How Everything Works

Making Physics Out of the Ordinary

Louis A. Bloomfield

The University of Virginia

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. SENIOR ACQUISITIONS EDITOR Stuart Johnson EXECUTIVE MARKETING MANAGER/ CHANNEL DEVELOPMENT Lisa Culhane VICE PRESIDENT/EXECUTIVE PUBLISHER Kaye Pace PRODUCTION MANAGER Pam Kennedy SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR Sarah Wolfman-Robichaud ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, DOMESTIC RIGHTS Adam Levison COORDINATOR, DOMESTIC RIGHTS Ashley Ginter CREATIVE DIRECTOR Harry Nolan SENIOR MEDIA EDITOR Tom Kulesa PRODUCTION ASSISTANT Jenna Belisonzi COPYEDITORS Elana Bloomfi eld, Aaron Bloomfi eld EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Alyson Rentrop COVER PHOTO ©Mike Powell/Stone/Getty Images

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ISBN-13 978- 0-471-74817-5 ISBN-10 0-471-74817-X

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 iv Table of Contents

Chapter 1. Things That Move 1 1.1 Skating 2 1.2 Falling Balls 10 1.3 Ramps 17 Chapter 2. More Things That Move 29 2.1 Seesaws 30 2.2 Wheels 41 2.3 Bumper Cars 49 Chapter 3. Mechanical Things 59 3.1 Spring Scales 60 3.2 Bouncing Balls 69 3.3 Carousels and Roller Coasters 79 Chapter 4. More Mechanical Things 87 4.1 Bicycles 88 4.2 Rockets and Space Travel 96 4.3 Th e Earth, Moon, and Sun 109 4.4 Elevators 117 Chapter 5. Things Involving Fluids 125 5.1 Balloons 126 5.2 Water Distribution 137

ix Chapter 6. Things That Move With Fluids 147 6.1 Garden Watering 148 6.2 Balls and Air 160 6.3 Airplanes 168 6.4 Vacuum Cleaners 190 Chapter 7. Thermal Things 197 7.1 Woodstoves 198 7.2 Water, Steam, and Ice 212 7.3 Incandescent Lightbulbs 219 7.4 Clothing and Insulation 228 7.5 Th ermometers and Th ermostats 238 Chapter 8. Things That Work With Heat 249 8.1 Air Conditioners 250 8.2 Automobiles 258 8.3 Th e Atmosphere 275 8.4 Water Purifi cation 284 Chapter 9. Things With Resonances and Mechanical Waves 293 9.1 Clocks 294 9.2 Musical Instruments 303 9.3 Th e Sea 315 Chapter 10. Electric Things 323 10.1 Static Electricity 324 10.2 Xerographic Copiers 332 10.3 Flashlights 343 Chapter 11. Magnetic and Electromagnetic Things 351 11.1 Household Magnets 352 11.2 Electric Power Distribution 362 11.3 Electric Generators and Motors 374 11.4 Magnetically Levitated Trains 385 11.5 Magnetic Recording 392 Chapter 12. Electronic Things 399 12.1 Power Adapters 400 12.2 Audio Players 414 x Chapter 13. Things That Use Electromagnetic Waves 427 13.1 Radio 428 13.2 Microwave Ovens 436 13.3 Television 442 Chapter 14. Things That Involve Light 453 14.1 Sunlight 454 14.2 Discharge Lamps 461 14.3 Lasers and LEDs 470 14.4 Paint and Makeup 476 Chapter 15. Optical Things 489 15.1 Cameras and Vision 490 15.2 Optical Recording and Communication 506 15.3 Telescopes and Microscopes 517 Chapter 16. Things That Use Recent Physics 527 16.1 Nuclear Weapons 528 16.2 Nuclear Reactors 543 16.3 Medical Imaging and Radiation 552 Chapter 17. Things That Involve Materials 563 17.1 Knives and Steel 564 17.2 Windows and Glass 574 17.3 Plastics 587 Chapter 18. Things That Involve Chemical Physics 599 18.1 Oil Refi neries 600 18.2 Laundry 617 18.3 Batteries 632 Appendices A Relevant Mathematics 647 B Units, Conversion of Units 649 Glossary 653 Photo Credits 693 Index 695

xi Index

absolute temperature scale 128 aerodynamics 160 maneuverability 178 absolute zero 128, 201, 253 airstream separation 172 military 171 acceleration 11, 11–13, 13, 16, 18 blunt 171 navigation 179 angular 34–35, 35, 36 center of pressure 165 propellers 174–175 centripetal 81 diff users 175 radio direction fi nders 179 downhill 55 streamlining 169 ramjets 176 experience of 79–80 aerodynamic torques 99 rudders 177 feeling of 80 air 126–129 scramjet engines 176 net forces and 26 airbags 56 slats 172 of carousels 80–81 air columns small 170 of elevators 12 fundamental vibrational mode 307 spoilers 172–173 of falling balls 18 higher-order vibrational modes 308 stability of 177 of roller coasters 82–85 air conditioners 250–257, 254–257 stalling 172 potential energy and 55 compressors 256 static dissipators 177, 339 pressure imbalances and 137 condensers 257 steering 177 spring scales and 60 effi ciency of 254 supersonic fl ight 181 acceleration due to gravity 17–18, 23 evaporators 255 tails 177 acceleration sensors 57 phase transitions 256 takeoff s 172 accelerometers 57 working fl uids 254 turbofan engines 176 AC electric power airfl ow turbojet engines 175, 176 distribution system 372–373 boundary layer 162 unstable 178 high-frequency 413, 441 laminar 160 vortex generators 172, 177 to DC electric power 400 stalling 162 vortices 169 transformers and 367–372 turbulent 162 weight and balance 177 achromatic doublets 497, 519 airfoils 168 wings 168 actinides 464, 634 airplanes 168–189 wingtip extensions 173 action and reaction 25 ailerons 177 wingtip vortices 173 rockets and 98 air brakes 172–173 air resistance 11, 18, 20, 160 activation energy 201 air conditioning 178 airships adapters (power). See power adapters airspeed indicators 179 helium 133 additive colors angle of attack 171 Hindenburg, the 133 in fl uorescent lamps 467 artifi cial horizons 179 hydrogen 133 in metal-halide lamps 468 cabin pressurization 178 Shenandoah, the 133 in television 445 commercial 171 airspeed 161 primary 462 depressurization accidents 178 indicators 179 adverse pressure gradient 162 elevators 177 measuring 180 Aerobies 188 fl aps 172 minimum safe 172 aerodynamic lift 188 fl ight ceiling 171 streamlines and 152 aerodynamic forces 160 gyrocompasses 179 airstream separation 172 aerodynamic lift helicopters. See helicopters alkali metals 464, 633 Bernoullian view 170 jet engines 175–176 alkaline earths 464, 633 Newtonian view 170 landings 172 alloys 568

695 alpha decay 534 Antarctic circle 115 atomic spectra 302, 465–466 alternating current 364 antennas atoms 126, 302 frequency of 365 electric 429–431 atomic number 463 root mean square (RMS) voltage of light wave 456 excited states 465 365 magnetic 433 ground state 465 time variation of 365 microwave 441 light and 465 aluminum polarizations of waves 433 orbitals 463 color of 236 quarter-wavelength 432, 441 quantum structure 302 foil 232 radio wave 429–433 radiative transitions in 465 in cookware 209 resonant 432 shells 464 wires in computers 424 satellite dish 525 spectra of 466 amorphous solids 574 anti-lock braking systems (ABS) 48, 271 spontaneous emission of radiation Ampère, André-Marie 359 antiferromagnetism 393 470 ampere-meters 354 antimatter standing waves in 463 amperes 345 antineutrinos 558 states 465 amplifi ers 422 electron–positron pair production stimulated emission of radiation 470 audio 422 555, 557 audio players 414–426 capacitors in 423 positrons 557 audio recording 415 laser 471 antinodes 305 audio reproduction 415 MOSFETs in 422 aperture 494 audio signals 422 resistors in 422 aphelion 116 audio speakers 426 amplitude 296 apogee 101 austenite 569 amplitude modulation (AM) 433 apparent forces. See acceleration, expe- automobiles 46 AM radio. See radio, amplitude modula- rience of aerodynamics 272 tion (AM) apparent weight 80 downforces 272 analog representations 415 aqueducts drag coeffi cients 272 amplitude modulation (AM) 433 Owens Valley 141 lift forces 272 digital-to-analog converters (DACs) Roman 142 spoilers 272–273 421 archery 23, 165 airbags 56 electric current 392, 415 Archimedes 130 airstream eff ects on 161 frequency modulation (FM) 434 Archimedes’ principle 130 automatic transmissions 268 magnetization 396 Arctic Circle 114 friction plates 268 phonograph records 515 area 127, 129 gearboxes 268 angle of attack 171 surface. See area impellers 268 in propellers 174 Aristotle 9, 10 torque converters 268 angular acceleration 34–35, 35, 36 aromatics 600, 603 brakes 47, 271 angular impulses 52 arrows 23, 165 anti-lock braking systems (ABS) 48, angular momentum and 52 arteries 271 duration and 53 heat fl ow 230 brake pads 271 torques and 53 narrowing of 158 disk brakes 271 transfers of angular momentum 54 artifi cial horizons 179 drum brakes 271 angular momentum 49, 52, 54 artist’s oil paints 476 master cylinders 271 angular impulses and 52 asteroids 116 slave cylinders 271 angular velocity and 52 astronauts collisions 55–57 conservation of 33 feeling of weightlessness 83 impact forces 56 gyroscopes and 179 weighing 66 impulses and 56 precession and 91 atmosphere, the 129 momentum and 56 rotational mass and 52 chaos in 159 crumple zones 56 transfers of 52, 54 density gradient of 129 diesel engines 263–264 angular position 32, 35, 36 doldrums, the 280 diff erentials 269 angular speed 32 gravity and 129 driving on ice 48 angular velocity 32, 34, 35, 36 oxygen content 282 fuels 262–263 angular momentum and 52 chlorophyll 282 ignition temperatures (Table) 263 constant 33 photosynthesis 282 octane numbers 263 anharmonic oscillators 298 pressure gradient of 129 ignition systems 265 animals subpolar low, the 280 coils 265 cold-blooded 228 subtropical high, the 280 distributors 265 warm-blooded 228 atmospheric pressure 129 electronic ignition 265 annealing 568 atomic clocks 302 points 265 anodes 410, 444 atomic number 463, 633 spark plugs 265

696 Index intercoolers 264 popping of 134 corking 74 internal combustion engines 260–263 research 134 titanium 74 knocking 262 rubber 134 vibrations of 74 manual transmissions 267 balls 17–23 wooden 74 clutches 267 airfl ow and 160–167 baseballs 70–71, 72 gearboxes 267 backspin and 76 drag forces on 164 synchromesh gearboxes 267–268 baseballs 70–71 base of support 89–90 motor oils 148 basketball 34 basketball 78 multicylinder engines 264 beanbags 70 bathroom scales 63–64 pollution control systems 266 billiard 18, 75–77 bats, baseball. See baseball bats catalytic converters 266 bouncing 69–78 batteries 346–347, 632–645 oxygen sensors 266 bowling 18, 34 alkaline 346, 642 positive crankcase ventilation sys- coeffi cient of restitution 70 automobile 639 tem (PCV) 266 croquet 75–77 carbon-zinc 641 rollover accidents 92 dead 69 chains 346 seatbelts 56 elasticity of 70 Daniell’s cell 634–637 skidding 48 falling 17–23 exhaustion eff ects 637 sport utility vehicles (SUVs) 48 foam rubber 70 internal electrical resistances 637 starting systems 268–269 footballs 78 lead-acid 637–640 fl ywheels 268 golf 17, 70–71 lithium 346, 645 solenoids 268 laminar airfl ow and 160 mercuric oxide 642 starter motors 268–269 lively 69 natural voltages of 637 superchargers 264 pool 75–77 thermodynamic eff ects 637 suspensions 269–270 pressure drag on 162 nickel-cadmium 643–644 air springs 270 racquet 70 nickel-metal-hydride 644 coil springs 270 rugby 78 recharging 347, 639 leaf springs 270 steel 70 reversed 347 shock absorbers 270 superballs 70 silver oxide 642 torsion bars 270 tennis 70–71 battering rams 72 tires 48 topspin and 76 battery eliminators. See power adapters transmissions 267–268 turbulent airfl ow and 162–163 Bay of Fundy 317 turbochargers 264 unhappy 70 beam balances 66 wheels 46 viscous drag on 162 Beams, Jesse W. 86 windows 161 band gaps 405 beanbags 70 tempered glass 582 in insulators 406 bearings windshields 582 in LEDs 475 ball 47 autumnal equinox 109, 115 in semiconductors 407 jewel 299 axes 58 bands 405 roller 46, 47 axis of rotation 32, 33 conduction 406 Becquerel, Antoine-Henri 533 earth’s 114 valence 406 bends in a fl uid fl ow 152 axles 46 bandwidth 434, 446 Bernoulli, Daniel 140 grease 46 Banneker, Benjamin 299 Bernoulli’s equation 140, 142, 151 back emf 367 barometers 278 applicability to air 161 backspin 76 baseball 72–74 Bernoulli eff ect 191 badminton birdies 165 batted balls 164 beta decay 533, 558 balances 66–68 pitches bicycles 88–95 beam 66 curveball 164, 165, 167 brakes 94–95 doctor’s offi ce 68 fastball 164 caliper brakes 94 hanging basket 67 hanging fastball 167 chains 93 Roberval 67–68 knuckleball 167 coaster brakes 95 balancing 30, 37, 66 screwball 167 disc brakes 94 ball bearings 47 sinking fastball 167 freewheels 94 balloons 126–136 slider 167 leaning while turning 92 elastic 134 spitball 167 pedaling 92–94 envelopes 131 terminal velocity 164 pennyfarthing 93 fl ight ceiling 131 baseball bats 72–74 ratchets 94 helium 132–133 acceleration of 73 rotational equilibrium and 92 hot-air 131–132 aluminum 74 sprockets 93 hydrogen 133 center of percussion 73 stationary 32 Mylar 134 composite 74 steering axis 91

Index 697 tires 95 boomerangs 188 focusing 492–494 unridable 91 aerodynamic lift 188 image sensors 500–501 wheels 46 precession in 188 lenses bicycling boron nitride 583 aperture 494 downhill 34 Bose particles 471 depth of focus 494 mountain 34 boundary layers 162, 192 f-number 497 stationary 32 controlling the 172 focal length 495 uphill 31 laminar 162 large diameter 493 Big Bang, the 232 stalling of 171 normal lens 495 billiard balls 18 tripping the 164 normal lenses (Table) 495 billiards 75–77 turbulent 163 small diameter 493 draw 76 bowling 76 telephoto 496 English 76 lawn 75 wide-angle 495 follow 76 bowling balls 18 zoom 497–498 playing off bumpers 77 Brahe, Tycho 102 single lens refl ex (SLR) 498–500 bimetallic strips 242 brakes 47 viewfi nders 498–500 binary 415 automobiles 271 real-image optical 500 Binnig, Gerd 526 bicycle 94 canoeing 184 birefringence 514 caliper 94 capacitance 411 bits (information) 418 coaster 95 capacitors 402, 410–411, 412, 429–430 blackbody radiation 204 disc 94 electrolytic 411 blackbody spectrum 221 break down schematic diagram symbol 411 of an incandescent lightbulb 221 of air 336 capillary surface waves 316 of the sun 221, 455 of neon 463 carbohydrates 201 black holes 105 Bremsstrahlung 553 carbon 582–584 bleaches 625 brittle fracture 568 activated 291 chlorine 625 in glass 581 diamond 582–586 oxygen 626 in metal 568 graphite 583 blenders 11 brittleness 564 molecules based on 601 block-and-tackles 120 brooms 40 carbon arc lamps 503 blue sky, the 456 buildings and wind 161 carbonated beverages 146, 218 polarization of 460, 515 bullets 23, 262 carbon dating 541–542 blunt 171 aerodynamics of 165 tree-ring dating and 542 boating 135 spin stabilization of 165 Carlson, Chester F. 332 boats bumper cars 49–58 Carothers, Wallace Hume 595 canal 188 bumpers carousels 80–81 clipper ships 184 metal 51 carpeting hydrofoils 185 rubber 49, 51 static electricity from 330 planing hulls 185 bungee jumping 83 carrier frequency 434 propellers 189 buoyant forces 130 carrier waves 446 racing 185 Burnell, Jocelyn Bell 295 cars. See also automobiles static stability of 184 burners (stovetop) 209 bumper 49–58 bobsledding 34 butterfl y eff ect, the 159 carts 46 body temperature 228–229 bytes 418 case hardening 573 maintaining 229 cable-lifted elevators 119–124 Cassegrainian refl ecting telescopes 522 panting 234 cables cast iron 564 sweating 233 coaxial 435 catalysts 266, 478, 613 boiling 216–217, 217 optical fi bers 435, 511–513, 513–514 enzymes 625 temperature 217 propagation speeds in 435 catalytic converters 266 bolt cutters 39 twisted-pair 435 overheating of 266 bolts 39, 156 undersea optical 513 poisoning of 266 Boltzmann constant 133, 206 calculus 11, 20 cathodes 410, 440, 444 bonds calibration 63 Cavendish, Henry 101 chemical 127, 149, 199–200, 615–616 caliper brakes 94 cavitation 189 covalent 576, 600, 615 caloric theory 200 CD players 509–511 double 477, 602 calories 44 diff raction in 510 single 477 Calories (food) 44 laser diode 509 hydrogen 437, 616 cameras 490–501 lenses 510 ionic 577, 615 disposable 493–494 photodiodes 511 metallic 567, 615–616 exposure time 497 polarization beam splitter 509

698 Index quarter-wave plates 510 Banneker, Benjamin 299 jet engines 175 CDs 506–511 carriage 299 Compton scattering 555, 557 digital representation of sound 506– components computed tomography (CT) scanners 507 anchors 297 556 laser diodes 509 escapements 297 computers (digital). See digital comput- recording surface 508–509 gears 297 ers cell phones 435 hands 297 concrete 571 celluloid 587 toothed wheels 297 steel and 571 cellulose 201, 590, 591 computer 425 condensation 215 Celsius 128, 201 electronic 300–302 conduction (thermal) 202–203 cementite 569 grandfather 297 conduction bands 406 center of buoyancy 184 pendulum 297–298 conduction levels 406 center of gravity 64, 89–90 quartz 300–302 conductivity center of mass 33, 184 closed electric circuits 344 electrical 331 center of percussion 73 clothes washers 85 thermal 202, 229 center of pressure 165 clothing 228–233 conductors (electrical). See electrical centrifugal governors 123 bleaching 617–618 conductors centrifuges 85 brightening 627 cone cells 461 medical 86 dry cleaning 630–631 Congreve, William 106 uranium enrichment 86 softening 628 Congreve rockets 106 centripetal acceleration 81 static cling 326–327 conservation of angular momentum centripetal forces 81 washing 617–624 33, 53 Chadwick, James 533 clubs (juggler’s) 33 conservation of energy 28 chain reactions 534 CMOS (digital logic) 420–421 conservation of momentum 51 controlled 543–544 coaster brakes 95 conserved quantities 27, 49, 54 critical mass 536 coasting 9–11, 14 angular momentum 52 explosive 536 coaxial cables 435 energy 27 subcritical mass 537 coeffi cient of restitution 70 momentum 50 supercritical mass 536 of common balls (Table) 70 transfers of 54 chains 93 coeffi cient of sliding friction 48 constant angular velocity 33 Challenger, the 157 coeffi cient of static friction 48 constant velocity 14 chaos 155, 159 coeffi cient of volume expansion 223, constellations 109 chaotic systems 155, 159 238 constructive interference 244, 322, 459 atmosphere, the 159 in glasses 581 contact lenses, permeable 592 turbulent fl ow 155 of common substances (Table) 239 convection 203 charge. See electric charge coeffi cients of drag 272 forced 211 charging coff ee cups 234 impeding 231 contact 327 coff ee grinders 11 natural 203 frictional 327 coherent light 471 convection cells 203, 277 induction 339 collimation 510 convection currents 203 chemical bonds 127, 149, 199–200, collision energy 70 convection ovens 211 615–616 collisions converging lenses 491 chemical equilibrium 635 automobile 55, 55–57 cooking chemical potential energy 29, 32, 44, ball 69–70 at high altitudes 218 199, 328, 632 elastic 74 baking 211 chemical reactions 201 inelastic 74 boiling eggs 218 Chernobyl nuclear accident 549 colognes 488 broiling 211 chiral nematic liquid crystals 244 color printing 485 burners (stovetop) 209 chisels 58 color temperature 221 double-boilers 215 chlorofl uorocarbons 257, 283 of common objects (Table) 221 forced convection baking 211 chromatic aberration 497 color vision 461–462 glass-ceramics 248 chromophores 625 comets 116 heat-resistant glasses 247 circuits (electric). See electric circuits compasses (magnetic) 357–358 metal pans 247 circular orbits 101 complementary MOSFET (CMOS) microwave ovens 436 circular polarization 433 420–421 ovens 210–211 civil year 115 components (vector) 21, 28, 648 pots 209–210 cling, static 326–327 compressible 126 toasters 225 clocks compressive stress 565 with steam 215 atomic 302 compressors Copernicus, Nicolaus 110 balance ring 298–299 air conditioners 256 copiers (xerographic). See xerographic

Index 699 copiers darts 165 cetane number 607 copper data networks 435 diff raction 510, 523 coeffi cient of volume expansion 242 Davisson, Clinton Joseph 463 diff users color of 236 Davy, Humphry 367 hairdryer 194 pots 209–210 day jet engines 175 wires 363 lunar sidereal 114 vacuum cleaners 191 wires on computer chips 424 lunar solar 114 diff usion 134 Coriolis eff ect 279, 281 sidereal 113 digital-to-analog converters (DACs) cornstarch 149 solar 113 421 corona discharges 335, 336–339 DC electric power digital computers St. Elmo’s fi re 339 distribution system 363–364 bits 418 cosmic microwave background 232 from AC electric power 400 bytes 418 cosmic rays 335 pulsed 412, 441 clocks 425 cotton. See also cellulose steady 412 CMOS technology 420 ironing 590 deceleration 12 electric power consumption 425 Cottrell, Frederick Gardner 342 decimal 415 hard drives 397 Coulomb, Charles-Augustin de 326 de Cisternay du Fay, Charles-François limitations on speed of 424–425 Coulomb’s law 326 325 logic elements 420–421 Coulomb’s law for magnetism 354 decompression sickness (the bends) adders 421 Coulomb constant 326 146 inverters 420 coulombs 325 deformation multipliers 421 countercurrent exchange 230, 235 elastic 566 NAND gates 421 counterweights 121 plastic 566 memory covalent bonds 576, 600, 615 de Gennes, Pierre-Gilles 589 dynamic random access memory Crazy Glue 595 degrees of freedom 206 (RAM) 419 credit cards 357 de Laval, Carl Gustaf 96–97 fl ash 419 critical mass 536 de Laval nozzles 97 magnetic disk 420 croquet 75–77 demagnetization 356 synchronization of 425 sending an opponent’s ball 76 density 128, 129 digital recording 506–507 crowbars 39 particle 132 digital representations 415 crumple zones 56 temperature, pressure, and 128 binary (base-2) 415, 451 crystalline 213, 241 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 592 decimal (base-10) 415 crystalline order 241 depletion region 408 digital-to-analog converters (DACs) crystalline solids 241 deposition 216 421 crystals 241 depth of focus 494 digits (symbols) 451 calcite 514 destructive interference 322, 459 electric charge 415, 419 diamond 583 detergents 331, 623 electric current 415 graphite 583 anionic (negative) 624 hexadecimal (base-16) 451 interstitial spaces 569 bactericidal 629 magnetization 397 lattices 241 cationic (positive) 331, 628 octal (base-8) 451 liquid 244 linear alkylbenzenesulfonates 623 of sound 506–507 long-range order 574 nonionic (neutral) 624 symbols (digits) 451 metal 566–567 quaternary ammonium compounds voltage 415 quartz 300 628 digits 415 seed 574 sulfonate groups 623 dimples 164 slip planes 567 deuterium 539 diodes 402, 411–412 cubic meters 15 dew 216 anode 410 cups (measure) 15 Dewar, Sir James 237 cathode 410 Curie, Marie 533 Dewar fl ask 237 depletion regions 408 Curie, Pierre 533 diamonds 582–586 forward biased 409, 410 current (electric). See electric current appearance of 584–586 laser 475, 509, 513 curveballs 165 formation from graphite 583 light-emitting 474 cyanoacrylate glues 595 synthetic 584 photodiodes 500 polymerization of 597 Diesel, Rudolph Christian Karl 263 quantum physics of 407–409 cycles-per-second 300 diesel engines 263–264 reverse biased 409–410, 410 cyclotron motion 440, 445, 551 compression ratios 264 schematic diagram symbol 402 d’Alembert, Jean Le Rond 162 multicylinder engines 264–265 vacuum tube 426 d’Alembert’s paradox 162 superchargers 264 dipoles (magnetic) 353 Daniell’s cell 634–637 turbochargers 264 direct current 363 Daniell, John Frederick 634 diesel fuel 607 direction 10

700 Index disc brakes 94 ductility 568 superconductors 364 discharge lamps 461–469, 503 dull refl ections 480 temperature eff ects on 350 carbon arc 503 duration electric charge 325 electrodes 463 angular impulses and 53 elementary unit of 325 high-pressure mercury 468 impulses and 51 negative 325 high-pressure sodium 469 DVD players 509–511 net 325 low-pressure sodium 468 diff raction in 510 neutral 326 mercury 467–469 laser diode 509 on conducting objects 337 metal–halide 468, 503 lenses 510 positive 325 neon 463 photodiodes 511 quantization of 325 problems restarting high-pressure polarization beam splitter 509 voltage 329 469 quarter-wave plates 510 electric charges 325 radiation trapping in 468 DVDs 506–511 electrons 325 sputtering in 503 digital representation of video 506– in ordinary air 335 discharges 335 507 protons 325 corona 335, 336–339 recording surfaces 508–509 voltage of 329 gas 462 dyes 476 electric circuits 343 mercury 466 fl uorescent 486, 628 closed 344 dislocations 567 ink 485 open 344 disorder 252 mauve 485 parallel 421 disordered energy 43 metamerism 486 series 421 dispersion 319, 458, 519 organic 485 short 344 absence in sound waves 311 dynamic memory 419 tank 429 in water surface waves 319 dynamic pressure variations 151 electric current 343, 345 distance 10 dynamic stability 90 alternating 364 distillation 284, 611–612 aerodynamic torques and 165 frequency of 365 cryogenic 612 earth, the root mean square (RMS) voltage low-pressure 286, 612 atmosphere of 129 365 diverging lenses 502, 519 day 113 temporal structure of 365 DNA. See deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) gravity variations 60 direct 363 doping (semiconductor) 407 magnetic fi eld of 358 eddy 371 Doppler eff ect 311 magnetic poles 358 electric currents double bonds 477, 602 orbit around the sun 116 relationship to magnetic fi elds 359 colors due to 625 seasons 114 electric doorbells 359–360 downhill 30 shape of 60 electric fi elds 335 drag forces 160 eclipse as newtons-per-coulomb 336 induced 170 lunar 113 as volts-per-meter 337 pressure 162 solar 113 break down of air 338 viscous 162 eddy currents 371 energy in 429 drills 58 Edison, Th omas Alva 222, 363, 365, 504, relationship to magnetic fi elds 366, drinking fountains 257 515 429 drinking straws 144 Eiff el, Gustave 162–163 electric generators drive Eiff el tower 163 alternating current (AC) 374–377 four-wheel 48 Einstein, Albert 104, 470, 529 frequency of 376 front-wheel 48 elastic 70 voltage of 376 rear-wheel 48 elastic balloons 134 direct current (DC) 380 drop towers 83 elastic collisions 74 electricity, static. See static electricity drumheads elastic deformation 566, 583 electric motors fundamental vibrational mode 309 elastic limit 62 alternating current (AC) 377–378 higher-order vibrational modes 309 elastic potential energy 44, 62 commutators in 380 drums 309–310 elastic scattering 555 direct current (DC) 378–380 projecting sound 311 elastomers 157, 593 brushed 379–390 vibrating drumheads 309 electrical conductors 236, 331, 402 brushless 378 dry cleaning 630–631 quantum physics of 406 rotation speed of 380 detergents 631 superconductors 364 induction 382–384 humidity requirements 631 transparent 236 linear 386, 391 perchloroethylene solvent 630 electrical insulators 331, 402 universal 381–382 Stoddard solvent 630 quantum physics of 406 electric outlets 364 dryer sheets 331 electrical resistance 344 ground-fault circuit interruption drying oils 476 Ohm’s law and 350 (GFCI) 364

Index 701 ground wire 364 metaloids 464 rest 105 hot wire 364 noble gases 464, 633 thermal 29, 32, 43, 198–199, 250 neutral wire 364 non-metals 464 transfer of 54 electric polarization 327, 342 periodic table of 464, 632 vibrational 307 electric power distribution 362–373 poor metals 464 work and 27–29 alternating current 372 rare earths 634 engines direct current 363–364 transition metals 464, 634 diesel 263–264 electrodes 463 transmutation of 540 external combustion 273 electrolytes 411, 635 elevators 12, 117–124 heat 258–259 electrolytic capacitors 411 cable-lifted 119–124 internal combustion 260–263 electromagnetic induction 388 cable stretching and 122 jet 175–176 electromagnetic waves 203, 429 components ramjets 176 charge acceleration and 553 centrifugal governors 123 scramjets 176 circular polarization 433 counterweights 121 steam 273 frequencies of 454–455 tracks 123 turbofan 176 gamma rays 558–559 Empire State Building 123 turbojet 175 horizontal polarization 431–432 freight 122 English system of units 15 in coaxial cables 435 hydraulic 118–119 entrainment 191 light 454 jackscrew 117 entropy 252 microwaves 436–437 operators 124 enzymes 625 radio waves 431 safety 119 proteolytic 626 vertical polarization 431 starting and stopping 124 equilibrium 61 wavelengths of 454–455 steam-powered 121 chemical 635 X-rays 552–553 water balance 121 electrostatic 337 electromagnets 359–361 Western Union Building 121 phase 214, 284 relays 361 elliptical orbits 101 rotational 64 electron–positron pair production 555, emeralds 586 stable 61, 88 557 emissivities 232 thermal 200, 251 electronegativity 634 black surfaces 204 unstable 90 electron guns 444 materials at room temperatures 247 equilibrium position 61 electronic air cleaners 341–342 shiny surfaces 232 equilibrium separation 199 electronic components transparent surfaces 232 equilibrium shape 61, 69 capacitors 402, 410–411 white surfaces 232 equinox diodes 402 emissivity 220 autumnal 109, 115 inductors 429–430 optical thermometers and 247 vernal 109, 115 MOSFETs 417 empirical laws 110 equinoxes, precession of the 109, 115 resistors 416 emulsifi ers 620 equivalence principle 105 transistors 417 emulsions 482, 610 erbium-doped fi ber amplifi ers 513 vacuum tubes 425–426, 426 energy 27, 27–28, 29, 30, 43 escape velocity 102 electrons 202, 325 activation 201 Euler, Leonhard 140 beams of 444 chemical potential 29, 32, 44, 199, eutectic 577 Fermi particles 403 328, 632 evaporation 214 Fermi sea 404 collision 70 latent heat of 215 interference of 463 disordered 43 excited states 465 negative charge 326 elastic potential 44, 62 exhaust velocity 98 spin of 404 electric fi eld 429 external combustion engines 273 standing waves 463, 465 electrostatic potential 44, 328 eyeglasses transfers of 328 food 29 farsightedness correction 501–502 waves 404 gravitational potential 28–30, 44, 101 nearsightedness correction 502 electron volts 474 internal 43, 251 eyes. See vision electrostatic forces 325, 326 internal kinetic 127 f-number 497 electrostatic potential energy 44, 328 internal potential 127 fabrics 595 electrostatic precipitators 341 kinetic 28, 29, 43, 47, 101 ironing 590 elementary unit of electric charge 325 mass and 105 fabric softeners 331, 628 elements nuclear potential 44, 533, 540 Fahrenheit 128, 201 actinides 464, 634 ordered 43 falling balls 17–23 alkali metals 464, 633 potential 28, 29, 44 fallout (nuclear) 540 alkaline earths 464, 633 pressure potential 139 fans 191, 192–193 halogens 464, 634 rebound 70 Faraday, Michael 366–367 lanthanides 464, 634 relativistic 104 farads 411

702 Index fats stair machines 33 buoyant 130 hydrogenation of 620 stationary bicycles 32 centripetal 81 saturated 620 treadmills 33 drag 160 unsaturated 620 weight machines 32 electrostatic 325, 326 fatty acids 620 fl ash fl oods 159 gravity 17 faucets 156–157 fl ashlights 343–350 impact 51, 56 feedback 387 fl ash memory 419 impulses and 51 electronic 422 fl at mirrors 520 induced drag 170 feedback-stabilized magnetic levita- fl ight ceiling lift 160 tion 387 airplanes 171 Lorentz 382–383, 444 feeling of acceleration 80 balloons 131 magnetic drag 390 feet 16 fl oater serve (volleyball) 167 magnetostatic 352 feet-per-second 16 fl oating in air 131 Magnus 166 feet-per-second2 16 helium balloons 132 momentum and 52 feet2 129 hot-air balloons 131 net 26–27, 41 feet3 129 fl oating in water 135 normal 26 Fermi, Enrico 533 people 136 nuclear 530 Fermi energy 404 salt water 136 pressure drag 162 Fermi level 404 ships 136 reaction 25 Fermi particles 403 fl ow restoring 61, 88 Fermi sea 404 laminar 154 springlike 304 ferrimagnetism 393 turbulent 154 support 26, 30 ferrite 566 fl uid fl ow thrust 96, 174 ferromagnetism 355, 393 boundary layer 162 tidal 112, 315 fi berglass 581 inertia and 154 torques and 36–37 fi ctitious forces. See acceleration, expe- laminar 154 van der Waals 588, 606, 616 rience of stalling 162 viscous 149 fi eld-eff ect transistors 417 turbulent 154 viscous drag 162 fi eld hockey sticks 40 wakes in 160 wake defl ection 166 fi elds fl uids 129 weight 17–18 electric 335 gases 129 forward biased 410 magnetic 357 hydraulic 118 four-wheel drive 48 fi laments 425 incompressible 138 frames of reference 14, 72 fi lters liquids 137 inertial 14 clogging 194 turbulence in 153–155 Franklin, Benjamin 325, 326 porous 194 viscosities of 149 free radicals 477 fi refi ghters 233 viscous 149 free weights 32 fi replaces 200, 202 fl uorescence 467, 486 freewheels 94 dampers 200 fl uorescent lamps 466–467 freeze-dried foods 216 fi res 201–202 cool white 467 freezers fi re shelters 233 daylight phosphor 467 frostless 216 fi rm (stiff ness) 62 deluxe cool white 467 disappearing ice cubes in 216 fi rst law of thermodynamics 251 deluxe warm white 467 freezer burn in 216 fi sh dimmable 467 non-frostless 216 bony 136 mercury discharges in 466 defrosting 216 cartilaginous 136 sputtering during starting 467 frost accumulation in 216 swim bladder 136 voltage versus length 467 freezing 213 fi shing rods 40 warm white 467 Freons 257 fi ssion (nuclear). See nuclear fi ssion FM radio. See radio, frequency modula- frequency 300, 429 fi ssion bombs 534–538 tion (FM) frequency modulation (FM) 434 cannon-triggered 536 foam rubber balls 70 friction 11, 41, 41–43 critical mass 536 focal length 495 fl uid 148 explosive chain reactions 536 food Calories 44 lubricants and 42 implosion-triggered 537 food energy 29 microscopic basis for 42 supercritical mass 536 food processors 11 opposition to relative motion 41 Th e Gadget 537 foot-pounds 36 rolling 78 fi tness equipment 31–33 football 78 sliding 43 free weights 32 forces 11, 13, 13–14, 16 static 43 leaning on 33 aerodynamic 160 thermal energy and 44 rowing machines 33 balanced 27 traction 43

Index 703 wear and 42 geosynchronous orbits 101 magnesia 578 Frisbees 186–188 Germain, Sophie 309 molten tin 580 aerodynamic lift 187 germanium 407 network formers 576 precession in 187 Germer, Lester H. 463 potassium oxide 578 pressure drag 188 gimbals 179 silica 575 Frisch, Otto 533 glass (the physical state) 574 soda 577 front-wheel drive 48 glass transition 575 glass transition temperature 480, 575 frost 216 glass transition temperature 575 Global Positioning System (GPS) 180 fuel cells 645 glass-ceramics 248 global warming 276 fundamental forces 558 glasses glow-in-the-dark paints 487 electromagnetic force 558 absence of plastic deformation 568 glues gravitational force 558 aluminosilicate glasses 578 polymerization of 597 strong force 558 borosilicate glasses 578 ultraviolet-cured 597 weak force 558 compositions of 575–579 Goddard, Robert 98, 106 fundamental vibrational mode 305 compositions of common (Table) 579 gold furnaces covalent bonds 576 color of 236 carbon monoxide from 207 cutting 581 golf 78 coal 206 devitrifi cation 578 hooks 167 condensing 207 eutectic 577 slices 167 dampers 207 fi berglass 581 spinning balls 167 gas 206 glass-ceramics 579 golf balls 17, 70–71 ignition-on-demand 206 glass transition eff ects 575 dimples 164 modern combustion 202, 206 glass transition temperatures 480, 575 hard (amateur) 167 oil 206 heat-resistant 247 lift forces 167 pilot lights 206 Kimax 247 soft (professional) 167 fusion lead crystal 578 spinning 167 latent heat of. See melting, latent heat milk glasses 579 gondoliers 188 fusion (nuclear). See nuclear fusion Mt. Palomar mirror 581 gradients fusion bombs 538–540 network formers 576 adverse pressure 162 enhanced radiation 539 opal glasses 579 pressure 137 neutron 539 Pyrex 247 voltage 337 fuzz (tennis balls) 164 quartz glass 575 grams 15 g-forces 81 soda–lime–silica glasses 577 graphite 583 Galilean telescopes 519 soda–silica glasses 577 gravitational constant 101 Galileo Galilei 10, 14, 519 ionic bonds in 577 gravitational mass 105 gallium-arsenide 407 nonbridging oxygen atoms in 577 gravitational potential energy 28, 29–30, gamma rays 558–559 supercooling 574 44, 101 garden watering 148–159 surfaces of 218 gravity 17, 17–18, 30, 100–101 garlic presses 39 temperature-resistant 581 acceleration due to 17–18 gas discharges 462 tempering 582 center of 64 gases 126, 212 viscosity of 149 gravity surface waves 316 greenhouse 276 vitreous quartz 575 greenhouse eff ect, the 275–276 inert 127 water glass 577 global warming 276 solubility of 146 glass formers 575 greenhouse gases 276 gasolines 605–606 boron oxide 578 tracking over time 276 octane numbers 607 silica 575 grocery scales 62–63 anti-knock compounds 607 glassmaking ground state 465 improving 614 alumina 578 guns 262 motor 607 boron oxide 578 bullets 262 research 607 bottles 580 electron 444 seasonal formulations of 606 compositions of common (Table) 579 handguns 262 Gauss, Carl Fredrick 309 covalent bonds 576 rifl es 165, 262 gelatin 597–598 devitrifi cation 578 rifl ing grooves 165 gems eutectic 577 silenced 262 diamonds 582–586 fi ning 580 water 143 emeralds 586 fl oat glass 579–581 gyrocompasses 179 rubies 586 glass formers 575 gyroscopes 91, 179 sapphires 586 lead oxide 578 angular momentum and 179 general theory of relativity 105 lehrs 580 gyroscopic precession 91 geostationary orbits 101 lime 577 Hahn, Otto 533

704 Index hair heat pumps 257 polyolefi ns 603 coloring 488 radiant 208 hydroelectric power generation 143 conditioners 331, 629 steam 208 hydrofl uorocarbons 257 curly 593 heat mirrors 236 hydrofoils 184, 185 detergents 331 heat pumps 250–254, 254 hydrogenation 620 disulfi de bonds in 593 effi ciency of 254 hydrogen balloons 133 permanent treatments 593 heat transfer hydrogen bombs. See fusion bombs plasticizing with water 593 conduction 202 hydrogen bonds 437, 616 shampoos 331, 624, 629 convection 203 hydrophilic 590, 617 softening with heat 593 countercurrent exchange 230 hydrophobic 617 static electricity in 330 radiation 203–204 hygroscopic 628 conditioners 331 heavy water 545 hyperbolic orbits 101 detergents 331 Heisenberg uncertainty principle 531 ice 213 structure of 593 helicopters 182–183 crystal structure of 437 hairdryers 194–195 lift and control of lift 183 deposition from steam 216 Halbach magnet arrays 390–391 precession in 183 driving on 48 Hale, William 106 rotors 182 freezing from water 214 Hale rockets 106 swashplates 183 liquidlike surface 215 half-life 532 tail rotors 182 melting into water 213 halogens 464, 634 tilting 183 melting with chemicals 218 hammers 57 helium 133 melting with friction 215 sledge 58 helium balloons 132–133 melting with pressure 215 water 156, 158 diff usion through 134 slipperiness of 215 handball 78 henries 430 subliming into steam 216 handguns 262 hertz 300 icebergs 213 hard drives 397 high-pressure mercury lamps 468 ice hockey sticks 40 hard magnetic materials 356 high-pressure sodium lamps 469 ice skates 9 hardness 564 higher-order vibrational modes 306 ice water 214 hard water 621 Hindenburg, the 133 ideal gas law 133 harmonic oscillators 64, 296 Hooke’s law 61 images air columns 307–308 horizontal polarization 431–432 real 490, 520 antennas 432 horsepower 44 virtual 498, 517–518, 520 balance rings 298–299 hoses 148–152 image sensors 490, 500–501 masses on springs 298 fi re 150 photodiodes 500 metal teeth 313 garden 150 photographic fi lm 500 pendulums 295–296 vacuum cleaner 190 immiscibility 610 resonant cavities 440 hot-air balloons 131–132 impact forces 51, 57–58 strings 304 hot water heaters 226 automobile collisions and 56 tank circuits 430 hours 15 hammers and 57–58 torsional 299 Hubble Space Telescope 523 impact torques 53 tuning forks 301 humidity impedance 457 harmonics 306 measuring 216 mismatches 457 hatchets 58 relative 215–216 in television cabling 458 headphones 424, 426 saturated 217 impulses 51 heat 43, 200 hurricanes 281 angular. See angular impulses heat-resistant glasses 247 Coriolis eff ect and 281 duration and 51 heat capacity 205 direction of rotation 281 forces and 51 heat engines 258–259, 258–260 eye 281 momentum and 51 effi ciency of 259 unstable air and 281 transfers of momentum 54 heaters warm ocean and 281 incandescence 465 hot water. See hot water heaters hydraulic elevators 118–119 incandescent lightbulbs 219–227 space. See space heaters hydraulic fl uids 118 BalaFire 384 heat exchanger 202 hydraulic rams 118 carbon fi laments 222 heating elements 195, 226 hydraulics 118 double spiral fi laments 223 nichrome 225 hydraulic systems 138 extended life 223 heating systems 207–208 hydrocarbons 201 fi laments 349 forced hot-water 208 aromatics 600, 603 fi lament temperature 219 forced warm-air 207 cycloparaffi ns 600, 603 glass bulb 223 gravity hot-water 208 olefi ns 600, 602 halogen 224 gravity warm-air 207 paraffi ns 587, 600, 601 krypton-fi lled 222

Index 705 three-way 225 transparent surfaces 232 isomers 601 tungsten fi laments 222 vapor barriers 234 isotopes 534 inclined planes 24–35. See ramps wet suits 231 radioactive 540–541 incoherent light 471 white surfaces 232 jackscrew elevators 117 incompressible 138 windows 235 jackscrews 117 index of refraction 456, 512, 584 insulators (electric). See electrical insu- jai alai baskets 40 Indian Ocean tsunami 320 lators jar openers 39 indistinguishable particles 403, 470 INTELSAT 34 javelin 165 indium-tin-oxide 236 intercoolers 264 JELL-O 597–598 induced drag 170 interference 322, 459 jet engines 175–176 induced electromotive force. See in- constructive 244, 322, 459 combustion chambers 176 duced emf destructive 322, 459 compressors 175 induced emf 366 electrons 463 diff users 175 induced fi ssion 533 in phase 459 nozzles 176 inductance 430 out of phase 459 turbines 176 induction sound 423–424 jet skiing 185 electric 339 interference pattern 322 jewelry 582–586 electromagnetic 365–367, 388 internal combustion engines 260–261 copper 236 back emf 367 carburetors 262 diamonds 582–586 induced emf 366 compression ratios 262 emeralds 586 Lenz’s law 366 compression stroke 260 gold 236 inductors 366, 429–430 connecting rods 264 rubies 586 inelastic collisions 74 crankshafts 264 sapphires 586 inert gases 127 cylinders 260 silver 236 inertia 9–11 exhaust stroke 261 Jones, David 91 blenders 11 fuel injectors 260 joules 30 coff ee grinders 11 induction stroke 260 joules-per-kilogram-kelvin 205 food processors 11 intercoolers 264 joules-per-second 44 rolls of paper towels 11 knocking 262 juggler’s club 33 rotational 32, 34, 49 multicylinder engines 264–265 juicers 39 translational 49 pistons 260 Jupiter 109, 112 turbulent fl ow and 154 power stroke 260 kayaking 184 inertial frames of reference 14, 72 preignition 262 keels 185 inertial mass 105 spark plugs 260 Kelvin 128, 201 inertial objects 14 superchargers 264 Kepler, Johannes 102, 110, 519 infrared light 455 turbochargers 264 Kepler’s laws 110 inks 485 valves 260 fi rst law 102 in phase 459 internal energy 43, 251 second law 103 insulation (thermal) internal kinetic energy 127 third law 103 aluminum foil 232 internal potential energy 127 Keplerian telescopes 519 building 234–236 interstitial solution hardening 569 kerosene 607 clothing 231 ion exchange 622 Kevlar 596 fat 230 ion exchange resins 292 kilogram-meters-per-second 50, 54 feathers 230 ion generators 342 kilogram-meters-per-second2 16 fi berglass 234 ionic bonds 577, 615 kilogram-meters2 34, 36 foam sheets 234 ion propulsion rockets 107 kilogram-meters2-per-second 52, 54 food 236 ions 328, 342, 634–645 kilograms 15, 16 glass wool 234 iPods. See audio players kilograms-per-meter3 128, 129 gold foil 232 iron kilometers-per-hour 15 hair 230 austenite 569 kilowatt-hours 44 lamé fabrics 232 cast 564 Kimax 247 loose fi ll 235 coeffi cient of volume expansion 242 kinetic energy 28, 29, 43, 47, 101 low-emissivity windows 236 ferrite 566 internal 127 metallic fabrics 232 magnetism in 354 rotational motion and 47 motionless air 231 magnetization of 356 translational motion and 47 personal fi re shelters 233 ores 572 kitchen sink, the 157 polished silver 236 pig 572 kitchen tools shiny surfaces 232 rusting of 642 blenders 11 skin 230 ironing 590 burners 209 styrofoam 236 isolation transformers 369 coff ee grinders 11

706 Index dishwashing liquids 624 blueing 627 object distance 496 food processors 11 brighteners 627 zoom 497–498 garlic presses 39 builders 622 Lenz’s law 366 jar openers 39 detergents 331, 623 levels (quantum) 403, 463 juicers 39 dry cleaning 630–631 conduction 406 knives 564 dryer sheets 331 Fermi 404 nutcrackers 39 enzymes 625 valence 406 ovens 210–211 fabric hardeners 628 leverage 34 pots 209–210 fabric softeners 331, 628 lever arms 36 scales 62, 65 foam boosters 629 levers 38–40 sponges 590 foam stabilizers 629 mechanical advantage 37–38 knives 564–571 soaps 617–618 lift forces 160 knuckleballs 167 static electricity in 324–329 adjusting 171 Kutta, M. Wilhelm 170 eff ects of detergents 331 Aerobies 188 Kutta condition 170 eff ects of dryer sheets 331 airplane 169–171 lacrosse sticks 40 eff ects of fabric softeners 331 angle of attack 171 lamé fabrics 232, 233 water softening 621–623 Bernoullian view 170 laminar fl ow 154, 160 Lava Lamps 226–227 boomerangs 188 viscosity and 154 lawn bowling 75 curveballs 167 lanthanides 464, 634 lawnmowers, rotary 11 Frisbees 186–187 laser amplifi ers 471 law of universal gravitation 101 golf balls 167 laser beam 472 laws of motion Newtonian view 170 beam waist 510 Newton’s fi rst law 11 sailboats 185–186 laser diodes 475, 509, 510, 511, 513, 514 Newton’s fi rst law of rotation 33 submarines 183–184 laser medium 471, 472 Newton’s second law 13 light 219 population inversion 472 Newton’s second law of rotation 35 atoms and 465 pumping of 473 Newton’s third law 25–26 coherent 471 laser oscillators 471 Newton’s third law of rotation 53 collimation 503, 510 laser printers 340, 472 relativistic 104 diff raction of 510 lasers 470–475 laws of thermodynamics 251–253 dispersion of 458 diode 475, 513 fi rst law 251 incoherent 471 erbium-doped fi ber amplifi ers 473, second law 252 infrared 204, 455 513 third law 253 interference of 459 giant pulse 473 zeroth law 251 photons 407, 465 laser amplifi er 471 LEDs. See light-emitting diodes (LEDs) primary colors of 462 laser beam 472 lens equation 496 Rayleigh scattering of 456 laser medium 471 lenses 490 refl ection of 457–458 population inversion 472 achromatic doublets 497, 519 refraction of 456–457 state structure of 472 antirefl ection coated 497 speed of 104, 424, 455 laser oscillator 471 aperture 494 spontaneous 470 Nd:YAG 473 collimation 503 stimulated 470 pumping of 473 contact 592 ultraviolet 204, 282, 455 stimulated emission of radiation 470 converging 491 visible 204, 454–455 stimulated light 470 depth of focus 494 wavelengths 220 Ti:sapphire 473 diaphragms 494 light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 474–475 variable wavelength 473 diff raction limited 511 band gap in 475 latent heat of evaporation 215 dispersion in 519 colors of 474 latent heat of fusion. See latent heat of diverging 502, 519 light blinkers 242 melting electromagnetic 526 lightbulbs, incandescent. See incandes- latent heat of melting 213 eye 501 cent lightbulbs latent heat of vaporization. See latent f-number 497 lightning rods 339 heat of evaporation focal length 495 linear accelerators 559 latexes 482 image distance 496 linear momentum. See momentum latex house paints 481 imperfections in liquid-fuel rockets 97, 106–107 Latimer, Lewis Howard 222 astigmatism 497 liquid crystal polymers 596 lattices 241 chromatic aberration 497 liquid crystals 244 laundry 617–631 coma 497 chiral nematic 244 bleaches 625 spherical aberration 497 nematic 244 chlorine 625 lens equation 496 pitch 244 oxygen 626 magnifying glasses 498–499 selective refl ection 244

Index 707 liquids 212 magnetic fl ux lines 358 energy and 105 non-Newtonian 149 magnetic induction 365–367 gravitational 105 order in 241 magnetic materials inertial 105 response to shear stresses 575 antiferromagnetic 393 momentum and 50 surface tension 610 ferrimagnetic 393 rotational 34, 35, 36 liters 15 ferromagnetic 355, 393 shaking and 13 load-cell scales 65 hard 356 weight versus 23 logical elements soft 356 matches adders 421 magnetic monopoles 353 safety 201 multipliers 421 magnetic polarization 354 strike-anywhere 201 logic elements 420–421 magnetic pole 353 Maxwell, James Clerk 428 CMOS technology 420 magnetic poles 352 mechanical advantage 31, 37–38, 138, inverters 420 north 353 157 limitations on speed of 424 south 353 mechanical waves 305 NAND gates 421 magnetic random access memory medical imaging long-range order 574 (MRAM) 357 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) longitudinal waves 308 magnetic recording 357, 392–398 560–562 loop-the-loops 83 bias currents 396 X-ray 555–556 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon 382 data storage 397 medical radiation therapy 556–560 Lorentz forces 382–383, 444 erase heads 395 Meisner eff ect 364 in induction motors 382 hard drives 397 Meitner, Lise 533 in lightbulbs 384 magnetoresistive heads 398 melting in magnetrons 440 particles 394 latent heat of 213 in picture tubes 444–445 common types (Table) 394 temperature 213 in speakers 426 playback heads 396 memory (computer) Love, William T. 363 recording heads 395 dynamic 419 Love Canal 363 tape recorders 395–398 fl ash 419 lubricating oils 608 video recorders 397 magnetic disk 397 lubrication 42, 157 wire recorders 393 magnetic random access memory graphite 583 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (MRAM) 357 lubricating oils 608 560–562 Mercury 109 silicon oils 590 magnetic storage 357, 397 mercury 466 Lucite 594 magnetic stripes 357 mercury lamps 467–469 luging 34 magnetic tapes 357, 393–394 mercury tilt switches 242 lumens 224 magnetization 355 metal detectors 372 luminescence 465, 466 magnetostatic forces 352 metal fatigue 568 lunar eclipse 113 magnetrons 439–441 metallic bonds 567, 615–616 Lunar Landers 232 magnets 352–361 metallic fabrics 232 lunar sidereal day 114 breaking 353 metaloids 464 lunar solar day 114 button 352–354 metals Mach numbers 181 demagnetization of 356 alloys 568 maglev trains. See magnetically levitated electromagnets 359–361 brittle fracture 568 trains limited energy of 367 dispersion hardening 569 magnetically levitated trains 385–391 magnetization of 355 ductile fracture 568 alternating current levitation 388 permanent 357 ductility 568 electrodynamic levitation 389 plastic sheet 356 interstitial solution hardening 569 feedback-stabilized magnetic levita- refrigerator 352 interstitial spaces 569 tion 387–388 magnifying glasses 498 metal fatigue 568 Halbach magnet arrays 390–391 magnitude 10 quantum physics of 405 linear motors 391 Magnus force 166 substitutional solution hardening 569 magnetic data storage 397 makeup 487–488 supersaturation in 570 magnetic dipoles 353 mallets 58 tensile strength 568 magnetic disk memory 420 rubber 58 thermally compensated 445 magnetic domains 355 soft 58 toughness 568 magnetic drag forces 390 Manhattan Project 536–538 work-hardening 568 magnetic fi elds 357, 561 marbles 75 meteors 116 of current-carrying coils 360–361 marksmen 23 meters 15–16, 16 of current-carrying wires 360 Mars 109 meters-per-second 16 relationship to electric currents 359 mass 11, 13, 16, 17–18, 23 meters-per-second2 16 relationship to electric fi elds 366, 429 center of 33 meters2 127, 129

708 Index meters3 15, 128, 129 relativistic 104 natural resonances 294–295 methane 609, 612 rockets and 97 negative charge 325 metric tons 15 transfers of 51, 54 nematic liquid crystals 244 micelles 619 monopoles (magnetic) 353 neon 463 inside-out 631 monounsaturated oils 477 neon signs 370, 462–463 microphones 392, 415 monsoons 278 Neptune 112 microscopes 524–526 months 109 net electric charge 325 electron 525–526 moon, the 109, 112–113 net forces 26–27, 41 optical 524–525 dark side of 114 acceleration and 26 diff raction in 525 far side of 114 net magnetic pole 353 eyepieces 524 gravity of 315 net torques 37 magnifi cation 524 phases of 112–113 network formers 576 objectives 524 mops 40 neutral (electrical) 326 scanning electron 526 MOSFETs 417 neutrinos 558 scanning probe 525 channel, the 417 neutron bombs. See fusion bombs, neu- scanning tunneling 526 complementary MOS (CMOS) logic tron transmission electron 526 420–421 neutrons 325, 530, 533 microwave heating 437 drain, the 417 decay of 558 microwave ovens 436–441 gate, the 417 discovery of 533 browning foods in 438 n-channel 417 thermal 544 defrosting in 438 schematic diagram symbol 417 Newton, Sir Isaac 11, 14, 20, 100–101, grid-covered window 438 switching behavior of 417 110 heating food 437 p-channel 420 newton-meters (energy) 30 heating water 437 schematic diagram symbol 420 newton-meters (torque) 34, 36 issues with metal in 438 switching behavior of 420 Newton’s magnetrons 439–441 source, the 417 fi rst law of motion 11 metal decorations in 438 motion fi rst law of rotational motion 33 metal walls 438 cyclotron 440, 445, 551 second law of motion 13 nonuniform cooking in 439 relative 41 second law of rotational motion 35 power supplies 441 rotational 31 third law of motion 25–26, 96–97 conventional 441 simple harmonic 296 third law of rotational motion 53 inverter 441 thermal 127, 200 Newtonian refl ecting telescopes 522 turntables 439 translational 31 newtons 16 microwaves 436–437 uniform circular 81 newtons-per-ampere-meter 358 miles-per-hour 15 motor oils 148, 608 newtons-per-coulomb 336 milliliters 15 mountain biking 34 newtons-per-meter2 127 mirrors Mount St. Helens 192 nichrome 225 concave 520 mp3 players. See audio players nitrocellulose 587, 593 convex 520 multipliers 421 noble gases 464, 633 fl at 520 musical instruments nodes 74, 305 heat 236 clarinets 309 non-metals 464 parabolic 503, 521 drums 309–310 nonpolar molecules 611 semitransparent 471, 472 fl utes 309 normal (direction) 26 two-way 472 harmonics in 306 normal forces 26 miscibility 612 music boxes 313–314 Northern Hemisphere seasons 114 modes (vibrational) 304 pipe organs 307–309 North Pole sunlight 114 modulated carrier waves 447 timbre of 306 north star 114 Molasses Flood, the 568 violins 304–307 nozzles 153 molecules 127 music boxes 313–314 de Laval 97 bonds in 199 coil springs 314 jet engine 176 equilibrium separation 199 fan-fl y 314 rocket 97 vibrations in 199 metal combs 313 steam turbine 96 moment of inertia 35. See also rotation- music cylinders 314 nuclear accidents al mass Mylar balloons 134 Chernobyl 549 momentum 49, 50, 54 Mylar bottles 135 Th ree Mile Island 548 angular. See angular momentum n-channel MOSFETs. See MOSFETS, Tokai-mura 549 force versus 52 n-channel Windscale 548 impulses and 51 n-type semiconductors 408 nuclear fi ssion 533 linear 49 nails 58 chain reactions 534 mass and 50 NAND gates 421 moderators 545

Index 709 nuclear forces 530 regeneration of 614 amplitude of 296 nuclear fusion 532 catalytic cracking 613–614 frequency of 300 nuclear potential energy 44, 533, 540 catalytic isomerization 614 period of 296 nuclear processes catalytic reforming 614–615 oscillators alpha decay 534 cryogenic distillation 612 anharmonic 298 beta decay 533 distillation 611–612 harmonic. See harmonic oscillators chain reactions 534 hydrotreating 605 laser 471 induced fi ssion 533 removing water and salt 610–611 osmosis 289 nuclear fi ssion 533 thermal cracking 613 reverse 290–291 nuclear fusion 532 vacuum distillation 612 semipermeable membranes 289 radioactive decay 532 oils osmotic pressure 290 nuclear reactors 543–551 drying 476 Otis, Elisha Graves 119 accidents 548 lubricating 608 Otto, Nikolaus August 260 boiling water 545 monounsaturated 477 ounces 15 breeder 548 motor 148, 608 outlets (electric). See electric outlets delayed neutrons in 544 polyunsaturated 477 out of phase 459 fast fi ssion 546 saturated 477 ovens 210–211 fusion reactors 550–551 olefi ns 600, 602 brick pizza 211 inertial confi nement fusion 550 open electric circuits 344 convection 211 magnetic confi nement fusion 551 optical communications 513–514 conventional 210–211 pressurized water 546 optical components microwave 436–441 safety in 548–549 concave mirrors 520 Owens Valley aqueduct 141 thermal fi ssion 544 converging lenses 491 ozone 282, 341 graphite moderated 545 convex mirrors 520 chlorofl uorocarbons and 283 heavy water moderated 545 diverging lenses 502 depletion of 257, 283 moderators 545 electron optics 526 p-channel MOSFETs. See MOSFETS, water moderated 545 fl at mirrors 520 p-channel tokamaks 551 optical fi bers 511–513 p-n junctions 408 nuclear weapons 528–542 parabolic mirrors 503, 521 depletion regions 408 Davy Crockett 538 polarization beam splitters 509, 514 forward biased 410 fallout from 540 quarter-wave plates 510 quantum physics of 408–410 Fat Man 538 optical fi bers 435, 511–513 reverse biased 410 fi ssion bombs 534–538 dispersion shifted 512 p-type semiconductors 408 cannon-triggered 536 erbium-doped fi ber amplifi ers 513 paints 476–488 implosion-triggered 537 graded index 512 artist’s oil 476 fusion bombs 538–540 multimode 512 binders 476 Hiroshima 536 single-mode 512 blocking 483 Little Boy 536 total internal refl ection in 512 drying oils Nagasaki 538 orbital path 111 catalysts in 478 nucleation 218, 574 orbital period 100 dyes 476 nucleons 530 orbital plane 114 fl uorescent 486 nucleus 325, 530 orbitals 463 glow-in-the-dark 487 discovery of 533 shells 464 iridescent 484 nutcrackers 39 orbits 100–102, 111–112 latex house 481–482 nuts (fasteners) 156 angular momentum and 103 oil-based house 478 Nylon 595 circular 101 pearlescent 484 O-rings 157 elliptical 101, 116 phosphorescent 487 objects geostationary 101 pigments 476 extended 305 geosynchronous 101 problems with 486 inertial 14 hyperbolic 101 wetting 479 Oersted, Hans Christian 359 low-earth 100 paper punches 39 oersteds 394 orbital path 111 paper towels, rolls of 11 Ohm, Georg Simon 350 order 252 parachuting 165 Ohm’s law 350 crystalline 241 paraffi ns 587, 600, 601 ohmic devices 350 long-range 574 parallel 30 ohms 350 orientational 243 parallel electric circuits 421 oil-based house paints 478 positional 243 particle accelerators 559–560 oil refi neries 600–616 ordered energy 43 particle density 132 catalysts 613 orientational order 243 particles cyclone separators 614 oscillations 295 accelerators 559

710 Index Bose 471 phase equilibrium 214, 218, 284 primary colors of 462 Fermi 403 triple point 285 white 458, 483 indistinguishable 403, 470 phases, material 212 calcium compounds 484 ions 328 gaseous 212 lead compounds 484 magnetic recording 394 liquid 212 titanium dioxide 484 subatomic 325 solid 212 Ping-Pong 78 antineutrino 558 phase separation 218, 285 spinning balls 167 electrons 325 phase transitions 213 pints 15 neutrinos 558 condensation 215 pipe organs 307–309 neutrons 325 deposition 216 projecting sound 312–313 protons 325 evaporation 214 vibrating air columns 307–309 Pascal, Blaise 127 freezing 213 pipes Pascal’s principle 118, 138–139 melting 213 narrowing of 158 pascals 127, 129 solid-to-solid 569, 583 petroleum 150 pattern of fl uid fl ow sublimation 216 pistons 118 around a Frisbee 187 supercooling 574 pitch (liquid crystals) 244 around a high-speed ball 163 superheating 218 pitch (propeller) 174 around a low-speed ball 160 supersaturating 570 pitot tubes 180 around a medium-speed ball 162–163 Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Math- Planck, Max 465 around a sail 185 ematica 11 Planck constant 465 around a spinning ball 166 phonographs 515–516 plane polarization 510 around level symmetric wing 169 diamond styluses 515 planes (wood) 58 around lifting wing 171 stereo reproduction 515 planets 109–110 around stalled wing 172 phosphorescence 487 plasma frequency 236 around tilted wing 170 phosphors 443, 466 plasmas 467 at a bend in a hose 151 photoconductors 332 plastic deformation 566 through a nozzle 153 quantum physics of 407 absence in glasses 568 Pauli, Wolfgang 403 photodiodes 500, 511 plasticizers 590 Pauli exclusion principle 403–404, 471 photoelectric eff ect 555 plastics. See polymers Pauling, Linus 634 photoemission 556 macromolecular hypothesis 587 Pauling electronegativity. 634 photographic fi lm 500 players (audio). See audio players pawls (ratchet) 94 photons 282, 407, 465, 470 Plexiglas 594 pearlite 569 Bose particles 471 pliers 39 pendulums 295–296 duplication of 472 plumb bobs 67 clocks 297–298 gamma ray 558 plumbing period of 296 produced by stimulated emission 470 air pockets in 158 pennyfarthing 93 ultraviolet 465 narrowing of 158 perfumes 488 X-ray 466, 553 water hammer in 158 perigee 101 picture tubes Pluto 112 perihelion 116 accelerating anode, the 445 plutonium 536–538 period 296 anode, the 444 Poiseuille’s law 150 periodic table of elements 464, 632 black-and-white 443–445 pokers (fi re) 199, 200, 202 Perkin, William Henry 485 cathode, the 444 Polaris 114 permanent magnets 357 color 445 polarization permeability of free space 354 demagnetizing 445 circular 510 perpendicular 26 metal mask 445 horizontal 431–432 perpetual motion machines 273–274 crossover point 444 plane 510 personal fi re shelters 233 grid, the 444 vertical 431 perspiration 215, 216 magnetic defl ection 444–445 polarization (electric) 327, 342 petroleum 600 magnetic focusing 444 polarization (magnetic) 354 sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen in 604 piezoelectric materials 300, 426 polarization beam splitter 509 petroleum products pigments 476 pole (magnetic). See magnetic pole asphalt 608 colored 484–485 poles (magnetic). See magnetic poles diesel fuel 607 metal compounds 485 polonium 533 gases 609 fl uorescent 486 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 592 gasoline 605 iridescent 484 polymerization 478, 592, 596–597 kerosene 607 metallic 484 polymers 587–598 lubricating oils 607 metamerism 486 atactic homopolymers 591 paraffi n waxes 608 pearlescent 484 blocking 483 petrolatum 608 phosphorescent 487 cellulose 201, 591–592

Index 711 cellulose acetate 594 gravitational 44, 101 projectile motion 20–23 chicle 589 internal 127 projectors 502–505 cis-polyisoprene or natural rubber nuclear 44, 533, 540 collimation of light 503 592 pressure 139 movie 504 co-polymers 591 stable equilibrium and 89 color 504 degrees of crystallinity 588 static stability and 89 Kinetoscope 504 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 592 unstable equilibrium and 90 sound 504 hair 593 pots 209–210 Technicolor 505 high-density polyethylene (HDPE) aluminum 209 Vitascope 504 587 anodized aluminum 210 still 504 liquid crystal 596 cast iron 209 video 505 low-density polyethylene (LDPE) 588 composite 210 propane 609, 612 monomers 590 copper 209 pressure regulators 145 nitrocellulose or celluloid 587, 593 double boilers 215 propellers Nylon 595 stainless steel 210 aerodynamics of 174 plasticizers 590 Poulsen, Valdemar 393 airplanes 174–175 poly(dimethyl siloxane) or silicon oil pound-feet-per-second 54 angle of attack 174 590, 592 pound-feet2 36 cavitation 189 poly(methyl cyanoacrylate) or Super- pound-feet2-per-second 54 laminar fl ow 189 glue 595 pounds-force 16 limitations of 174 poly(methyl methacrylate) or Plexi- pounds-force-per-foot2 129 noise 189 glas 589, 594 pounds-mass 16 pitch 174 crazing of 594 pounds-mass-per-foot3 129 powerboats 189 poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) or power 44 stalling 174 Kevlar 596 power adapters 400–413 submarines 189 poly(vinyl acetate) or acetate 589 capacitors in 412 thrust 174 poly(vinyl chloride) or vinyl 590 diodes in 411–412 turbulent fl ow 189 polymerization 590, 592, 596–597 switching 413 proteins 626 polytetrafl uoroethylene or Tefl on 595 transformers in 411 decomposing 626 regimes powerboats 181–182 denaturing 282 glass–rubber transition regime 589 propellers 189 protons 325, 530 glassy regime 589 power generation spin of 560 liquid fl ow regime 589 hydroelectric 143, 195 pry-bars 39 rubbery fl ow regime 589 nuclear 547 Ptolomy 109 rubbery plateau regime 588, 589 solar collectors 521 pulleys 120 statistical co-polymers 591 wind power 195 multiple 120–121 temperature eff ects on 588–590 Prandtl, Ludwig 162 pulsars 295 reptation 589 precession 91 pumps 118 thermoplastics 590 precession of the equinoxes 109, 115 energy and 139 thermosets 590 precipitation hardening 570 heat 250–254 vulcanization of 590, 592 pressure 127, 129 water 139 α-keratin 593 atmospheric 129 Purity Distilling Company 568 β-keratin 593 density, temperature, and 128 pyramids, the 25 polyunsaturated oils 477 dynamic variations in 138 Pyrex 247 pool 75–77. See also billiards static variations in 138 Pythagoras 304 poor metals 464 pressure drag 162 quanta 407 population inversion 472 pressure gradients 137 quantization 325 porous fi lters 194 pressure imbalances quantum physics 402–405 position 10, 13–14, 16, 19–20 acceleration and 137 advent of 528 angular 32, 35, 36 bends in fl uid fl ow and 152 band gaps 405 equilibrium 61 pressure potential energy 139 bands 405 of falling balls 19–20 pressure regulators 145 Bose particles 471 positional order 243 pressure variations conduction bands 406 positive charge 325 dynamic 151 electrical conductors 406 positron 557 static 129, 140 electrical insulators 406 potential energy 28, 29, 44 primary additive colors 462 electron standing waves 403 acceleration and 55 primary colors of light 462 excited states 465 chemical 44, 199, 328, 632 primary colors of pigment 340, 462 Fermi energy 404 elastic 44, 62 primary subtractive colors 462 Fermi level 404 electrostatic 44, 328 principle of equivalence 105 Fermi particles 403

712 Index ground state 465 radioactive decay 532 research balloons 134 Heisenberg uncertainty principle 531 half-life 532 Research Corporation 342 insulators 406 radioactivity 335, 532 resistors 416 levels 403 discovery of 533 schematic diagram symbols 416 metals 405 exponential decay 532 resonant cavities 440, 560 orbitals 463 radio direction fi nders 179 resonant energy transfer 307 Pauli exclusion principle 403–404 radio telescopes 525 in antennas 431 photoconductors 407 radio waves 429 in Tacoma Narrows Bridge 307 photons 407 radium 533 in tank circuits 431 quanta 407 rainbows 457–458 in tidal channels 317 semiconductors 407 rakes 40 to body parts while running 307 states 465 ramjets 176 to coff ee while walking 307 stimulated emission of radiation 470 ramps 24–35, 156 rest energy 105 tunneling 419, 532 random access memory (RAM) 419 restoring forces 61, 88 valence bands 406 rare earths 634 reverse biased 410 wave-particle duality 402 ratchets 94 reverse osmosis 290–291 quantum theory 528 Rayleigh scattering 456 Reynolds number 155 quantum tunneling 419 reaction forces 25 eff ects of (Table) 164 quarter-wave plates 510 reaction products 201 rifl es 262 quarts 15 real images 490, 520 bullets 165 quartz crystals 300 rear-wheel drive 48 rifl ing grooves 165 quaternary ammonium compounds 628 rebound energy 70 right-hand rule 32 quenching (thermal) 570 recording heads 395 Roberval, Gilles Personne de 67 rack and pinion mechanism 63 red sunrises 456 rocket engines rackets, tennis 34–35, 71 red sunsets 456 hypergolic-fuel 107 racquet balls 70 reference frames 14 liquid-fuel 97 radians 32, 36, 193 inertial 14 solid-fuel 106 radians-per-second 32, 36 refl ecting telescopes 520–522 rockets radians-per-second2 35, 36 refl ection 321, 457–458 aerodynamic stability of 165 radiation dull 480 centers of mass 99 electromagnetic 454, 540 selective 244 Congreve 106 particle 540 specular 480 guide stick 106 thermal 203–204, 219–222 refraction 320 gunpowder 106 radiation (thermal) 203–204 refrigerators 234, 257 Hale 106 radiation therapy 556–560 magnets 352 hypergolic liquid fuels 107 radiation trapping 468 relative humidity 215–216 ion propulsion 107 radiative transitions 465 measuring 216 liquid-fuel 106–107 radio 428–435 saturated 217 momentum and 97 amplitude modulation (AM) 433 relative motion 41 single stage to orbit (SSTO) 100 broadcast specifi cations 434 relativistic energy 104 solar sails 107–108 vertical polarization of 433 relativistic laws of motion 104 solid-fuel 106 antennas 429–431 relativistic momentum 104 stability 98–99 bandwidth 434 relativity ultimate speed of 99–100 cable 435 general theory of 105 V2 106 carrier frequency 434 special theory of 104 rod cells 462 carrier waves 446 relays (electromagnetic) 361 Roentgen, Wilhelm Conrad 552 cell phones 435 representations Roget, Peter Mark 504 frequency modulation (FM) 433, 434 analog. See analog representations Rohrer, Heinrich 526 broadcast specifi cations 434 audio roller bearings 46, 47 circular polarization of 433 digital 414 Rollerblading 9, 34 line-of-sight issues 434 electrical 392 roller coasters 82–85 lower sideband wave 447 electromagnetic 433–434 choosing seats 84–85 receiver 430 magnetic 395–396, 504 hills 83 satellite dishes 525 optical 504 loop-the-loops 83 sideband waves 447 digital. See digital representations multiple car 84 telescopes 525 video rollers 45 transmitter 429 digital 450–452 rolling friction 78 upper sideband wave 447 electrical 446 wear and 78 vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation electromagnetic 446 Roman aqueducts 142 448 reptation 589 roofs and wind 161

Index 713 rotary lawnmowers 11 transformer symbol 412 shock waves 174, 181, 262 rotational equilibrium 64 vacuum tube symbol 425–426, 426 from airplanes 181 rotational inertia 32, 34, 49 scissors 39 from guns 262 rotational mass 34, 35, 36 scramjet engines 176 from powerboats 182 angular momentum and 52 screwdrivers 39 shooting 23 rotational motion 31 screws 39, 58, 117, 156 short electric circuits 344 kinetic energy and 47 threads 156 shot towers 20 rotational stability 88 scroop 628 shuffl eboard 75 rotors (amusement park) 86 scuba diving 135, 144 shuttlecocks. See badminton birdies rowing machines 33 decompression sickness (the bends) sideband waves 447 rubber 146 sidereal balloons 134 pressure regulators 145 day 113 bumpers 49, 51 weight belt 136 year 115 mallets 58 seals 157 signals natural 592 seasons 109, 114–116 audio 422 silicone 592 seatbelts 56 chrominance 448 synthetic 593 second law of thermodynamics 252 luminance 448 vulcanization 592 seconds 15–16 video 446–449 washers 156 Seebeck eff ect 245 silicon 407 rubies 586 seed bubbles 218 Silly Putty 149, 589 rugby 78 seed crystals 574 silver running seesaws 30–40 color of 236 on a track 78 balancing 30, 37 simple harmonic motion 296 on sand 78 seiches 317 simple machines shoes 78 selective refl ection 244 inclined planes 24 sports bras 307 self-organizing behavior 618 levers 38–40 rusting 642 semiconductors 245, 402–403, 407 pulleys 120 Rutherford, Ernest 533 depletion regions 408 screws 117, 156 sailboats 185–186 doped 407 wedges 58, 564 aerodynamic lift forces 185 gallium-arsenide 407 wheels 41–48 hydrodynamic lift forces 185 germanium 407 single bonds 477 keels 185 n-type 408 siphons 142 sails 185 p-type 408 SI units 15 sailing 185–186 photoconductors 332 skating 9–16, 34 sapphires 586 silicon 407 ice skates 9 satellite dishes 525 thermal runaway in 350, 410 Rollerblades 9 satellites 34 semipermeable membranes 289 skidding 48 saturated 217 semitransparent mirrors 472 on ice 215 saturated fats 620 sensors skiing 31, 34 saturated oils 477 acceleration 57 downhill 35 Saturn 109, 112 image 490, 500–501 jet 185 saws 58 light 504, 511 water 185 scales oxygen 266 sky, blue 456 acceleration and 63–64 pressure 392 skydiving 165 balance 66–68 temperature 245–246 sledding 34 bathroom 63–64 separation sledge hammers 58 grocery 62–63 equilibrium 199 sliding friction 43 load cell 65 phase 285 thermal energy and 44 spring. See spring scales series electric circuits 421 wear and 44–45 using several at once 64 shaking and mass 13 sliding traction 48 scattering shampoos 331, 624, 629 slipperiness, of ice 215 Bremsstrahlung 553 Shannon limit 451 slip planes 567 Compton 555, 557 shape, equilibrium 61, 69 smoke jumpers 233 elastic 555 shears 39 snowboarding 34 Rayleigh 456 shear strain 565–566 snowfl akes 216 schematic diagrams 411 shear stress 565, 575 soap bubbles 458–460 capacitor symbol 411 shed vortices 155 soaps 617–618 diode symbol 402 shells (atomic) 464 carboxylate group 620 MOSFET symbol 417, 420 Shenandoah, the 133 fatty acids 620 resistor symbol 416 ships. See boats micelles 619

714 Index sodium hydroxide (lye) 620 solutions 218, 618, 621, 634, 635, 637 spring constant 61 soccer 13, 78 supersaturated 218 springlike forces 304 spinning balls 167 solvation shells 290 springs 61 soda machine regulators 146 sonic booms 182, 262 aging 65 sodium lamps 468 sound 181, 303, 392 elastic limit 62 soft (stiff ness) 62 analog representations of 392, 395– fi rm 62 soft magnetic materials 356 396, 433, 504, 515 Hooke’s law and 61 solar digital representations of 414, 506– soft 62 day 113 507 spring constant 61 eclipse 113 fundamental pitch 305 spring scales 60–68 solar collectors 521 musical acceleration and 60 solar sails 107–108 attack 307 weight and 60 solar system 109–110 decay 307 sprockets 93 solar wind 116 envelope 307 sputtering 467 solid-fuel rockets 106 notes 304 squash 78 solid-to-solid phase transitions 569 scales 304 St. Elmo’s fi re 339 solids 212 sustain 307 stability amorphous 574 well-tempered scale 304 dynamic 90 annealing 568 musical intervals 303 rotational 88 brittle fracture 568 fi fths 303 static 88 crystalline 241 octaves 303 translational 88 dislocations 567 pitch 303 stable equilibrium 61, 88 ductility 568 projecting 311–313 energy and 64 elastic deformation 566 propagation in air 310–311 potential energy and 89 electrons in 403 second harmonic pitch 306 stainless steels 571 band gaps 405 speed of 181, 311 18–8 571 bands 405 third harmonic pitch 306 austenitic 571 conduction bands 406 tones 303 thermal damage to 571 Fermi energy 404 sound barrier 181 martensitic 571 Fermi sea 404 sound movies 504 precipitation-hardening 571 levels 403 Southern Hemisphere seasons 115 stair climbing 33 valence bands 406 South Pole sunlight 115 stair machines 33 grain boundaries 567 space heaters 225 stalling 162 grains 567 fans 225 standard units 15–16 insulators 402 radiator 226 standing waves 306, 308, 317 quantum physics of 406 thermostats 242 electron 465 interstitial spaces 569 space shuttles 98 on limited extended objects 318 long-range order 574 speakers (audio) 393, 426 stars 109–110 metals 405 special theory of relativity 104 states 465 quantum physics of 405 specifi c heat 205, 241 static cling 326–327 order in 241 of common substances (Table) 205 static dissipators 177, 339 photoconductors 332 spectrum static electricity 324–331, 332 quantum physics of 407 blackbody 221 air cleaners 341–342 plastic deformation 566 incandescent lightbulb 221 antistatic products 331 polycrystalline 567 sunlight 221 from carpeting 330 response to shear stresses 575 specular refl ections 480 from laundry 327–329 semiconductors 407 speed 10 from pale rubber tires 330 quantum physics of 407 angular 32 Van de Graaff generators 330 shear modulus 566 speed of light 104, 424, 435, 455 static friction 43 slip in 567 speed of sound 174, 181, 311 coeffi cient of 48 slip planes 567 Spencer, Percy Lebaron 436 static stability 88 supersaturation in 570 spin 560 total potential energy and 89 surface tension 568 spin-dryers 85 static traction 48 toughness 568 sponges 590 stationary bicycles 32 work-hardening 568 spontaneous combustion 478 Staudinger, Hermann 587 yield strength 566 spontaneous emission of radiation 470 steady-state fl ow 140 Young’s modulus 565 spontaneous light 470 steam 212. See also water vapor solstices sports bras 307 boiling from water 216–217 summer 115 sport utility vehicles (SUVs) 48, 92 condensation into water 215 winter 115 springboards 71 depositing into ice 216

Index 715 evaporation from water 214 in cars 272–273 supernovas 534 subliming from ice 216 in swimming 189 superposition 306, 459 steam engines 273 streamlines 140 supersaturation 218, 570 steelmaking airspeed and 152 supersonic fl ight 181 basic oxygen process 572 stress 565 support forces 26, 30 coke 572 birefringence caused by 514–515 surface area. See area fl ux 572 compressive 565 surface tension 316, 568, 610, 618–619 iron ores 572 optical observations of 514–515 surface vibrations 309 lime 572 shear 565–566, 575 surface waves 317 open-hearth process 572 tensile 565 surfactants 482, 619 pig iron 572 strings detergents 331, 623–624 steels 564–573 bowing or plucking 306 soaps 617–618 18–8 stainless 571 fundamental vibrational mode 305 surf beat 322 alloys 568 higher-order vibrational modes 306 surfboards austenitic 569 second harmonic mode 306 lift forces 185 austenitic stainless 571 third harmonic mode 306 stability of 184 bainitic 570 vibrations 304–307 surfi ng 35, 135, 185 ball bearings 47, 70 subatomic particles 325, 540 sweating 233 balls 70 antineutrinos 558 swimming 135, 188–189 case hardening 573 electrons 325 hydrodynamic drag 189 cementite 569 neutrinos 558 propulsion 189 coarse pearlitic 570 neutrons 558 treading water 135 concrete and 571 protons 325 switches dispersion hardening 569 subcritical mass 537 bimetallic strip 242 ferritic 566 sublimation 216 fl ashlight 344 fi ne pearlitic 570 submarines 183–185 knife 344 interstitial solution hardening 569 center of buoyancy 184 mercury tilt 242 magnetism in 354 center of mass 184 relays (electromagnetic) 361 magnetization of 356, 358 fl oating and sinking of 136 switching power adapters 413 martensitic 570 hydrodynamic forces 184 switching power supplies. See switching martensitic stainless 571 hydrofoils 184 power adapters pearlitic 569 noise 189 sympathetic vibration 307 precipitation-hardening stainless 571 propellers 189 Systéme Internationale d’Unités 15 precipitation hardening 570 static stability 184 Tacoma Narrows Bridge 307 quenching (thermal) 570 substitutional solution hardening 569 tangent 30 rusting of 642 subtractive colors tank circuits 429 spring 573 in color laser printers 340 microwave 440 stainless 571 in color printing 485 tape recorders 395–398 substitutional solution hardening 569 in xerographic copiers 340 Tefl on 595 supersaturation in 570 primary 462 telescopes 517–524 tempered 570 summer solstice 115 adaptive optics in 524 Stefan–Boltzmann constant 222 sun, the 109 aperture of 523 Stefan–Boltzmann law 222, 231 blackbody spectrum of 455 atmospheric eff ects on 523 step-down transformers 369, 401, 411, gravity of 316 Cassegrainian refl ecting 522 413 photosphere 455 diff raction in 523 step-up transformers 370, 441 sunburn 282, 465, 488 Galilean 519 step machines 33 sunlight 454–460 Hubble Space Telescope 523 stiff ness 296 polarization of 460 Keplerian 519 of a spring 61 separating the colors of 458 Mt. Palomar 581 stimulated emission of radiation 470 sunrises, red 456 Newtonian refl ecting 522 stimulated light 470 sunscreens 282, 488 objective lenses 518 stools 88 sunsets, red 456 photographic 517 stovetops 209 superballs 70 radio 525 Stradivarius, Antonio 312 superchargers 264 refl ecting 520–522 strain 565 superconductors 364 refracting 518–520 shear 565–566 supercooling 574 visual 517 Strassmann, Fritz 533 supercritical mass 536 eyepieces 518 Stratovision 435 Superglue 595 eyepieces, quality of 520 streamlined 169 superheating 218 magnifi cation of 518 in airplanes 169 nucleation 218 oculars 518

716 Index television 442–452 of a penny 20 bimetallic strip 242 analog 442–449 of a skier 35 clothes iron 242 chrominance signal 448 of a skydiver 165 coff ee pot 242 luminance signal 448 of a surfer 35 electronic 245 NTSC color specifi cations 448 of dust 192 furnace 242 NTSC monochrome specifi cations Tesla, Nikola 365 liquid-fi lled metal bulb 241 443, 446 teslas 358 oven 241 power ineffi ciency 450 Th e Gadget 537 space heater 242 radio frequency spectrum of 449 theory, meaning of the word 528 toaster 242 susceptibility to noise 450 theory of relativity 528 third law of thermodynamics 253 the transition to color 448–449 advent of 529 Th ompson, Benjamin Count Rumford cable 435 thermal conductivity 202, 229 200 carrier waves 446 diamonds 203 thorium 532 digital metals 202 Th ree Mile Island nuclear accident 548 ATSC specifi cations 450 nonmetals 202 thrust forces 96, 174 compression 451 skin 230 tidal bulges 315 power effi ciency 450 thermal energy 29, 32, 43, 44, 198–199, tidal forces 112, 315 radio frequency spectrum of 452 250 tidal resonances 316 line-of-sight issues 435 friction and 44 tides 17, 112, 315 lower sideband wave 447 viscosity and 149 Bay of Fundy 317 picture tubes thermal equilibrium 200, 251 giant 316–317 black-and-white 443–445 thermal expansion 223, 247 high tide 315 color 445 bridges 247 low tide 315 refl ections in cabling 458 concrete pavement 247 neap tides 316 satellite dishes 525 heat-resistant glass pans 247 spring tides 316 sideband waves 447 metal pans 247 time 294 Stratovision 435 railroad tracks 247 tires the transition to digital 449–450 thermal insulation. See insulation (ther- automobile 48 upper sideband wave 447 mal) bicycle 95 vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation thermal motion 127, 200 skidding on ice 215 448 thermal radiation underinfl ated 78 temperature 127, 200–201 spectrum 220–221 Titanic, the 568 absolute zero 128, 201, 253 thermionic emission 425 titanium dioxide 484 body 228–229 thermistors 245 toasters 225 boiling 217 thermocouples 245 tobogganing 34 color 221 thermodynamics 250–253 Tokai-mura nuclear accident 549 melting 213 thermometers toner (xerographic) of common hot objects (Table) 221 alcohols 239 black 332 of space 232 bimetallic strips 242 colors 340 of the earth 275 candy 242 tons (metric) 15 pressure, density, and 128 electronic 245–246 tools skin 230 electronic fever 246 axes 58 zeroth law of thermodynamics 251 Galileo 239 bolt cutters 39 temperature scales 201 glass 238–240 brooms 40 absolute 128 maximum and minimum 240 chisels 58 Celsius 128, 201 meat 242 crowbars 39 Fahrenheit 128, 201 mercury 239 drills 58 Kelvin 128, 201 mercury fever 239 hammers 57 relationships (Table) 201 optical 246–247 hatchets 58 tennis balls plastic strip 243 hoses 148–152 bouncing 70–71, 78 refrigerator 242 mallets 58 fuzz on 164 thermistors 245 mops 40 tennis rackets 34–35, 71 thermocouples 245 nozzles 153 tensile strength 568 wet-dry (relative humidity) 216 paper punches 39 tensile stress 565 thermonuclear bombs. See fusion planes (wood) 58 tension 119, 304 bombs pliers 39 surface 316 thermoplastics 590 plumb bobs 67 terminal velocity 20, 35, 136 Th ermos bottles 237 pry-bars 39 of a ball-point pen 20 thermosets 590 rakes 40 of a baseball 164 thermostats saws 58

Index 717 scissors 39 transparent surfaces 232 volume 129 screwdrivers 39 transverse waves 306 unsaturated fats 620 shears 39 traveling waves 310 unstable equilibrium 90 torque wrenches 39 on limitless extended objects 318 potential energy and 90 wedges 58 treading water 135 unstable equilibriums 387 wheelbarrows 39 treadmills 33 uranium 532, 534–537 wire cutters 39 tricycles 88–90 highly enriched 544 wrenches 39 pedaling 93 slightly enriched 545 topspin 76 triglycerides 620 Uranus 112 torques 33, 34, 35, 36 tritium 539 V2 rockets 106 aerodynamic 99 tropical year 115 vacuum cleaners 190–195 angular impulses and 53 Tropic of Cancer 115 beater brushes 192 forces and 36–37 Tropic of Capricorn 115 canister 194 impact 53 Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin 106 dust entrainment 191 lever arm 36 tsunamis 320 Dyson 194 net 37 tubing (downhill) 34 fans 191, 192–193 torque wrenches 39 tungsten 219 narrow cleaning attachments 191 total internal refl ection 512, 585 tuning forks 301 porous fi lters 194 toughness 568 turbines upright 194 towers jet engines 176 vacuum tubes 425–426, 426 drop 83 steam 547 fi lament, the 425 Eiff el 163 water 195 grid, the 425 shot 20 wind 195 magnetrons 440–441 water 143 turbochargers 264 picture tubes 443–447 tracks turbofan engines 176 plate, the 425 elevator 123 turbojet engines 175, 176 schematic diagram symbol 425–426 running 78 turbulence 153–155, 154 valence bands 406 train 385 inertia and 154 valence levels 406 traction 43, 48 turbulent fl ow 154 Van de Graaff generators 330 sliding 48 chaos and 155 van der Waals forces 588, 606, 616 static 48 inertia and 154 vaporization weight and 48 vortices and 155 latent heat of. See evaporation, latent trains twisted-pair cables 435 heat of alternating current levitation 388 ultracentrifuges 86 vector quantities 10, 21, 647 bullet 385 ultraviolet light 282, 455 acceleration 11 limits to speed of 385 ozone 282 angular acceleration 34–35 electrodynamic levitation 389 skin damage 282, 465, 488 angular impulses 52 feedback-stabilized magnetic levita- tanning 282 angular momentum 52 tion 387–388 unhappy balls 70 angular position 32 magnetically levitated 385–391 uniform circular motion 81 angular velocity 32 trajectory 22 units 15–16, 649–652 components of 21 trampolines 71 English system of 15 direction 10 transformers 365–372, 411 SI 15 forces 11 imperfections of 371 units conversion 649–652 impulses 51 isolation 369 acceleration 16 lever arm 36 schematic diagram symbol 412 angular acceleration 36 linear momentum 50 step-down 369 angular momentum 54 magnitude 10 step-up 370 angular position 36 momentum 50 transistors 417 angular velocity 36 position 10 fi eld-eff ect 417 area 129 torques 34 MOSFETs. See MOSFETs density 129 velocity 10 transition metals 464, 634 energy 30 vectors 647–648 translational inertia 49 force 16 components 648 translational motion 31 mass 16 velocity 10, 13, 13–14, 16, 18–19 kinetic energy and 47 momentum 54 angular 32, 34, 35, 36 translational stability 88 position 16 constant 11, 14 transmissions pressure 129 escape 102 automatic 268 rotational mass 36 exhaust 98 manual 267 torques 36 momentum and 50 transmutation of elements 540 velocity 16 of falling ball 18–19

718 Index terminal 20, 35, 136, 164, 192 vomit comets 83 water guns 143 Venturi, G. B. 191 von Braun, Wernher 106 water hammer 156, 158 Venturi eff ect 191, 262 VORTAC transmitters 180 water molecules 436 Venus 109 vortices 155, 169 water power 195 vernal equinox 109, 115 shed 155, 170 water skiing 185 vertical polarization 431 turbulent fl ow and 155 barefoot 185 vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation wingtip 173 water softening 621–623 448 vulcanization 590, 592 builders 622 vibrational antinodes 305 wagons 46 ion exchange 622 vibrational energy 307 wakeboarding 185 water towers 143 vibrational nodes 74, 305 wake defl ection force 166 water vapor 212. See also steam vibrations 300 wakes Watt, James 273 modes 304 behind airplanes 172 watts 44 fundamental 305 behind automobiles 272 Watts, William 20 higher-order 306 behind balls 160 wave-particle duality 402 surface 309 behind powerboats 182 wavelength 220, 310, 429 video recorders 397 behind supersonic airplanes 181 waves video signals behind swimmers 189 capillary surface 316 analog 446–449 shockwaves in 181 carrier 446 digital 450–452 washers, rubber 156 modulated 447 violins 304–307 watches crests 310, 431 bass bars 312 balance ring 298–299 dispersion 319, 458, 512 belly 312 quartz 300–302 electromagnetic 203, 429 bows 306–307 water circular polarization 433 bridges 312 as a plasticizer 590 gamma rays 558–559 projecting sound 312 boiling into steam 216–217 horizontal polarization 431–432 sound posts 312 boiling temperature 217 in coaxial cables 435 Stradivarius 312 altitude eff ects on 217 in optical fi bers 435 vibrating strings 304–307 chemical eff ects on 218 microwaves 436–437 virtual images 498, 517–518, 520 failure to boil at 218 radio waves 429 viscosity 149, 575 condensation from steam 215 vertical polarization 431 laminar fl ow and 154 distillation 284–287 X-rays 552–553 of common fl uids (Table) 149 evaporation into steam 214 electron 404 thermal energy and 149 faucets 156–157 gravity surface 316 viscous drag 162, 192 freezing into ice 214 interference 322, 459 viscous fl uids 149, 575 gaseous (steam) 212 longitudinal 308 viscous forces 149 hard 621 mechanical 305–306, 308, 309, 310– visible light 454–455 heavy 545 311, 317, 318–319 vision 501–503 liquid 212 quantum 403 cone cells 461 melting from ice 213 refl ection 321, 457–458 contact lenses 592 purifi cation 284–292 refraction 320, 456–457 corneas 501 by activated carbon 291 standing 306, 308, 317 farsightedness 501–502 by distillation 284–287 standing surface 317 iris 501 by fi ltration 291 superposition 306, 459 lens (of the eye) 501 by freezing 288–289 total internal refl ection of 512 nearsightedness 502 by ion exchange 292 transverse 306 retina 501 by reverse osmosis 290–291 traveling 310 rod cells 462 seals 157 traveling surface 317 volleyball softening of 621–623 troughs 310 fl oater serve 167 solid (ice) 213 velocity 310 spinning balls 167 structure of molecules 436 water surface voltage 329 superheated 218 breaking 320–321 on conducting object 337 surface tension 618–619 depth 319 voltage drops 349 triple point 285 dispersion 319 voltage gradients 337 wetting agents 619 interference 322 in current-carrying wires 347 water distribution 137–146 refl ection 321 voltage rises 349 garden watering 148–159 refraction 320 volts 329 gravity and 141 slowing near shore 320 volts-per-meter 337 skyscrapers and 141, 143 speed 319 volume 126, 129 water towers and 143 structure 318–320

Index 719 surf beat 322 horse latitudes 280 developing 333 tsunamis 320 hurricanes 279, 281 fusing to paper 334 wavelength 310 katabatic 278 imaging document 332 wave velocity 310 land breezes 278 precharging 332, 339 wear 42 monsoons 278 toner 332 rolling friction and 78 Santa Ana 278–279 toner cartridges 334 sliding friction and 42, 44–45 sea breezes 278 transferring toner 333 weather prediction subtropical jet stream 280 xylophones 74 limits of 159 thunderstorms 279 Yeager, Charles 181 weathervaning 165 trade 280 year wedges 58 westerlies 280 civil 115 weight 17, 17–18, 23 Windscale nuclear accident 548 sidereal 115 apparent 80 windsurfers tropical 115 mass versus 23 lift forces 185 yield strength 566 spring scales and 60 stability of 184 Young’s modulus 565 traction and 48 windsurfi ng 185 zeroth law of thermodynamics 251 weightlessness wings zodiac, the 109 airplanes 83 air brakes 172 zone refi ning 289 astronauts and 83, 102 airplane 168 zoom lenses 497–498 determining mass during 66 angle of attack 171 drop towers 83 leading edge 168 experience of 83 lift 169 Weightless Wonders 83 spoilers 172 weightlifting 32 trailing edge 168 weight machines 32 vortex generators 172, 177 Westinghouse, George 365 wingtip extensions 173 wetting 479 wingtip vortices 173 wetting agents 619 winter solstice 115 wheelbarrows 39 wire cutters 39 wheels 41–48 wire recorders 393 bicycle 46 wobbling 33 cart 46 woodstoves 198–211 wagon 46 wool. See also hair whiteness 458, 483 ironing 590 winches 121 work 27, 27–29, 29, 43 wind energy and 27–28 buildings and 161 rotational 193 roofs and 161 transfers of energy 54 solar 116 work-hardening 568 wind chill 230 wrenches 39 windmills 195 Wright, Orville 175 windows (glass) 235, 579–582 Wright, Wilbur 174, 175 automobile 161 X-ray imaging 555–556 bulletproof glass 582 X-rays 466, 552–553 cutting 581 bremsstrahlung 553 fl oat glass 580 characteristic 526, 554 low-emissivity 236 computed tomography (CT) scan- multipane 235 ner 556 safety glass 582 elastic scattering 555 tempered glass 515, 582 fl uorescence 526 dicing fracture 582 medical imaging with 555–556 wind power 195 medical therapy 556–558 winds overexposure injuries 553 chinook 278–279 photoelectric eff ect 555 convection cells 277 photoemission 556 Coriolis eff ect and 281 photons 553 cyclones 281 sources of 554 doldrums 280 xerographic copiers 332–342 generation of 276–278 charge image 333 global patterns 279–280 colors 340

720 Index