Illuminare: A Student Journal in Recreation, Parks, and Leisure Studies

The Use of in Leisure and its Negative Effects

Rebecca Dick

Concordia University

Online Publication Date: June 13, 2016

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Volume 14, Issue 1, pages 1-9, 2016 ISSN: 2158-9070 online Indiana University, Department of Recreation, Park, and Studies

The Use of Elephants in Leisure and its Negative Effects

Rebecca Dick Applied Human Sciences Concordia University 1455 De Maisonneuve Blvd. W., Montreal Québec H3G 1M8 Canada

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to both outline the negative effects of the use of elephants for human , and to criticize leisure pursuits such as , , consumption, hunting and treks. Zoos provide little resources and living spaces to their captive elephants, leading to an array of diseases and disorders including impaired reproductive systems in females. Trophy hunting and ivory poaching diminish the already endangered species for the sake of it, while circuses make use of harmful instruments to obtain elephants’ compliance. Tourism industries benefit from the power of elephants by offering elephant trekking experiences and causing to them. This paper takes a critical stance on the use of elephants for human entertainment as being unproductive and harmful by applying leisure-related theories from Veblen (1899) and Rojek (2010).

______Keywords: recreation; leisure; sport; entertainment; tourism; elephant; unproductive leisure; ivory; trophy hunting; ; poaching; ; trekking; conservation

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Elephants, the largest remaining land animals on The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that the Earth ("Elephant," 2009), are widely known and admired for cruel and abusive use of elephants in unproductive leisure, their impeccable and unmatched size. Ranging particularly sport, entertainment, and tourism, is a strong from 6,000-15,000 pounds in adulthood, these mammals contributing factor to their diminishing population, now thrive by family bonds and possess the intellectual ability to threatened by extinction. Unproductive leisure, throughout understand death and feel basic emotions such as , joy, this paper, will refer to those leisure pursuits which are sadness, and anxiety ("Basic Facts," n.d.; Bradshaw, 2004) harmful to elephants, while its contrary term will be referred According to Dame Daphne Sheldrick, conservationist at the to as productive leisure (Veblen, 1899). Beginning with an David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust, elephants have the capacity analytical look at elephants held in zoos, this paper explores to exhibit behaviours similar to those of humans including trophy hunting and ivory poaching before turning a critical competitiveness and a sense of humour. They also exude eye on circus elephants and the ethics behind trekking individual characteristics such as being adventurous, experiences. This paper highlights how each of these outgoing, shy, or even possessing a tendency to bully others practices contributes to population decline. A breakdown of (Ruck, n.d.). the reasons that these primary uses of elephants do not qualify as productive leisure, as per Veblen's 'leisure Being such a unique and majestic species, humans class' (1899) and Rojek's (2010) views on leisure as freedom seem to have taken a liking to elephants and developed a use are then presented. for them in personal leisure with the impression of having little to no regard of the consequences to elephants (Duffy & Elephants in Zoos Moore, 2011). The selfishness of people to use the elephants' Zoos are relatively commonplace; it can be assumed intelligence and size to humans' advantage has led to a that most middle-class individuals have visited a zoo at least worldwide elephant population crisis, with about 20,000 held once in their lifetime. According to the Association of Zoos in ("Elephants in Captivity," 2015). This number and Aquariums, zoos play host to over 181 million visitors combines both elephants held in zoos and those used in annually, which is "more visitors than NFL, NBA, NHL, and circus performances; thirteen of which are currently MLB annual attendance combined" ("Visitor travelling through the U.S. with the Ringling Brothers’ and Demographics," n.d.). Many, but not all, zoos are accredited Barnum & Bailey Circus ("Circus Elephants", 2015). by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), which Additionally, illegal ivory poaching alone wiped out over enforces standards of care and follow-up with zoos (Berens, 100,000 African elephants between 2010 and 2013 (Scriber, 2013). For example, the AZA requires that indoor enclosures 2014). The is one of the two overarching for elephants be a minimum of 20x20 feet and outdoor species of elephants, along with Asian elephants ("Species: enclosures must be at least 40x45 feet ("Get Elephants Out," Elephant," n.d.). Each species, containing two or more n.d.). These inhumane living spaces for elephants are one of subspecies, faces its own set of threats to the population many things approved by the AZA that animal rights groups, ("Species: Elephant," n.d.). The African elephant is primarily such as Captive Animals' Protection Society (CAPS) and threatened by trophy hunting and ivory poaching, while the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) are is principally threatened by the potential to be against ("Get Elephants Out," n.d.; "Zoos Are Jails," 2016). captured for use in the tourism industry ("Species: Elephant," The indoor enclosures, signed off by the AZA, are primarily n.d.). The aforementioned represent only the largely used overnight or for zoos located in a cold climate and are dominant threats to the populations and each species can face made up of concrete flooring; a leading factor of foot interchangeable threats ("Species: Elephant," n.d.). In 2006, commonly developed by elephants in captivity (Cohn, 2006). less than 500,000 African elephants were said to remain in The limited size of these facilities severely impedes the the wild, while no more than 50,000 wild Asian elephants elephants' active nature; elephants in the wild often travel up were reported (Cohn, 2006). This paper will consider both to fifty miles in one day (Cohn, 2006). The AZA also allows the African and Asian species and, unless specified, will for the beating of elephants by use of hooks, whips, and refer to the elephant population as a whole. wood when they 'misbehave' ("Get Elephants Out," n.d.); the

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Oregon Zoo is authorized to offer "elephant car washes," enhance the living conditions of those living out the whereby the elephants use their trunks to sponge down and remainder of their time in sanctuaries (Cohn, 2006). spray water on visitors' cars, while another zoo in California Trophy Hunting and Ivory Poaching of Elephants still offers elephant rides (Berens, 2013). Trophy hunting and ivory poaching has been ranked The majority of the 20,000 elephants in captivity as the number one threat to elephants, particularly African worldwide ("Elephants in Captivity," 2015) were taken from elephants, and is a major contributing factor leading the wild; this is because the efforts to breed elephants already elephants towards extinction (Maisels, Strindber, Blake, in captivity are repeatedly failing (Kumar, Reddy, Wittemyer, Hart, Williamson, ... Warren, 2013). The biggest Kokkiligadda, Shivaji, and Umapathy, 2014). Less than difference between trophy hunting and ivory poaching comes twenty percent of Asian elephants and ten percent of African down to legality, which can be heavily influenced by money elephants that are within the reproductive age in North (Tan, 2015). To kill an elephant in the wild, be it by spear, American zoos have actually given birth (Kumar et al., snare, shot, or poison ("Elephant Crisis Fund," n.d.) is 2014). Fertility in female captive elephants has proven to be considered poaching, which is an illegal act. However, with a a significant issue for zoo keepers. Out of 75 North American considerable amount of money one can obtain a hunting zoos studied, only one third of the female elephants permit, thus transforming an illegal act into a form of an demonstrated a normal ovarian cycle allowing for accepted and legal leisure activity called trophy hunting (Tan, reproduction (Carlstead, Mench, Meehan, & Brown, 2013). 2015). Despite its repeated denial, the records of a zoo in Seattle show that the zoo attempted to artificially inseminate a Collecting trophies from one’s hunt is a common twelve year old elephant over 112 times, through what were practice among avid trophy hunters, with 15,518 African referred to as "crude, experimental [and] invasive" methods elephants being imported worldwide between 2003 and 2013 (Berens, 2013, p. 23). Elephants in U.S. zoos are dying faster (Tan, 2015). Of this amount; 7,500 can be accounted for by than they are being born and will be "demographically the U.S. alone (Tan, 2015). Additionally, the money involved extinct within the next 50 years because there will be too few in trophy hunting is substantial. In 2012, South alone fertile females left to breed" (Berens, 2013, p. 23). had a gross revenue of over one million U.S. dollars from elephant trophy hunters (Di Minin, Leader-Williams, & Despite the AZA's constant insistence that their Bradshaw, 2016). A hunting company in Zimbabwe, African captive elephants are a part of conservation efforts, elephants Sky Hunting, offers 10-day elephant hunting packages worth in zoos are soon to "face a 'captive extinction' within a few $14,600 per hunter, and an additional $3,800 to observe the decades as death rates exceed birth rates" (Carlstead et al., hunt (Tan, 2015), contributing to the elephant-hunting 2013, p. 325). These death rates can be related to the mal- industry’s generating of $14 million a year (Greenberg, adaptation of elephants from the wild and overall stress, 2015). which is clearly exhibited through a mental disease suffered by animals in confinement called "zoochosis" ("Elephant," Although organizations within the trophy hunting 2009; O'Connor, 2015). Zoochosis is demonstrated by the industry proclaim that a sufficient amount of money from big elephant's frequent swaying of their head and trunk -game hunters goes towards conservation efforts, this is not ("Elephant," 2009; O'Connor, 2015). The elephant virus, always the case (Baker, 1997; Tan, 2015). Evidence suggests Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus, which researchers that the money often ends up in the hands of corrupt are still attempting to understand, is another cause of many government officials rather than conservation organizations elephant deaths in zoos (Berens, 2013). The millions of or the local communities (Baker, 1997; Tan, 2015). In 2008 dollars spent by zoos in an effort to provide the elephants in Tanzania, only 22% of the revenue from trophy-hunting with "better" living conditions and to increase their welfare in went towards conservation efforts (Di Minin et al., 2016). the zoo would be best placed in true conservation efforts. For a successful relationship between trophy hunting and These efforts will either protect elephants in the wild or conservation, the money must be returned to the local

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communities who have a stake in the protection of the exceeding the number of elephant births, leading to eventual wildlife in those areas and will implement conservational extinction (Scriber, 2014). practices (Baker, 1997; Di Minin et al., 2016; Tan, 2015). For example, a significant portion of revenues from trophy Circus Elephants hunting in Namibia are absorbed by the community, which Elephants were first introduced into the British has led to a local commitment to wildlife preservation and circus in the early 1830s (Mosier, 1999). In 1850 elephants an overall increase in wildlife (Di Minin et al., 2016). became a part of American circuses and, within twenty More than 33,000 elephants are illegally poached years, had become the emblem to the industry (Mosier, annually in Africa as an effort to use their ivory for items 1999). Training elephants to learn the intricate performances such as piano keys, cell phone cases, billiard balls, figurines, often requires abusive techniques, such as whips, electric and jewellery ("Elephant Crisis Fund," n.d.; Gao & Clark, prods, and, most prominently, bull hooks (Nelson, 2011). 2014). Since 2007, the desire for ivory has increased more Bull hooks are three feet in length and have a hook and a than twofold, which naturally creates a spike in the number sharp point, similar to a fireplace poker, that are both sharp of elephants killed for their tusks, despite the ivory enough to penetrate an elephant's hide (Nelson, 2011). More industry's ban in the 1980s (Bennett, 2014). Ivory specifically, the point is used to inflict pain by poking, and symbolizes status and money, particularly in China, and the hook is jabbed, usually, into the mouth and ear to pull the therefore comes at immense costs ("Elephant Crisis Fund," elephants (Nelson, 2011). Horrific videos can be found n.d.; Gao et al., 2014). Ivory can range anywhere from $800 online by searching "circus elephant cruelty," showing the -$60,000 U.S. dollars for a mere ten kilograms depending use of bull hooks and the elephants' agonizing reaction to on where it is sold and the shape that it takes ("Elephant them (PETA [People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals], Slaughter," 2013). Raw ivory, directly from an elephant's 2009). face, is sold at a cheaper price by hunters or poachers to Circus elephants are tied up with spiked chains vendors, and then sold as a carved piece from vendor to (Beverage, 2010) and put into train boxcars, up to five consumer (Ammann, 2012). Other parts of the elephants elephants in one, for up to 120 hours at a time with little to that are used include hair for bracelets; ears for drums; and no rest-stops (Nelson, 2011). Even the retired and non- meat for consumption (Ammann, 2012). working elephants at the "Ringling Brothers' Conservation The recent decline in wild elephant populations is Center" spend upwards of sixteen hours per day chained up staggering and is primarily due to ivory poaching. African (Beverage, 2010). The lack of ability to rest has contributed Savannah elephants, an African elephant subspecies most to nearly every single circus elephant having foot problems often killed for their ivory, declined in population by 76 or musculoskeletal disorders (Nelson, 2011). percent between 1985 and 2010 (Bennett, 2014), and less Similarly, when a female circus elephant gives than 7,000 of these elephants remained in a 2011 study birth, the calf is immediately removed from the mother by (Maisels et al., 2013). It is important to note that this ropes while the mother is chained (Beverage, 2010). number was taken before a mass hunt, killing hundreds of Considering that elephants develop and flourish in a African elephants in a few short months in 2012; thus matriarchal society, have great abilities to suffer loss, and reducing the aforementioned numbers even more (Maisels et experience trauma; this separation at birth can cause physical al., 2013). The population of forest elephants, another and psychological pain to both the mother and the calf subspecies of African elephants affected by poaching, has (Bradshaw, Schore, Brown, Poole, & Moss, 2005). This decreased by 62 percent between 2002 and 2011 (Bennett, early removal of baby elephants from their mothers is linked 2014). An elephant is killed every 15 seconds in Africa, to a shorter life span for captive elephants (Carlstead et al., equating to a total of 96 elephants killed each day 2013). Elephants in captivity live, on average, 40 years, ("Antipoaching," n.d.; "Elephant Crisis Fund," n.d.; while those in the wild live an average of 70, and some 80 "Elephant Slaughter," 2013). The number of killings are years (Cohn, 2006). Regardless of captivity types (circuses,

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conservation centers), statistics show that two elephants die Unproductive Leisure for every elephant born in captivity in the U.S. (Berens, 2013), which will lead to extinction if practices continue. The above examples about how elephants are used for leisure demonstrate human involvement towards their Elephant Trekking decreased population. Veblen's theory, "the leisure class," The use of elephants in the tourism industry is not and its common view of leisure as freedom would classify unique to zoos nor to circuses (Shani & Pizam, 2008). these practices as unproductive leisure, including Elephant treks, or rides, are another major contributor to the unnecessary expenditure of money and time (Veblen, 1899). tourism industry, particularly in areas of Africa and , The leisure class is a group of individuals who engage in namely Botswana and Thailand (Duffy et al., 2011; "conspicuous consumption" and "conspicuous leisure." Edelman, 2011). The Asian elephants involved in trekking Conspicuous consumption, the unproductive consumption of in Thailand go through a traditional training practice, which desirable items, which at the time of the theory consisted includes isolation, physical abuse, and starvation (Duffy et mainly of silverware, divine food, and alcohol, is honourable al., 2011; Edelman, 2011). More specifically, in Thailand within the leisure class, to whom life's luxuries belong two thirds of the country's elephants are captive and (Veblen, 1899). Modern day examples of conspicuous working (Duffy et al., 2011; Kontogeorgopoulos, 2009). In consumption can include items such as vehicles, crystal South Africa, there was a 25% increase in the number of glassware, sparkling water, and electronics (Currid-Halkett, elephants held captive for trekking in the tourism industry 2013). between 2005 and 2007 (Duffy et al., 2011). The camps In the case of elephants, this can be related to the promoting elephant treks in Phuket can charge up to $60 popularity of ivory and its transformation into collectables in U.S. per hour to visitors ("5 Best," 2013), and advertise the China ("Elephant Crisis Fund," n.d.; Gao et al., 2014). experience as a more natural way of observing elephants Possessing ivory can symbolize status and wealth to middle than watching them from afar (Duffy et al., 2011). and high-class individuals ("Elephant Crisis Fund," n.d.; Gao The trainers and operators of elephant trek et al., 2014). This consumption can be considered experiences often lack the knowledge and resources to conspicuous with the sole purpose to show wealth and status properly, securely, and ethically train and accommodate the through its unproductive and unnecessary functions, such as elephants (Duffy et al., 2011). A deficiency in the hairpins, figurines, and phone cases ("Elephant Crisis Fund," regulations of trekking practices in the tourism industry n.d.; Gao et al., 2014). The recent increase in ivory demand exists, leading to relatively free reign on the treatment and can further be explained as the "failure to consume in due management of working elephants (Duffy et al., 2011; quantity and quality becomes a mark of inferiority and Kontogeorgopoulos, 2009). Profitability of the elephant demerits" (Veblen, 1899, p. 36). This could influence leisure trekking industry results in the unethical practices and class individuals to consume more ivory to gain a higher disregard for elephants' wellbeing (Duffy et al., 2011). social status. Elephants working in the tourism industry, particularly The preservation of parts of an animal as a "trophy" trekking, depict increased levels of stress on days they to be displayed, usually in one's home (Tan, 2015), can be would interact with humans (Millspaugh, Burke, Van Dyk, considered a form of conspicuous consumption and leisure. Slotow, Washburn, & Woods, 2007). The distress The practice of trophy hunting is not a necessary one, and its experienced by working elephants can cause death and immense costs suggest exclusivity to those who can afford injuries to trainers and elephants, and potentially the tourists the luxury of going to Africa and bringing back their (Duffy et al., 2011). Common injuries to elephants include "trophy" (Tan, 2015). Tan (2015) describes individuals who spinal issues from the weight they carry daily, blisters on engage in trophy hunting as "men from a wealthier subset their backs from the attached seat, and foot injuries or [...] who pay up to tens of thousands of dollars." This infections (Edelman, 2011; Kontogeorgopoulos, 2009). conspicuous consumption of a wealthier leisure class can

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further increase the divide between classes and, more ways to help can increase revenues for improvements at the importantly, contribute to the extinction of elephants. conservation sites. Similarly, the concept of leisure as "free-time" and Globalization of standards for elephant trekking "freedom" to an individual in Rojek (2010) helps provide would not be sustainable, as each country offering the insight into the noted use of elephants in leisure practices. experience has a variety of unique consequences with bans To Rojek (2010), people are intoxicated by the idea that or restrictions (Duffy et al., 2011). The working elephants individuals are free to do as they please in their leisure, as lack the ability to adapt, making them difficult to reintegrate long as it does not impede on the freedom and pleasure of into the wild (Duffy et al., 2011). This further limits the others. This notion of 'freedom without affecting the banning of the practices. However, phasing out the practice freedom of others' should also be applicable to animals over time is recommended. A shift in focus on standards (Singer, 1989). More specifically, anything that can geared towards improving the conditions, financial distinguish between pleasure and pain or feel sufferance, sustainability, and number of sanctuaries for the working namely all sentient beings, deserve equal consideration elephants is recommended. This shift will allow the gradual (Singer, 1989). phasing out of the practice and re-wilding of working Elephants' immense capacity to experience pain, elephants. Retiring working elephants gradually, rather than happiness, and trauma, can also suggest experiences of suddenly, can thus eliminate the potential harm to the suffering ("Basic Facts," n.d.; Bradshaw, 2004). In trophy elephants and the surrounding communities. hunting, zoos, circuses, and trekking, elephants are usually Future Research the means to an end (Singer, 1989). Using elephants in such a manner is an impediment of their freedom as sentient The welfare of elephants and state of their beings (Singer, 1989). To Rojek (2010) this practice would population will not change without active initiatives and be considered unviable and unproductive. In particular, it awareness. As demonstrated in the previous section, for could be described as an individual's play being based upon leisure service providers, it is imperative to ensure that any an elephant's pain and suffering (Rojek, 2010). Evidence of use of elephants as entertainment, sport or leisure is ethical the elephants' pain and suffering is provided throughout this and does not cause any further harm to their population. paper, as training practices, matriarchal structures, living Regulations in Zoos to certify that adequate space, nutrition conditions, and states of distress are presented and and medical assistance is offered to elephants can greatly considered. contribute to improving their wellbeing. Evidence based research on negative effects of elephants' use in leisure can Practical Implications inform policy makers, such as the AZA, and lead to change. Major steps have been made in the direction of More research to determine the distribution of banning elephants from circus performances, most recently revenues from trophy hunting is needed. Encouraging the in the Ringling Brothers' and Barnum & Bailey Circus distribution of revenues to the local communities where ("Circus Elephants," 2015). Policies and regulations for the animals are hunted will provide locals with incentives to ethical treatment of circus elephants must be firmly contribute to conservation (Baker, 1997; Di Minin et al., enforced, while awareness regarding the unethical treatment 2016). For every ten percent given to local communities and of a number of circus elephants should continually be conservation efforts, trophy hunters are willing to pay an raised. Leisure providers must monitor the whereabouts and extra $3900 for their hunting permits (Fischer, Weldesemaet, conditions of retired circus elephants to ensure their Czajkowski, Tadie, & Hanley, 2015). Trophy hunting has the freedom from abusive, controlling environments. Providing potential to contribute to conservation if animal quotas are tourists with ethical viewing of the elephants, information properly estimated, regulations are strictly enforced and about their painful and abusive upbringings, and indicating hunting companies are transparent with their funds (Baker, 1997). Not only do leisure professionals need to ensure

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trophy hunting practices are well monitored and not References destructive, trophy hunters' awareness of the elephant 5 best elephant trekking camps in Phuket: Where to ride an population's status, the hunting company's credentials, and elephant in Phuket. (n.d.). Retrieved (2016, May 10) where their money is going may have a significant impact. from http://www.phuket.com/phuket-magazine/ phuket-elephant-trekking-camps.htm As for illegal poaching to obtain ivory, more About AZA. (2014). Retrieved (2015, October 1) from research should be done to determine the strengths and https://www.aza.org/about-aza/ weaknesses of the existing regulations and monitoring Ammann, K. (2012). Eating elephants. Conservation, 46-50. practices in Africa. Awareness of the problems associated Antipoaching. (n.d.). Retrieved (2015, October 1) from with ivory consumption should be provided, particularly in https://www.sheldrickwildlifetrust.org/desnaring/ index_new.asp China. Research on the feasibility of ivory poaching and the Baker, J. E. (1997). Trophy hunting as a sustainable use of possible courses of action is needed. Finally, future research wildlife resources in southern and eastern Africa. should address the profitability and ethicality of sanctuaries Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 5(4): 306-321. for retired elephants. Basic facts about elephants. (n.d.). Retrieved (2015, October 1) from http://www.defenders.org/elephant/basic- Conclusion facts Bennett, E. I. (2014). Legal ivory trade in a corrupt world In conclusion, the elephants that humans use as a and its impact on African elephant populations. means in leisure practices are mistreated and often abused. Conservation Biology, 29(1): 54-60. The death rates within the confining walls of zoos are Berens, M. J. (2013). Big business: Zoos prize baby increasing while the birth rates are decreasing. Trophy elephants but at what cost? The Seattle Times: 23- hunting of elephants is highly popular among a selection of 25. wealthy individuals; however its lack of sufficient Beverage, E. A. (2010). Abuse under the big top: Seeking legal protection for circus elephants after ASPCA v. regulation provides little reconciliation to the elephant Ringling Brothers. Vanderbilt Journal of population. Illegal ivory poaching continues to increase with Entertainment & Technology Law, 13(1): 155-184. the heightened demand in cultures where it represents status. Bradshaw, I. G. A. (2004). Not by bread alone: Symbolic Circuses do not provide relief from cruelty as elephants are loss, trauma, and recovery in elephant communities. frequently chained up and abused with bull hooks, resulting Society and Animals, 12(2): 143-158. Bradshaw, G. A., Schore, A. N., Brown, J.L., Poole, J.H., & in a shortened lifespan. Elephant trekking in the tourism Moss, C.J. (2005). Elephant breakdown. Nature, industry focuses heavily on profit rather than elephants' 433, 807. welfare, causing unjustified stress to working elephants. The Carlstead, K., Mench, J. A., Meehan, C., & Brown, J.L. conspicuous consumption of ivory and "trophies" is highly (2013). An epidemiological approach to welfare unproductive, impeding on freedom and supporting elephant research in zoos: The elephant welfare project. Journal of Applied Science, 16: 319 captivity. -337. The use of elephants in leisure serves no true and Circus elephants off the hook (2015). Earth Island Journal, absolute necessary benefit to humans and causes undue 30(2): 6. Cohn, J. P. (2009). Do elephants belong in zoos? BioScience, harm and suffering to elephants. The cruel and abusive use 56(9): 714-717. of elephants in unproductive leisure, such as trophy hunting, Currid-Halkett, E. (2013, November 9). The 21st century entertainment (e.g. zoos, circuses), ivory consumption, and silver spoon. The New Y ork Times. Retrieved elephant trekking is a strong contributing factor to their (2016, March 6) from http:// diminishing population now threatened by extinction. opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/11/09/the-21st -century-silver-spoon/?_r=1 Raising awareness on the status of the elephant population Di Minin, E., Leader-Williams, N., & Bradshaw, C.J.A. and the causes of its decline, with a more ethical and (2016). Banning trophy hunting will exacerbate educational approach for elephants in the tourism industry biodiversity loss. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, who are incapable of re-integration, is crucial. 31(2): 99-102.

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Duffy, R., & Moore, L. (2011). Global regulations and local transportation and safari adventures. Journal of practices: The politics and governance of animal Wildlife Management, 71(4): 1257-1260. welfare in elephant tourism. Journal of Sustainable Nelson, D. (2011, November/December). The cruelest show Tourism, 19(4-5): 589-604. on earth. Mother Jones, 48-57. Edelman, D. (2011, November 22). Why elephant riding O'Connor, J. (2015, February 24). Why are zoos sentencing should be removed from your bucketlist. [Blog elephants to solitary confinement? Retrieved post]. Retrieved (2016, March 5) from https:// (2015, October 2) from http://www.peta.org/blog/ journals.worldnomads.com/responsible-travel/ why-are-zoos-sentencing-elephants-to-solitary- story/81053/Thailand/Why-Elephant-Riding- confinement-depressed-bears-dogs/? Should-Be-Removed-from-Your-Bucket-List _ga=1.167969704.88210150.1443055005 Elephant. (2009, February 3). Retrieved (2015, October 2) PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals). (2009, from http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/ July 22). Ringling beats animals: A PETA Elephant undercover investigation. [Video file]. Retrieved on Elephant Crisis Fund. (n.d.). Retrieved (2015, October 1) March 7, 2016 from https://www.youtube.com/ from https://elephantcrisisfund.org/ watch?v=ECspj0daAlE Elephants in captivity. (2015). Retrieved (2015, October 2) Rojek, C. (2010). The labour of leisure. Sage Publications: from http://www.elephantvoices.org/elephants-in- London. captivity-7.html Ruck, L. (n.d.). Protector of the giants. Foundation, 6, 30-34. Elephant slaughter escalates as illegal ivory market thrives. Scriber, B. (2014, August 8). 100,000 elephants killed by (2013). Animal Welfare Institute, 62(1). Retrieved poachers in just three years, landmark analysis (2015, October 2) from https://awionline.org/awi- finds. Retrieved (2015, October 1) from http:// quarterly/2013-winter/elephant-slaughter-escalates- news.nationalgeographic.com/ illegal-ivory-market-thrives news/2014/08/140818-elephants-africa-poaching- Fischer, A., Weldesemaet, Y. T., Czajkowski, M., Tadie, D., cites-census/ & Hanley, N. (2015). Conservation Biology, 29(4): Shani, A., & Pizam, A. (2008). Towards an ethical 1111-1121. framework for animal-based attractions. Gao, Y., & Clark, S. G. (2014). Elephant ivory trade in International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality China: Trends and drivers. Biological Management, 20(6): 679-693. Conservation, 180: 23-30. Singer, P. (1989). All animals are equal. In Tom Regan & Get elephants out of zoos. (n.d.). Retrieved (2015, October Peter Singer (eds.), Animal Rights and Human 2) from http://www.peta.org/issues/animals-in- Obligations. Oxford University Press, 215-226. entertainment/zoos/get-elephants-zoos/ Retrieved (2015, October 3)from spot.colorado.edu/ Greenberg, A. (2015, July 30). This is how many animals ~heathwoo/phil1200,Spr07/singer.pdf were killed in Zimbabwe in the last 20 years. Time. Species: Elephant. (n.d.). Retrieved (2016, March 3) from Retrieved (2015, October 3) from http:// http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/elephant time.com/3978116/zimbabwe-cecil-the-lion- Tan, A. (2015, July 31). Beyond Cecil the lion: Trophy poaching-hunting-wildlife-walter-palmer/ hunting industry in Africa explained. ABC News. Kontogeorgopoulos, N. (2009). The role of tourism in Retrieved (2015, October 2) from http:// elephant welfare in northern Thailand. Journal of abcnews.go.com/US/cecil-lion-trophy-hunting- Tourism 10,(2): 1-19. industry-africa-explained/story?id=32785057 Kumar, V., Reddy, V. P., Kokkiligadda, A., Shivaji, S., & Veblen, T. (1899). The theory of the leisure class. Retrieved Umapathy, G. (2014). Non-invasive assessment of (2015, October 1) from moglen.law.columbia.edu/ reproductive status and stress in captive Asian LCS/theoryleisureclass.pdf elephants in three south Indian zoos. General and Visitor demographics. (n.d.). Retrieved (2015, October 1) Comparative Endocrinology, 201, 37-44. from aza.org/visitor-demographics Maisels, F., Strindber, S., Blake, S., Wittemyer, G., Hart, J., "Zoos are jails for animals - close them down" says Peter Williamson, E. A., ... Warren, Y. (2013). Tatchell, CAPS patron. (2016, January 13). Devastating decline of forest elephants in Central Retrieved (2016, March 2) from http:// Africa. PLoS ONE 8(3): e59469. www.captiveanimals.org/news/2016/01/zoos-are- Millspaugh, J. J., Burke, T., Van Dyk, G., Slotow, R., jails-for-animals-close-them-down-says-peter- Washburn, B. E., & Woods, R. J. (2007). Stress tatchell-caps-patron response of working African elephants to

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