–98. Nealson, K., Ghiorse, W. A., Strauss, E., 2001. Geobiology: Explor- The Encyclopedia of Geobiology was compiled to pro- ing the Interface Between the Biosphere and the Geosphere. vide clear explanations of current geobiological topics. It Washington, D.C., American Academy of Microbiology, is not structured as a student textbook, but rather to quickly 16 p.; available online at: http://academy.asm.org/index.php/ access particular terms and concepts in self-contained colloquia-reports/browse-all/227-geobiology-exploring-the- entries. We hope that this volume will also tempt the casual interface-between-the-biosphere-and-the-geophete-2001-b. reader to browse and become curious about the different Neher, J., and Rohrer, E., 1958. Dolomitbildung unter Mitwirkung facettes and foci of Geobiology - following the philosophy von Bakterien (Dolomite formation involving bacteria). Eclogae Geol Helv (in German), 51, 213–215. of the late Founding Series Editor, Rhodes Fairbridge, we Neher, J., and Rohrer, E., 1959. Bakterien in tieferliegenden will be most content if an original discovery may emerge Gesteinslagen (Bacteria in deeper rock layers). Eclogae Geol from perusing a variety of entries. Helv (in German), 52, 619–625. We are thankful to our authors, both distinguished ‘old Westbroek, P., 1991. Life as a Geological Force – Dynamics of the hands’ and young researchers from five continents, who Earth. New York: W.W.N. Norten. Westbroek, P., 1983. Biological metal accumulation and biominer- have synthesized the particular subdisciplines for this vol- alization in a geological perspectives. In Westbroek P. and de ume. The preparation of this book was greatly aided by the Jong, W. E. (eds.), Biological Metal Accumulation and Biomin- input we received from our Editorial Board members eralization in a Geological Perspective, Dordrecht: Reidel, Hans-Joachim Fritz, Andreas Kappler, Kurt Konhauser, pp. 1–11.