Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

MEETING ABSTRACTS Open Access Parasite infections of domestic in the Nordic countries – emerging threats and challenges. Proceedings of the 22nd Symposium of the Nordic Committee for Veterinary Scientific Cooperation (NKVet) Helsinki, Finland. 7-9 September 2008 Published: 13 October 2010

These abstracts are available online at http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

climate change have proved likely to be wholly or partly the result of S1 other factors [5,6]. Climate change, parasites and shifting boundaries The primary aim of this paper is to provide a framework for thinking 1* 2 3 Lydden Polley , Eric Hoberg , Susan Kutz about the critical potential connections between climate change, 1 Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary parasites, people, and wildlife in the circumpolar North, and between Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5B4, these groups, climate change, parasites and domestic animals in 2 Canada; National Parasite Collection, Agricultural Research Service, United other areas of the world. States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA; Approaches: Much of the information currently available on climate 3 Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, change and infectious disease relates to people and is based on University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada retrospective analyses of associations between components of climate E-mail: [email protected] involved in climate change and the occurrence of disease in human Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S1 populations [7,8]. In other instances, features of parasite ecology have been linked to model-based scenarios for future climate change to generate Background: Around the world the three major components of climate medium to long-term projections for parasite and disease distribution and change already evident and escalating in magnitude and significance are; occurrence [9,10]. Underlying these approaches are observational and 1) warming; 2) altered patterns of precipitation; and 3) an increased experimental studies in a range of systems exploring, on a more intimate incidence of extreme climatic events [1]. For the structure and function of scale, the relationships between climate and parasite, and sometimes host, ecosystems, impacts of climate change vary with place and with time, ecology [11-13]. All these lines of enquiry are increasing understanding of and among the key outcomes are shifting boundaries for many the mechanisms generating boundary shifts for parasites and diseases components and processes within the systems. Among these resulting from climate change, and are assisting proper targeting of components are pathogens and infectious diseases, including those measures to minimize their impacts on human and health. caused by helminth, arthropod and protozoan parasites in people, Encouragingly, effective climate-based forecasting, developed decades ago domestic animals, and wildlife [2]. for fascioliasis [14], is now a reality for some epidemic human For host-parasite assemblages, boundaries potentially vulnerable to malariainAfrica[15]andisbeingevaluated for other human parasitic climatechangeincludethoseforspatialandtemporaldistributionsof diseases, for example human fascioliasis [16] and leishmaniasis [17] in South hosts and parasites, for parasite survival and development in hosts and in America. Exploration of the effects of climate change on infectious disease the environment, for risks of to hosts at critical points in ecology presents many opportunities for valuable comparisons across parasite webs, and for health effects on hosts, including the emergence pathogen and host groups, and across ecosystems. or resurgence of disease. The often complex and obscure linkages and Central to understanding these climate change-host-parasite linkages is inter-relationships among components of an ecosystem, coupled with the the ability to detect and measure shifts in key features of parasites and uncertain and variable trajectories for climate change, make it difficult to hosts and to assemble data unequivocally establishing or refuting links to identify all these vulnerabilities, particularly in the medium to long term. climate change. Given relevant meteorological data, although monitoring Also, faced with non-overwhelming “stress” most ecosystems display a and surveillance of parasitic infections and diseases may be possible to degree of resilience that may mitigate some of the consequences of some extent in people and domestic animals, even in remote areas with climate change [3,4], and in some circumstances the significance of limited infrastructure, it is usually more difficult in wildlife [18]. A parasites remains essentially unchanged. Finally, some recent shifts in particular issue for this host group, especially in Arctic and the North and diseaseoccurrencethatintuitionmight suggest are associated with other relatively isolated areas, is the currently limited understanding of Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 2 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

the parasite fauna, including species diversity and distribution, and its and vectors that are exposed directly to climate. Key potential boundary health significance, especially in the absence of obvious disease or shifts here are in parasite survival and development rates [12] and, for some mortality [19,20]. A recently initiated and very promising approach in species, in amplification rates for parasites developing in ectothermic hosts northern Canada and elsewhere is to recruit, train and fund northerners, [11]. If warming from climate change enhances these rates, lengthens the particularly harvesters who have frequent contact with wildlife, as health summers vital for the transmission of many northern parasites, and shortens monitors. This program is greatly enhanced in the longer term where and softens the winters then, simplistically, more infective stages of wildlife and wildlife health are introduced into curricula for schools in parasites could be available sooner and the transmission period could be northern communities (see http://www.ccwhc.ca/Sahtu/index.php). extended. In some instances, these shifts have the potential to generate The fragile North: The North is among areas of the world where climate greater parasite abundance in the definitive hosts and to increase their change is already having significant and obvious effects and is impacting health impacts. northerners and the animal and plant resources vital to their health and Some case studies: Despite our currently relatively limited under- well-being [21,22]. For example, at risk on land are keystone wildlife standing of the ecology of host-parasite assemblages in the Arctic and species, including caribou, reindeer, moose, thinhorn sheep and muskoxen, the North, it is possible to speculate how some might be influenced by waterfowl, and fish, together with berries and other foods of plant origin. climate change. Although evidence transforming this speculation to In the surrounding oceans, polar bears, seals, walrus, seabirds and fish are certainty remains sparse, it is important to consider these issues and all vulnerable. Among the elements of climate change threatening the especially to identify potential high-risk scenarios for the emergence of health and sustainability of people and wildlife in the North, perhaps the significant in people and in wildlife. most significant is warming, which is shifting boundaries for animals and Trichostrongyles of Ungulates: Trichostrongyles (e.g. Ostertagia plants [23], and for sea ice, permafrost, snow cover, and hydrology, as well gruehneri and Teladorsagia boreoarcticus) are non-zoonotic as local and regional infrastructure [22]. Warming is also a cause of rising that as adults parasitise the abomasum or intestines. They have direct life sea levels and the consequent erosion and flooding of coastal areas and cycles involving the development of eggs deposited in the feces to free- disruption of coastal ecosystems and settlements [22]. living, infective larvae in the environment. Infection of ungulate hosts is People and animals that inhabit the North are beset by an array of helminth, by ingestion of these larvae. Climate change, as well as its positive or arthropod and protozoan parasites. Most of these are restricted to one of negative effects on the hosts, may shift patterns of development for the the two host groups, but several – the zoonoses – are transmissible parasites’ free-living stages. For example, assuming adequate moisture, from animals to people, often through foods integral to traditional local longer, warmer summers may increase survival and development rates cultures [18]. These zoonoses include (in ) Trichinella, for the free-living stages leading perhaps to shorter generation times and , , ,andToxoplasma,andperhaps to greater abundance and increased longevity for infective larvae in the Cryptosporidium and Giardia. All of these can cause obvious clinical disease environment. This in turn may increase the infection pressure and in people, but not in everyone who is infected. parasite loads for hosts and lead to greater adverse impacts on host Host and parasite vulnerabilities: Many aspects of host and parasite health (e.g. weight loss and reduced conception rates) [28,29] and, for ecology in the North and elsewhere have been identified as potentially species important as food for northerners, on human health. In addition, vulnerable to climate change. Among possible consequences are boundary altered summer transmission dynamics and fall climate may shift patterns shifts that can alter the structure and function of host-parasite of larval inhibition in the gastro-intestinal mucosa, an important assemblages [24,25]. The speed and extent of these shifts vary with place mechanism for overwinter survival by some trichostrongyles in other and with time. For example, those linked to extreme climatic events may areas of the world. A useful preliminary glimpse of the links between be rapid and localized, whereas those resulting from warming may be climate change and altered ecology for trichostrongyles can be derived more gradual and widespread. For definitive and intermediate hosts, from basic information about pre-patent periods and the relationships including arthropod vectors, these shifts include: 1) geographic between environmental temperatures and larval survival and distributions – expansion into new areas and/or loss from old areas and, in development rates as determined in the laboratory and in the field. Data some cases, local to regional extinctions, together with shifts in migration are plentiful on these aspects of trichostrongyles of domestic animals in routes; 2) faunal structure – qualitative changes in the composition of several areas of the world [12], but caution is required when attempting multi-species host communities, including shifts in opportunities for to extrapolate these data to the species of parasites infecting free- contacts between wildlife and domestic animals; 3) trophic linkages - ranging hosts, particularly in the Arctic and the North. including predator-prey relationships important for parasite transmission, Protostrongylids of Ungulates: Protostrongylid nematodes (e.g. especially for several zoonoses [26]; 4) phenology - especially the timing of Umingmakstrongylus pallikuukensis, Parelaphostrongylus odocoiei and breeding seasons and migrations, and the synchronization of the need for P. andersoni) are non-zoonotic and live as adults in the airways, lung and availability of food; 5) level of nutrition – determined by the parenchyma or skeletal musculature. Their life cycles are indirect, involving composition, availability, accessibility and quality of food and water; 6) development of first-stage larvae deposited in feces to infective larvae in health and wellbeing – including patterns of disease occurrence, and gastropod intermediate hosts. Infection of ungulates is by ingestion of infected possible detrimental synergies between parasites, other infectious agents gastropods or of infective larvae spontaneously emerged from the gastropods. and other diseases; 7) host abundance – possibly affecting host density The life cycle stages of these parasites outside the hosts have and thus parasite transmission dynamics; 8) behavioural patterns – vulnerabilities to climate change generally similar to those of the influencing exposure to parasite and in some cases subsequent trichostrongyles but it is possible that gastropod mobility and avoidance environmental contamination with parasites; and 9) parasite evolution [27] of extreme habitat conditions may protect the larvae from some of the - likely to be detected first among protozoans. For people dependent to effects of a changed climate [30]. some extent on wildlife, as many northerners are, parasites may be one of For U. pallikuukensis, an empirical model derived from laboratory and field the means by which climate change results in shifts in the availability and studies demonstrated that warming in the North probably has already quality, or perceived quality, of their food and other key products (e.g. shortened larval development times in gastropods and shifted hides and pelts) of wildlife origin, and in the role of wildlife in their cultural transmission dynamics from a two-year to a one-year adult-to-adult cycle and economic wellbeing and in the sustainability of northern communities. [31]. A similar model for P. odocoilei indicated that temperature For parasites, some potential boundary shifts are similar to those for hosts. constraints affecting larval development rates in gastropods may define For example, as distributions and faunal structures for hosts shift, so too will the northern limits of the parasite’s distribution, and that warming may those for parasites. In some ecosystems, as a result of host switching, both remove these and lead to an expanded parasite distribution [10]. Also, for immigrant (or invasive) and endemic hosts may experience new parasites, U. pallikuukensis, attempted experimental infections indicated that and these may be especially pathogenic for naïve hosts and may result in thinhorn sheep, potentially newly sympatric with muskoxen as a result of emergent or resurgent diseases. Shifts in parasite faunal structure may also shifts in host geographic distributions perhaps associated with climate result from altered trophic linkages, and the levels of nutrition, health and change, are not susceptible to the parasite [32]. wellbeing of hosts will influence their susceptibility to parasites and other Trichinella nativa Trichinella is a genus of zoonotic containing diseases and may lead to shifts in the role of parasites in ecosystem species that infect a range of vertebrates, including people, in many parts dynamics. Outside their mammalian and avian hosts, many parasites have of the world. Trichinella nativa is the primary northern species. Adult life cycle stages in the environment or in ectothermic intermediate hosts Trichinella live in the , and the larvae produced by the Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 3 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

female parasites migrate to skeletal muscle and sometimes other tissues. 7. Cardenas R, Sandoval CM, Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Franco-Paredes C: Impact These larvae are the parasite’s infective stage and transmission is by of climate variability in the occurrence of leishmaniasis in northeastern carnivorism, including feeding on carrion. In the North many host species Colombia. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg 2006, 75:273-277. are infected, and of special concern are those consumed by people, 8. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S: The association between extreme especially polar and black bear, walrus, and seal. Other than in carrion, precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States. life cycle stages of Trichinella are not exposed to the environment and Am. J. Publ. Hlth 2001, 91:1194-1199. any effects of climate change are likely to result primarily from shifts in 9. Ogden NH, Maarouf A, Barker IK, Bigras-Poulin M, Lindsay LR, host faunal structure and trophic linkages [26]. Outside the North, the Morshed MG, O’Callaghan CJ, Ramay F, Waltner-Toews D, Charron DF: ecology of Trichinella may be modified by climate-induced shifts in Climate change and the potential for range expansion of the Lyme contacts between wildlife and domestic animals, and perhaps through disease vector Ixodes scapularis in Canada. Int. J. Parasitol 2006, behavioural shifts in the utilization of infected hosts as food for people. 36:63-70. Cryptosporidium and Giardia: Among the several species and genotypes 10. Jenkins EJ, Veitch AM, Kutz SJ, Hoberg EP, Polley L: Climate change and currently established for each of these two genera of protozoans some are the epidemiology of protostrongylid nematodes in northern ecosystems: zoonotic and infect a range of hosts but most seem restricted to a single Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei and Protostrongylus stilesi in Dall’s sheep host species [33]. Although some species/genotypes are shared between (Ovis d. dalli). Parasitology 2006, 132:387-401. people and domestic animals, the significance of wildlife as sources of 11. Poulin R: Global warming and temperature-mediated increases in human infections, and of people as a source of the parasites for wildlife, cercarial emergence in trematode parasites. Parasitology 2006, remain uncertain and unexplored. Both parasites live primarily in the small 132:143-151. intestine and the life cycles are direct. Infection is by ingestion of infective 12. O’Connor LJ, Walkden-Brown SW, Kahn LP: Ecology of the free-living oocysts (Cryptosporidium) or cysts (Giardia) from the environment or from stages of major trichostrongylid parasites of sheep. Vet. Parasitol 2006, contaminated food or water. Climate change has the potential to alter 142:1-15. survival rates for the cysts and oocysts (which are infective when voided by 13. Van Dijk J, Morgan ER: The influence of temperature on the the hosts) and, because both parasites are found in surface water, shifts in development, hatching and survival of Nematodirus battus larvae. local and regional hydrology may alter parasite distributions and the risks of Parasitology 2008, 135:269. human and animal exposure. In human settlements altered patterns of 14. Ollerenshaw CB, Smith LP: Meteorological factors and forecasts of precipitation and extreme climatic events may disrupt the integrity of the helminthic disease. Adv. Parasitol 1969, 7:283-323. infrastructure, particularly water supplies and sewage disposal, increasing 15. Cox J, Abeku TA: Early warning systems for malaria in Africa: from the risk of human infection. In addition, these elements of the climate blueprint to practice. Trends Parasitol 2007, 23:243-246. change may result in increased run-off and contamination of water with 16. Fuentes MV, Sainz-Elipe S, Nieto P, Malone JB, Mas-Coma S: Geographical animal feces, and increased risk of zoonotic transmission. Information Systems risk assessment models for zoonotic in Priorities for action: For people, domestic animals and especially the South American Andes region. Parassitologia (Roma) 2005, 47:51-156. wildlife, in many situations around the world it is difficult to identify all 17. Chaves LF, Pascaul M: Climate cycles and forecasts of cutaneous the causes of detectable shifts in disease occurrence and, correctly, leishmaniasis, a non-stationary vector-borne disease. PLoS Medicine 2006, efforts are directed principally at mitigation of the disease and at 3:1320-1327. effective control. Additionally, for all host groups, it may be difficult to 18. Polley L: Navigating parasite webs and parasite flows: emerging and tease parasites from among other potential contributors to disease, and re-emerging parasitic zoonoses of wildlife origin. Int. J. Parasitol 2005, to determine the role of climate in shifts in disease ecology and host 35:1279-1294. health [34]. For wildlife, the detection of these shifts may also be 19. Hoberg EP, Polley L, Jenkins EJ, Kutz SJ, Veitch AM, Elkin BT: Integrated hampered by a lack of baseline data for the occurrence and significance approaches and empirical models for the investigation of parasitic ofpathogensanddiseases.Inexploringclimatechangeasacauseof diseases in northern wildlife. Emerg. Inf. Dis 2008, 14:10-17. new patterns of disease, however, much can be learned from the many 20. Kutz SJ, Asmundsson I, Hoberg EP, Appleyard GD, Jenkins EJ, Beckman K, data-derived relationships between key climatic factors and host, parasite Branigan M, Butler L, Chilton NB, Cooley D, Elkin B, Huby-Chilton F, and disease ecology, and the integration of these with projections for Johnson D, Kuchboev A, Nagy J, Oakley M, Popko R, Scheer A, Simard M, climate change trajectories. This capability, coupled with an integrative, Veitch A: Serendipitous discovery of a novel protostrongylid (Nematoda: multidisciplinary and ecological approach, makes possible the Metastrongyloidea) in caribou, muskoxen, and moose from high identification of parasitic infections and diseases likely to be particularly latitudes of North America based on DNA sequence comparisons. Can. J. susceptible to climate change and, with adjustments for regional Zool. 2007, 85:1143-1156. variations, the exploration of some of the possible consequences of 21. Furgal C, Seguin J: Climate change, health, and vulnerability in Canadian accelerating climate change for the occurrence of these diseases and for northern aboriginal communities. Envir. Health Perspect 2006, animal and human health. This is a very urgent need, and without such 114:1964-1970. an attempt to anticipate the possible, society is likely to be a more or 22. Anisimov OA, Vaughan DG, Callaghan TV, Furgal C, Marchant H, Prowse TD, less impotent spectator to the certainty of continual ecological calamities. Vilhjálmsson H, Walsh JE: Polar regions (Arctic and Antarctic). Climate References Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. In Contribution of 1. IPCC: Summary for Policymakers. In Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the on Climate Change. Edited by: Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Edited by: Solomon S, Qin D, Linden PJ, Hanson CE. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge; 2007:653-685. Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M, Miller HL. Cambridge 23. Root TL, Price JT, Hall KR, Schneider SH, Rosenzweig C, Pounds JA: University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA; 2007. Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants. Nature 2004, 2. Patz JA, Graczyk TK, Geller N, Vittor AY: Effects of environmental change 421:57-60. on emerging parasitic diseases. Int. J. Parasitol 2000, 30:1395-1405. 24. Brooks DR, Hoberg EP: How will global climate change affect parasite- 3. Folke C, Carpenter S, Walker B, Scheffer M, Elmqvist , Gunderson L, host assemblages? Trends Parasitol 2007, 23:571-574. Holling CS: Regime shifts, resilience, and biodiversity in ecosystem 25. Hoberg EP, Polley L, Jenkins EJ, Kutz SJ: Pathogens of domestic and free- management. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst 2004, 35:557-581. ranging ungulates: global climate change in temperate to boreal 4. Moore SE, Huntington HP: Arctic marine and climate change: latitudes in North America. Rev Sci Tech 2008, 27:511-528. impacts and resilience. Ecol. Applic 2008, 18(Supplement):S157-S165. 26. Rausch RL, George JC, Brower HK: Effect of climate warming on the 5. Sumilo D, Asokliene L, Bormane A, Vasilenko V, Golovljova I, Randolph SE: Pacific walrus, and potential modification of its helminth fauna. J. Climate change cannot explain the upsurge of tick-borne encephalitis in Parasitol 2007, 93:1247-1251. the Baltics. PLoS ONE 2007, 2:e500. 27. Lebarbenchon C, Brown SP, Poulin R, Gauthier-Clerc M, Thomas F: 6. Sumilo D, Bormane A, Asokliene L, Vasilenko V, Golovljova I, Avsic-Zupanc T, Evolution of pathogens in a man-made world. Mol. Ecol 2008, 17:475-484. Hubalek Z, Randolph SE: Socio-economic factors in the differential 28. Albon SD, Stien A, Irvine RJ, Langvatn R, Ropstad E, Halvorsen O: The role upsurge of tick-borne encephalitis in Central and Eastern Europe. Rev. of parasites in the dynamics of a reindeer population. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Med. Virol 2008, 18:81-95. B 2002, 269:1625-1632. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 4 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

29. Stien A, Irvine RJ, Ropstad E, Halvorsen O, Langvatn R, Albon SD: The Spatial model outputs using observed presence and absence data for impact of gastrointestinal nematodes on wild reindeer: experimental Aedes albopictus, an invasive species in (Southern) Europe, obtained and cross-sectional studies. J. Anim. Ecol 2002, 71:937-945. through an international network of scientific collaborators, are then 30. Kutz SJ, Hoberg EP, Nishi J, Polley L: Development of the muskox compared to potential distribution maps computed using a multicriteria lungworm, Umingmakstrongylus pallikuukensis (Protostrongylidae) in decision analysis approach (MCDA) based on expert knowledge. The gastropods in the Arctic. Can. J. Zool 2002, 80:1977-1985. limits and complementary value of both approaches are discussed. 31. Kutz SJ, Hoberg EP, Polley L, Jenkins EJ: Global warming is changing the The impact of wind on the dispersal of airborne vectors of disease is dynamics of arctic host-parasite systems. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 2005, illustrated using as an example the current invasion of Europe by 272:2571-2576. bluetongue (BTV8) through endemic midges. Understanding these 32. Kutz S, Garde E, Veitch A, Nagy J, Ghandi F, Polley L: Muskox lungworm dispersal patterns is an important step toward adding a dynamic (Umingmakstrongylus pallikuukensis) does not establish in component to such models and increase there predictive potential as experimentally exposed thinhorn sheep (Ovis dalli). J. Wildl. Dis 2004, part of planning tools for control measures: e.g. protection of cattle 40:197-204. trough focussed vaccination. Ongoing work on the development of an 33. Hunter PR, Thompson RCA: The zoonotic transmission of Giardia and airborne trapping device will further improve our knowledge of the 3D Cryptosporidium. Int. J. Parasitol 2005, 35:1181-1190. distribution patterns/ behaviour of the airborne midges and therefore the 34. Cattadori IM, Haydon DT, Hudson PJ: Parasites and climate synchronize quality of the developed models. red grouse populations. Nature 2005, 433:737-741. Finally the example of Vet-geoTools is used to show how an integrated spatial veterinary information system can contribute to the improved management of veterinary outbreaks. S2 Conclusion: It is concluded that the development of such an integrated GIS in vector borne diseases approach using state of the art tools is essential to extract maximal value Guy Hendrickx of geographical information science outputs. This can only be achieved Avia-GIS, Risschotlei 33, B-2980 Zoersel, Belgium through combining state of the art research with state of the art tool E-mail: [email protected] development: a perfect meeting place, and play ground, for academic Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S2 groups and innovative SME’s. Further reading: Information on all projects and outputs mentioned Introduction: Since its origin in the late 1980’s, the development of above can be downloaded directly from the Avia-GIS website at: http:// geographical information science and of geographical information www.avia-gis.com systems (GIS), the toolset enabling to conduct this type of research, has now reached the necessary maturity to be considered a main stream application: GIS evolved from the status of ‘a promising tool’ to the status S3 of ‘a tool achieving its promises’. To maintain this status the entire chain Vector-borne nematodes, emerging parasites in Finnish cervids of events from data collection to data analysis must be adapted to the Sauli Laaksonen*, Antti Oksanen specific needs and requirements of spatial analysis. Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira, Fish and Wildlife Health Research Unit, From spatial data sampling to spatial information systems: Avia-GIS P.O.Box 517, FI-90101 Oulu, Finland is a consulting company specialized in the development of agro- Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S3 veterinary and public health information systems. In Figure 1 below the developed approach enabling the integration of the different steps Summary: There is a growing body of literature documenting the required for the development of data driven spatial information systems expansion of emerging parasites to sub-arctic areas. The potential impact is depicted. In this paper a selection of obtained results are shown when of global warming on shifts in the spatio-temporal distribution and applying this approach to the field of vector borne diseases. transmission dynamics of vector-borne diseases in domesticated and wild First the principal of statistical spatial distribution models is highlighted ungulates may be remarkable [1]. Recent Finnish studies have revealed using the example of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus in Kenya, a tick an array of Filarioid nematodes and associated diseases that appear to be transmitting East Coast fever in cattle. The need for representative ground emerging in northern ungulates [2-4]. data obtained using a robust spatial sampling strategy is highlighted and Members of the genus Setaria (: Onchocercidae) are found in the example of how this was achieved in MODIRISK, a project aiming at the abdominal cavities of artiodactyls (especially Bovidae), equids and mapping mosquito species and biodiversity patterns in Belgium, is given. hyracoids. All produce microfilariae which are present in host blood [5], and known vectors are haematophagous mosquitoes (Culicidae spp) and horn flies (Haematobia spp.) [6]. The Filarioid nematode Setaria tundra was first described in semi- domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Arkhangelsk area, Russia [7]. Setaria infections appear to have emerged in Scandinavian reindeer not later than in the 1960’s. In 1973, S. tundra was observed for the first time in northern Norway where there was an outbreak of peritonitis in reindeer, as there was in Sweden, too. Also in 1973, tens of thousands of reindeer died in the northern part of the Finnish reindeer husbandry area. Severe peritonitis and large numbers of Setaria worms were commonly found. Following this, the incidence of Setaria in reindeer in Scandinavia diminished. According to meat inspection data and clinical reports from practising veterinarians, the latest outbreak of peritonitis in reindeer started in 2003 in the southern and middle part of the Finnish reindeer herding area. In the province of Oulu, the proportion of reindeer viscerae condemned in meat inspection due to parasitic lesions increased from 4.9 % in 2001 to 47 % in 2004 and in Lapland from 1.4 % in 2001 to 43 % in 2006. The focus of the outbreak moved approximately 100 km northwards yearly so that in 2005 only the reindeer in the northernmost small part of Finland (Upper Lapland) were free of changes. In the same time the outbreak seems to have settled in the southern area. [2]. The causative agent was recognized both morphologically and molecular biologically as S. tundra. DNA sequence of S. tundra parasitising reindeer Figure 1 (abstract S2) From spatial data to spatial information systems in North Finland was deposited in GenBank under accession number DQ097309. [2,3]. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 5 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

The habitus of reindeer calves heavily infected with S. tundra expressed References decreased welfare; low body condition and undeveloped winter fur coat. 1. Hoberg EP, Polley L, Jenkins EJ, Kutz SJ, Veitch AM, Elkin BT: Integrated The meat inspection findings of peritonitic reindeer carcasses included approaches and empirical models for investigation of parasitic diseases ascites fluid, green fibrin deposits, adhesions and live and dead S. tundra in northern wildlife. Emerg Inf Dis 2008, 14:10-17. nematodes. Histopathologically, changes indicated granulomatous 2. Laaksonen S, Kuusela J, Nikander S, Nylund M, Oksanen A: Parasitic peritonitis with lymphoplasmacytic and eosinophilic infiltration. No peritonitis outbreak in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Finland. specific bacterial growth was found. No significant impact on meat pH Vet Rec 2007, 160:835-841. values nor on organoleptic evaluation of meat was found. There was a 3. Nikander S, Laaksonen S, Saari S, Oksanen A: The morphology of the significant positive correlation between worm count and the degree of filarioid nematode Setaria tundra, the cause of peritonitis in reindeer peritonitis and a negative correlation between the degree of peritonitis Rangifer tarandus. J Helminth 2007, 81:49-55. and back fat layer [2]. Earlier, Setaria yehi has been associated with low 4. Solismaa M, Laaksonen S, Nylund M, Pitkänen E, Airakorpi R, Oksanen A: grade chronic peritonitis in Alaskan reindeer [8] and S. tundra with mild Filarioid nematodes in cattle, sheep and horses in Finland. Acta Vet. to severe peritonitis together with Corynebacterium sp. in Swedish Scand. 2008, 50:20. reindeer [9]. Our studies revealed that S. tundra can act as a significant 5. Anderson RC: The Superfamily Filarioidea. In Nematode parasites of pathogen for reindeer, which was evident at both ante and post-mortem vertebrates; their development and transmission. 2nd edition. CABI Publishing, inspection and in histological examination. New York; 2000:467-529. In order to monitor the S. tundra parasite dynamics in nature, parasite 6. Shol VA, Drobischenko NI: Development of Setaria cervi (Rudolphi, 1819) samples from wild cervids has also been collected [2]. In moose (Alces in Cervus elaphus maral. Helminthologia (Bratislava) 1973, 14:214-246, alces), the most abundant wild cervid in the reindeer herding area, only (Russian with English abstract). few cases of pre adult encapsulated S. tundra nematodes on the surface 7. Rajevsky SA: Zwei bisher unbekannten Nematoden (Setarien) von of the liver, but no peritonitis, were seen.The moose was evidently not a Rangifer tarandus und von Cervus canadensis asiaticus. Two hitherto suitable host reservoir for the present S. tundra haplotype. The moose unknown nematodes Setaria species from Rangifer tarandus and from Cervus population in northern Finland peaked in the years 2004 and 2005. There canadensis asiaticus Z Infekt Krank. Hyg Haustiere 1928, 35:40-52, (In is a previous report of a peritonitis outbreak in moose in Finnish Lapland German). in 1989 associated with Setaria sp.nematodes[10].Theparasitewas 8. Dieterich RA, Luick JR: The occurrence of Setaria in reindeer. J Wild Dis genetically identified as another haplotype of S. tundra.Althoughthis 1971, 7:242-245. earlier outbreak took place within the reindeer husbandry area, no 9. Rehbinder C, Christensson D, Glatthard V: Parasitic granulomas in reindeer. reports on associated increased morbidity in reindeer exist. A histopathological, parasitological and bacteriological study. Nordisk According to our studies it is possible that the high percentage of the veterinaermedicin 1975, 27:499-507. Kainuu population of wild forest reindeer (Rangifer tarandus fennicus) with 10. Nygren T: Riistantutkimusosaston tiedote. Bulletin of Finnish Game and signs of peritonitis caused by S. tundra (62 % of 34 animals examined) [2] Fisheries Institute 1990, 104, (in Finnish). is associated with the decrease of the population [11] from 1700 11. Kojola I: Petojen vaikutus metsäpeurakannoissa. Suomen Riista 2007, individuals in 2001 to 1000 in 2005. 53:42-48, (in Finnish). Two roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) examined fresh in the field had 12. Haugerud RE: Rådyret vandrer mot nord. Ottar 1989, 5:31-36, (in S. tundra nematodes in abdomen but no signs of peritonitis. According to Norwegian). our studies, the roe deer seems a capable host and asymptomatic carrier 13. Casiraghi M, Bain O, Guerro R, Martin C, Pocacqua V, Gardner SL, for S. tundra. This conclusion is supported by the first S. tundra Franceshi A, Bandi C: Mapping the presence of Wolbachia pipientis on appearance in Scandinavia in the early 1970’s [2] simultaneously with the the phylogeny of filarial nematodes: evidence for symbiont loss during invasion of the roe deer to North Scandinavia [12]. Further, there were evolution. International J Parasit 2004, 34:191-203. minor nucleotide differences between the reindeer S. tundra sequence 14. Cederlund G, Liber O: in Rådjuret, viltet, ekologin och jakten. Almqvist and (648 bp) and that from roe deer parasites in Italy (GenBank AJ544874) Wiksell Tryckeri, Uppsala 1995, 113-117, (in Swedish). [13]. In the consideration of reservoir host capacity of roe deer it is worth 15. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM: Global climate change and noting that especially young male roe deer can migrate hundreds of emerging infectious diseases. JAMA 1996, 275:217-23. kilometres from their birthplace [14]. Our studies have revealed that S. tundra can have a significant pathogenic influence on the health of reindeer, and cause outbreaks also S4 in moose population [10] and may further have consequences to cervid Human medical view on zoonotic parasites population dynamics. Antti Lavikainen The S. tundra outbreak in Sweden in 1973 was associated with unusually Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Haartman Institute, University warm weather and appearance of larger than usual numbers of of Helsinki, Finland mosquitoes and gnats [9]. The summers 1972 and 1973 were also very Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S4 warm in Finland, as were 2002 and 2003 (Finnish Meteorological Institute data, personal communication S. Nikander 2004). Mosquitoes are Summary: From medical point of view, a zoonosis is any infectious considered vectors for S. tundra, but the life cycle in vectors is poorly disease that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans understood [1]. A stricter definition is a disease that normally exists in other Climate change is predicted to increase insect activity and thus promote vertebrate animals, but can be accidentally transmitted to humans [2]. In vector-borne Filarioid nematodes’ emerge to North and becoming a Nordic countries, parasites are rare (and zoonotic parasites even more threat to the wellbeing of arctic ungulates. Especially mosquito-borne unusual) causative agents of human infections probably due to good diseases are among those diseases most sensitive to climate because hygiene and climatic conditions. In most cases, parasitic infections are of climate change would directly affect disease transmission by shifting the foreign origin, except for some relatively common indigenous vector’s geographic range and increasing reproductive and biting rates such as enterobiasis (caused by the human , Enterobius and by shortening the pathogen incubation period [15]. vermicularis) and pediculosis (caused by the human head louse, Pediculus Our research group has studied the invasion and reservoirs of S. tundra in humanus). Finnish cervid populations, which studies we shortly review in this paper. Worldwide, the most significant genus of human parasites is Plasmodium. We highlight the possibility that vector borne parasites may, by the It is the causative agent of malaria, a severe tropical protozoan disease, impact of global climate change, further have consequences to wild and which kills globally more than one million people every year [3]. In domestic ungulates. The study revealed the absence of baseline Finland, about twenty cases of malaria are diagnosed annually [4]. In knowledge concerning temporal parasitic biodiversity in cervids at high 2007, P. knowlesii infection was diagnosed in Finland in a tourist who had latitudes. Therefore it is important to gain knowledge about these traveled in Malay Peninsula [4]. P. knowlesii is a Plasmodium of monkeys. parasites’ ecology, dynamics, and the impact on man and animal health. This was second reported case of P. knowlesii malaria in a tourist. During Acknowledgements: These studies were partly funded by Ministry of the 19th century, malaria was an indoors transmitted disease in Finland, Agriculture and Forestry (MAKERA). as Anopheles mosquitoes hibernated in peoples’ households [5]. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 6 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

Intestinal parasitoses are the most common parasitic infections. Among (0.73-3.1/10,000) [19-21]. Anyway, due to the relatively high prevalence, Finnish asymptomatic population, pathogenic intestinal parasites (mostly indigenous occurrence and severe clinical manifestations toxoplasmosis Giardia lamblia) can be found from 1.5 % of people [6]. However, only can be considered to be one of the most important true zoonotic 300 cases of clinical giardiasis are diagnosed in Finland annually [7], and parasitoses in the Nordic countries. reported numbers of diagnosed amebiasis cases (caused by Entamoeba In order to understand the transmission dynamics of zoonotic parasitic histolytica) range from 30 to more than 100 [7,8]. These protozoans are infections to humans, it is essential to have knowledge on the life cycle human parasites, and infections caused by them can occur through and prevalence of infection in other animals, both domestic and wild. contaminated food, water or by faecal-oral route. According to the References statistics of the Parasitological unit of HUSLAB (Laboratory of Hospital 1. World Health Organization: Zoonoses. [http://www.who.int/topics/zoonoses/ District of Helsinki and Uusimaa county, Finland) from 2005 to 2007, the en/]. most important intestinal helminthes were pinworms, the human 2. Bannister BA, Begg NT, Gillespie SH: Infectious Disease. Oxford: Blackwell whipworm () and intestinal roundworms (Ascaris spp.). Science 1996, 392. The swine roundworm (Ascaris suum), is a zoonotic parasite, but it was 3. World Health Organization: Malaria. [http://www.who.int/mediacentre/ not routinely differentiated from human roundworm (A. lumbricoides). factsheets/fs094/en/index.html]. Formerly, the broad fish tapeworm (Diphyllobothrium latum)wasamajor 4. Siikamäki H: Malariatapausten määrä pysyi ennallaan. Suomen Lääkärilehti health problem in Finland, and it has been called “the national parasite of 2008, 63:1847. Finland” [9,10]. Although it has been diminished drastically, it has not 5. Huldén L, Huldén L, Heliövaara K: Endemic malaria: an ‘indoor’ disease in been totally eradicated. Around twenty human cases are still diagnosed northern Europe. Historical data analysed. Malaria Journal 2005, 4:19. annually in Finland, and the situation is similar in Sweden [11]. In contrast 6. Siikamäki H, Kyrönseppä H, Jokiranta S: Suoliston parasiitti-infektiot. to , which is mostly an indigenous disease, human Duodecim 2002, 118:1235-1247. intestinal taeniases are imported cases. About a handful of cases 7. National Public Health Institute: the Statistical Database of the Infectious are diagnosted in HUSLAB yearly, and the beef tapeworm (Taenia Diseases Register. [http://www3.ktl.fi/]. saginata) is more common finding than the pork tapeworm (T. solium). In 8. Nohynek H, Siikamäki H, Peltonen R: Matkailijoiden infektiot. Mikrobiologia the strict sense (see the definition above), diphyllobothriasis and ja infektiosairaudet II Helsinki: Kustannus Oy Duodecim: P Huovinen, S Meri, taeniases should not be called zoonoses, since humans are important H Peltola, M Vaara, A Vaheri, V Valtonen , 1 2003, 653-668. definitive hosts of D. latum and essential for T. saginata and T. solium, 9. B von Bonsdorff: The fish tapeworm, Diphyllobothrium latum; a major although vertebrate animals (fishes, cattle and swine, respectively) act as health problem in Finland. World Med J 1964, 11:170-172. sources of human infections. 10. Konttinen Y, Hasenson S, Valovirta I, Malmström M, Ikonen E, Virtanen jaI: Echinococcus spp. are the most important zoonotic cestodes worldwide. Unohdettu kansallisloinen–tapausselostus ja lyhyt kirjallisuuskatsaus. Their larvae are causative agents of serious diseases called Duodecim 1997, 113:1549. echinococcoses. Until 1960’s, human cystic was a 11. Dupouy-Camet J, Peduzzi R: Current situation of human diphyllobothriasis significant public health problem among reindeer herding Sámi in Europe. Eurosurveill 2004, 9:31-35. population in Swedish and Norwegian Lapland [12]. Human cases were 12. Lavikainen A: Ihmisen ekinokokkitauti Suomen, Ruotsin ja Norjan Lapissa. found also in Finnish Lapland, but only few reports have been published. Suomen Eläinlääkärilehti 2005, 110:7-13. Later, the parasite was eradicated from the reindeer- cycle, and 13. L Oivanen L, Kapel CM, Pozio E, La Rosa G, Mikkonen T, Sukura A: endemic human cases have not been diagnosed for several decades. In Associations between Trichinella species and host species in Finland. the Parasitological unit of HUSLAB, eight echinococcosis cases were J Parasitol. 2002, 88:84-8. diagnosed between 2002 and 2008. These cases cover most of the 14. Király C: Kasvojen iholeishmanioosi etelänmatkan tuliaisena. Duodecim, diagnoses in Finland during that time period. All of them were caused by 1995, 111:1104. so-called sheep strain of E. granulosus. One of the patients was a Finn, 15. Raether W: Gastrointestinal nematodes in and . Parasitology in but an endemic infection was excluded by the strain determination. focus Berlin: Springer-Verlag: H Mehlhorn 1988, 841. Another endemic zoonotic parasitosis, which seems to be disappeared 16. Vuento Risto: Koti- ja lemmikkieläimet tartuntatautien lähteenä. Duodecim from Nordic countries as a human infection, is trichinellosis. This disease 1994, 110:555. caused by larvae of nematodes of the genus Trichinella has not been 17. Birgisdóttir A, Asbjörnsdottir H, Cook E, Gislason D, Jansson C, Olafsson I, diagnosed for a long time. This contrasts the fact that Trichinella spp. are Gislason T, Jogi R, Thjodleifsson B: Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii common in wild and domestic animals [13]. in Sweden, Estonia and Iceland. Scand J Infect Dis 2006, 38:625-631. Several exotic parasites, which occur as sporadic companions of travelers, 18. Lappalainen M: Raskaudenaikaista toksoplasmainfektiota kannattaa can cause tissue lesions and even systemic disease. For example, seuloa? Suomen Lääkärilehti 1996, 51:1316. leishmaniasisisthetermgiventodiseasescausedbyprotozoansofthe 19. Evengård B, Petersson K, Engman ML, Wiklund S, Ivarsson SA, Teär- genus Leishmania[14]. These parasites are transmitted by sand flies, and Fahnehjelm K, Forsgren M, Gilbert R, Malm G: Low incidence of small rodents and dogs are the reservoir of infection. There are two main toxoplasma infection during pregnancy and in newborns in Sweden. types of clinical disease, cutaneous and systemic leishmaniases. Epidemiol Infect 2001, 127:121-127. Larvae of gastrointestinal nematodes of dogs and cats ( 20. Schmidt DR, Hogh B, Andersen O, Fuchs J, Fledelius H, Petersen E: The and T. cati, respectively), can cause disease called in national neonatal screening programme for congenital toxoplasmosis in humans, chiefly in children [15,16]. Larvae migrate through inner organs Denmark: results from the initial four years, 1999-2002. Arch Dis Child and cause mechanical damage and eosinophilic lesions. Toxocara spp. are 2006, 91:661-665. geographically widely distributed. Larva migrans is obviously a 21. Jenum PA, Stray-Pedersen B, Melby KK, Kapperud G, Whitelaw A, Eskild A, underdiagnosed zoonosis, and its prevalence in Nordic countries has not Eng J: Incidence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in 35,940 pregnant been studied recently. In HUSLAB material in 2007, seven patients had women in Norway and pregnancy outcome for infected women. J Clin positive serology. One of these was most probably an Microbiol 1998, 36:2900-2906. unspecific seroreactivity because the same sample responded also against several other helminth antigens. Six patients were children (age of 2-16 years) and one was an elder person (75 years). S5 Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by the protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma Echinococcus spp. and echinococcosis gondii which infects up to one-third of the world human population [17]. Bruno Gottstein The definitive host of T. gondii is the ; humans become infected by Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Parasitology, University of Bern, Bern, ingesting oocysts (e.g., by eating vegetables contaminated with cat Switzerland faeces or soil) or tissue cysts in meat. Toxoplasmosis in neonates and E-mail: [email protected] immunocompromised patients can lead to severe disease and death. It Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S5 has been estimated that 50-60 infants suffer from congenital toxoplasmosis annually (prevalence 1/1000) in Finland [18]. However, Summary: Echinococcus spp. are cestode parasites commonly known as reported prevalences in Sweden, Norway and Denmark are much lower small tapeworms of carnivorous animals. Their medical importance lies in Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 7 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

the infection of humans by the larval stage of the parasites, unlimited growth and dissemination of the parasite in AE, recovery of the predominantly including Echinococcus granulosus, which is the causative T cell status in AIDS is prognostically favorable. agent of cystic echinococcosis (CE) and Echinococcus multilocularis,which More detailed information about the host-parasite interplay that decides causes alveolar echinococcosis (AE). about the outcome of infection has been achieved with the murine A few other species or genotypes are only very rarely or not at all found model of AE. The involvement of cellular immunity in controlling the in humans. Due to the emerging situation in many parts of Europe, the infection is strongly suggested by the intense granulomatous infiltration present article will predominantly focus on E. multilocularis . observed in the periparasitic area of lesions. Immunodeficient athymic The natural life cycle of E. multilocularis involves predominantly red and nude and SCID mice exhibited high susceptibility to infection and arctic as definitive hosts, but domestic dogs can also become disease, thus suggesting that the host cell mediated immune response infected and represent an important infection source for humans in plays an important role in suppressing the larval growth. E. multilocularis highly endemic areas. In the definitive host, egg production starts as appears to induce skewed Th2-responses. Based on in vitro and in vivo early as 28 days after infection. After egg ingestion by a rodent or a studies, Th2 dominated immunity was more associated with increased human, larval maturation will occur practically exclusively within the liver susceptibility to disease, while Th1 cell activation through IL-12, IFN .g, tissue. The geographic distribution of E. multilocularis is restricted to the TNF.a and IFN.a was suggested to correlate with a more protective northern hemisphere. In Europe, relatively frequent reports of AE in immunity in AE. Nevertheless, effective suppression of larval growth by humans occur in central and eastern France, Switzerland, Austria and means of an immunological attack is hampered by the fact, that the Germany. Within the past ten years, the endemic area of Europe now parasite synthesizes a carbohydrate-rich laminated layer in order to be includes many more countries such as Belgium, The Netherlands, Italy, protected from host effector mechanisms, as outlined above. andmostformerEasterncountries as far as up to Estonia. The Asian Basically, the larval infection with Echinococcus multilocularis begins with areas where E. multilocularis occurs include the whole zone from the the intrahepatic postoncospheral development of a metacestode that – at White Sea eastward to the Bering Strait, covering large parts of Siberia, its mature stage - consists of an inner germinal and the outer laminated western and central parts of China and northern Japan. Worldwide there layer as discussed above [4]. Several lines of evidence obtained in vivo are scant data on the overall prevalence of human AE. Some well- and in vitro indicate the important bio-protective role of the laminated documented studies demonstrate a generally low prevalence among layer, e.g. as to protect the germinal layer from nitric oxide produced by affected human populations. The annual mean incidence of new cases in periparasitic macrophages and dendritic cells, and also to prevent different areas including Switzerland, France, Germany and Japan has immune recognition by surrounding T cells. On the other hand, the high therefore been reported to vary between 0.1 and 1.2/100,000 inhabitants. periparasitic NO production by peritoneal exudate cells contributes to The incidence of human cases correlates with the prevalence in foxes periparasitic immunosuppression [7], explaining why iNOS deficient mice and the population density. Recently, a study documented that a exhibit a significantly lower susceptibility towards experimental infection four-fold increase of the fox population in Switzerland resulted in a [8]. The intense periparasitic granulomatous infiltration indicates an statistically significant increase of the annual incidence of AE cases [1] intense host-parasite interaction, and the involvement of cellular (Schweiger et al., 2007). This dramatic increase in populations has immunity in control of the metacestode growth kinetics is strongly also been reported throughout Europe, especially in urban areas. The suggested by experiments carried out in T cell deficient mouse strains [9]. so-called city-fox phenomenon and, thereafter, the increased proximity of Carbohydrate components of the laminated layer, as the Em2(G11) and foxeswithhumansandanurbandomesticdog– rodent cycle may, Em492 components discussed above, yield immunomodulatory effects therefore, have significant public health implications [1-3]. that allow the parasite to survive in the host. I.e., the IgG response to the In infected humans the E. multilocularis metacestode (larva) develops Em2(G11)-antigen takes place independently of alpha-beta+CD4+ T cells, primarily in the liver. Occasionally, secondary lesions form metastases in and in the absence of interactions between CD40 and CD40 ligand [10]. the lungs, brain and other organs. The typical lesion appears Such parasite molecules also interfere with antigen presentation and cell macroscopically as a dispersed mass of fibrous tissue with a activation, leading to a mixed Th1/Th2-type response at the later stage of conglomerate of scattered vesiculated cavities with diameters ranging infection. Furthermore, Em492 [11] and other (not yet published) purified from a few millimeters to centimeters in size. In advanced chronic cases, parasite metabolites suppress ConA and antigen-stimulated splenocyte a central necrotic cavity containing a viscous fluid may form, and rarely proliferation. Infected mouse macrophages (AE-MØ) as APCs exhibited a there is a bacterial superinfection. The lesion often contains focal zones reduced ability to present a conventional antigen (chicken ovalbumin, of calcification, typically within the metacestode tissue. Histologically, the C-Ova) to specific responder lymph node T cells when compared to hepatic lesion is characterized by a conglomerate of small vesicles and normal MØ [12]. cysts demarcated by a thin PAS-positive laminated layer with or without Echinococcus granulosus parasitizes as a small tapeworm the small an inner germinative layer [4]. Parasite proliferation is usually intestine of dogs and occasionally other carnivores. The shedding of accompanied by a granulomatous host reaction, including vigorous gravid proglottids or eggs in the feces occurs within 4–6weeksafter synthesis of fibrous and germinative tissue in the periphery of the infection of the definitive host. Ingestion of eggs by intermediate host metacestode, but also necrotic changes centrally. In contrast to lesions in animals or humans results in the development of a fully mature susceptible rodent hosts, lesions from infected human patients rarely metacestode (i.e. hydatid cyst) over a period of several months to years. show protoscolex formation within vesicles and cysts. Genetic and Infections with E. granulosus occur worldwide, however predominantly in immunologic host factors are responsible for the resistance shown by countries of South and Central America, the European and African part of some patients in whom there is an early ‘dying out’ or ‘abortion’ of the the Mediterranean area, the Middle East and some sub-Saharan countries, metacestode [5,6]. Therefore, not every individual infected with Russia and China. Most cases observed in Central Europe and the USA E. multilocularis is susceptible to unlimited metacestode proliferation and are associated with immigrants from highly endemic areas. Various strains develops symptoms in the average within 5–15 years after infection. The of E. granulosus have been described, and differ especially in their host mechanisms modulating the course of infection are most likely of an infectivity for intermediate hosts such as humans. The most important immunologic nature, including primarily suppressor T cell interactions. strains for human infection include sheep (G1) and cattle (G5) as Thus, the periparasitic granuloma, mainly composed of macrophages, intermediate hosts. myofibroblasts and T cells, contains a large number of CD4+ T cells Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is clinically related to the presence of one or in patients with abortive or died-out lesions, whereas in patients with more well-delineated spherical primary cysts, most frequently formed in active metacestodes the number of CD8+ T cells is increased. An theliver,butotherorganssuchasthelungs,,spleen,brain, immunosuppressive process is assumed to downregulate the lymphoid heart and bone may be affected too. Tissue damage and organ macrophage system. Conversely, the status of cured AE is generally dysfunction result mainly from this gradual process of space-occupying reflected by a high in-vitro lymphoproliferative response. The cytokine displacement of vital host tissue, vessels or parts of organs. mRNA levels following E. multilocularis antigen stimulation of lymphocytes Consequently, clinical manifestations are primarily determined by the show an enhanced production of Th2-cell cytokine transcripts IL-3, IL-4 site, size and number of the cysts, and are therefore highly variable. and IL-10 in patients, including a significant IL-5 mRNA expression in Accidental rupture of the cysts can be followed by a massive release of patients and not in healthy control donors. A lack or deficiency of Th cell cyst fluid and hematogenous or other dissemination of protoscolices. activity such as in advanced AIDS is associated with a rapid and This can result in anaphylactic reactions and multiple secondary cystic Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 8 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

echinococcosis (as protoscolices can develop into secondary cysts with increased disease incidence in humans? Emerg Infect Dis 2001, within the same intermediate host). The parasite evokes an immune 7:408-12. response, which is involved in the formation of a host-derived 3. Reperant LA, Hegglin D, Fischer C, Kohler L, Weber JM, Deplazes P: adventitious capsule. This often calcifies uniquely in the periphery of Influence of urbanization on the epidemiology of intestinal helminths of the cyst, one of the typical features found in imaging procedures. In the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Geneva, Switzerland. Parasitology Research the liver there may be cholestasis. Commonly, there is pressure atrophy 2007, 101:605-611. of the surrounding parenchyma. Immunologically, the coexistence of 4. Gottstein B, Deplazes P, Aubert M: Echinococcus multilocularis: elevated quantities of interferon IFN-g, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6 and IL-10 observed Immunological study on the “Em2-positive” laminated layer during in in most of hydatid patients supports Th1, Th17 and Th2 cell activation vitro and in vivo post-oncospheral and larval development. Parasitology in CE. In particular, Th1 cell activation seemed to be more related to Research 1992, 78:291-297. protective immunity, whereas Th2 cell activation was related to 5. Sailer M, Soelder B, Allerberger F, Zaknun D, Feichtinger H, Gottstein B: susceptibility to disease. Alveolar echinococcosis in a six-year-old girl with AIDS. J Pediatr 1997, Prevention of both CE and AE focuses primarily on veterinary 130:320-3. interventions to control the extent and intensity of infection in definitive 6. Zingg W, Renner-Schneiter EC, Pauli-Magnus C, Renner EL, van Overbeck J, host populations, which may indirectly be approached by controlling the Schläpfer E, Weber M, Weber R, Opravil M, Gottstein B, Speck RF: Swiss HIV prevalence in animal intermediate hosts also. The first includes regular Cohort Study. Alveolar echinococcosis of the liver in an adult with pharmacologic treatment and taking sanitary precautions for handling human immunodeficiency virus type-1 infection. Infection 2004, domestic dogs and to prevent infection and egg excretion, respectively. 32:299-302. Regular praziquantel treatment of wild-life definitive host may contribute 7. Dai WJ, Gottstein B: Nitric oxide-mediated immunosuppression following to lower the prevalence in affected areas. murine Echinococcus multilocularis - infection. Immunology 1999, For diagnosis, imaging procedures together with serology will yield 97:107-116. appropriate results [13,14]. Sonography is the primary diagnostic 8. Dai WJ, Waldvogel A, Jungi T, Stettler M, Gottstein B: Inducible nitric oxide procedure of choice for hepatic cases [15], although false positives occur synthase-deficiency in mice increases resistance to chronic infection in up to 10% of cases due to the presence of nonechinococcal serous with Echinococcus multilocularis. Immunology 2003, 10:238-44. cysts, abscesses or tumors. Computerized tomography is the best 9. Dai WJ, Waldvogel A, Siles-Lucas M, Gottstein B: Echinococcus investigation for detecting extrahepatic disease and volumetric follow-up multilocularis proliferation in mice and respective parasite 14-3-3 gene assessment; magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) assists in the diagnosis by expression is mainly controlled by an alphabeta CD4 T-cell-mediated identifying changes in the intra- and extrahepatic venous systems. immune response. Immunology 2004, 112:481-488. Ultrasonography is also helpful in following up treated patients as 10. Dai WJ, Hemphill A, Waldvogel A, Ingold K, Deplazes P, Mossmann H, et al: successfully treated cysts become hyperechogenic. Calcification of Major carbohydrate antigen of Echinococcus multilocularis induces an variable degree occurs in about 10% of the cysts. Aspiration cytology immunoglobulin G response independent of alpha beta(+) CD4(+) T appears to be particularly helpful in the detection of pulmonary, renal cells. Inf Immun 2001, 69:6074-6083. and other nonhepatic lesions for which imaging techniques and serology 11. Walker M, Baz A, Dematteis S, Stettler M, Gottstein B, Schaller J, et al: do not provide appropriate diagnostic support. The viability of aspirated Isolation and characterization of a secretory fraction of Echinococcus protoscolices can be determined by microscopic demonstration of flame multilocularis metacestode potentially involved in modulating the host- cell activity and trypan blue dye exclusion. Immunodiagnostic tests to parasite interface. Infect Immun 2004, 72:527-36. detect serum antibodies are used to support the clinical diagnosis of 12. Mejri N, Gottstein B: Intraperitoneal Echinococcus multilocularis infection both AE and CE. in C57BL/6 mice inhibits the up-regulation of B7-1 and B7-2 co- Assessing the parasite viability in vitro following therapeutic interventions stimulator expression on peritoneal macrophages and causes failure to may be of tremendous advantage when compared with the invasive enhance peritoneal T cell activation. Parasite Immunol 2006, 28:373-385. analysis of resected or biopsied samples. Such alternatives may be 13. Ammann RW, Renner EC, Gottstein B, Grimm F, Eckert J, Renner EL, Swiss offered by magnetic resonance spectrometry or positron emission Echinococcosis Study Group: Immunosurveillance of alveolar tomography (PET). The latter technique has recently been used for echinococcosis by specific humoral and cellular immune tests: assessing the efficacy of chemotherapy in AE. PET positivity actually prospective long-term analysis of the Swiss chemotherapy trial (1976- demonstrates periparasitic inflammatory processes due to a remaing 2001). J Hepatol 2004, 41:551-59. activity of the metacestode tissue. Serologic tests are more reliable in the 14. Pawlowski ZS, Eckert J, Vuitton DA, et al: Echinococcosis in humans: diagnosis of AE than CE. The use of purified E. multilocularis antigens clinical aspects, diagnosis and treatment. WHO/OIE Manual on such as the Em2 antigen and recombinant antigens from the family of echinococcosis in humans and animals. Paris: WHO/OIE Eckert J et al. 2001, EMR-proteins (EmII/3-10, EM10, EM4 and Em18, all four of them 20-71. harbouring an identical immunodominant oligopeptide sequence) 15. WHO: International classification of ultrasound images in cystic exhibits diagnostic sensitivities ranging between 91% and 100%, with echinococcosis for application in clinical and field epidemiological overall specificities of 98–100%. These antigens allow discrimination settings. Acta Trop 2003, 85:253-61. between the alveolar and the cystic forms of disease with a reliability of 95%. Seroepidemiologic studies reveal asymptomatic preclinical cases of human AE as well as cases in which the metacestode has died at an S6 apparently early stage of infection (see above). Serologic tests are of Dogs and echinococcosis in Iceland value for assessing the efficacy of treatment and chemotherapy only Sigurdur Sigurdarson when linked to appropriate imaging investigations. Prognostically, The Icelandic Food- and Vetarinary Authority Austurvegur 64, 800 Selfoss, disappearance of anti-II/3–10 or anti-Em18 antibody levels coupled to PET Iceland negativity indicates innactivation of AE. The management of CE and AE Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S6 follows the strategy recommended in the manual on echinococcosis published in 2001 by the Office International des Epizooties and the History: Hydatid disease was first described in Icelandic literature about World Health Organisation. the year 1200. According to the first qualified physician in Iceland, Bjarni References Pálsson (1719-1779) was echinococcosis about 1760 one of the most 1. Schweiger A, Ammann R, Candinas D, Clavien PA, Eckert J, Gottstein B, frequent diseases among the human population, and was also commonly Halkic N, Muellhaupt B, Prinz BM, Reichen J, Tarr PE, Torgerson PR, observed in sheep and cattle. Autopsies and questionaries indicate that Deplazes P: Human alveolar echinococcosis after fox population increase, 20-25% of the inhabitants might have been infested by hydatidosis about Switzerland. Emerg Inf Dis 2007, 13:878-82. 1850. The nature of the disease was still unknown at that time. The dog 2. Gottstein B, Saucy F, Deplazes P, et al: Is a high prevalence of population was estimated to be 15.000-20.000, or about one dog for Echinococcus multilocularis in wild and domestic animals associated every three or four people. At the same time there were in Copenhagen Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 9 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

1 dog for every 30-32 persons. Obviously there were too many dogs in 6. Finsen J: Iagtagelser angaaende Sygdomsforholdene I Island. Köbenhavn Iceland. The sheep, cattle, dogs and humans lived in close contact. The 1874, 177. dogs often shared a room and even bed with the family, and were the 7. Hlíðar Sig E: Lækning húsdýra Akureyri. 1915, 66-68, 102-104. best playmate for the children. The people lived mostly in primitive 8. Jónassen J: Ekinokoksygdommen belyst ved islandske Lægers Erfaring. houses at that time and under primitive hygienic conditions. It is Köbenhavn 1882, 268. therefore not wonder that the hydatid disease flourished as long as the 9. Jónsson V: Skírnir. 1954, 128:134-175. nature of the disease was still obscure. 10. Jónsson S: Tidsskrift for Veterinærer. 1879, 137-178, 2. Rk., 9 Bd,. In 1849 the Danish physician P.A.Schleisner (1819-1900) concluded that 11. Krabbe H: Athugasemdir handa Íslendingum um sullaveikina og varnir one out of every six Icelanders suffered from hydatid disease. In 1862 móti henni. Köbenhavn 1864, 18. doctor Harald Krabbe (1831-1917) from the Royal Veterinary and 12. Krabbe H: Helmintologiske Undersögelser I Danmark og paa Island med Agricultural University in Copenhagen studied the hydatid problem in særlig hensyn til Blæreormlidelserne ...... paa Island. Köbenhavn 1865, Iceland. He found that 28 out of 100 dogs and most of the old sheep and 64. cows that were slaughtered were infested with echinococcus cysts. 13. Magnússon G: Yfirlit um sögu sullaveiki á Íslandi. Reykjavík 1913, 83. Experiments he carried out in cooperation with an Icelandic physician Jón 14. Pálsson PA, Vigfússon H, Henriksen K: Læknablaðið. 1971, 57:39-51. C Finsen (1826-1885) proved the relationship between taenias in dogs and 15. Sigurðsson J: Nordisk Medicinhistorisk Årsbog. 1970, 182-198. the hydatid cysts in humans. Doctor H. Krabbe realized that most 16. Thoroddsen Þ: Landbúnaður á Íslandi. 1922, 2:73-84. important was to inform the people of the nature of the disease in order 17. Bang B: Biografier af lærere ved De Danske Veterinærskole. Medlemsblad to prevent the infestations of humans and animals with eggs of for Den Danske Dyrlægeforening, 6. Aargang, Köbenhavn 1923, 93-99. the intestinal parasites of the dog. H. Krabbe was a chief adviser to the 18. Schultz Forlag JH: Dansk Biografisk Leksikon. Bnd. 13 Köbenhavn 1938. Icelandic government on hydatid disease and prophylactic measures in the 19. Dungal N: Er sullaveikin að hverfa á Íslandi? Læknablaðið 1942, 28:121-128. period 1860-1890. His recommendations were followed strictly for more 20. Dungal N: Eradication of Hydatid Disease in Iceland. New Zealand Medical than 100 years and partially they still are. New infestations by E. granulosus Journal 1957, 56:212-222. practially dissappeared in Iceland the decade 1890-1900. That is based on 21. Eschricht D: Afhandling om de Hydatider, der fremkaldte den I Island 7333 autopsies of people performed in the period 1932-1966. And based endemiske leversyge. I: Oversigt over Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhandlinger on 15.888 autopsies 1932-1982 only few human infestations occurred after 1857, 211-239. 1900.The most recent human cases are a person born in 1937 who was 22. Faust EC: Echinococcus Disease. Nelson Loose-Leaf Medicine II New York, 1 autopsied in 1960, another person born in 1905 operated 1984 and the 1920, 433. third person born in 1920 operated in 1988. In 1863 an autopsy survey of 23. Fenger E: Plan til en Forelæsnings-Cyclus. Kbh 1843. 100 dogs were carried out. E. granulosus was found in 28 of them, 75 dogs 24. Fridriksson G: Saga Reykjavíkur 1870-1940. Reykjavík: Iðunn 1994. carried T. marginata. In the period one hundred years later 200 dogs were 25. Garcia LS, Bruckner DA: Diagnostic medical parasitology. 1997. autopsied (1950-1960). T. marginata was found in 11 dogs but none of 26. Jónasson J: Íslenskir Þjóðhættir. 3utgReykjavík: Ísafoldarprentsmiðja 1961. them carried E. granulosus. Reports of meat inspectors from Icelandic 27. Jónsson V: Sullaveikirannsóknir Jóns Finsen og Haralds Krabbe. Skírnir abattoirs did not record hydatid cysts in cattle, pigs and horses after 1961. 1954, 128:134-175. However in the period 1953-1979, cysts of echinococcus were recorded in 28. Krabbe H: Om Echinokokkerne, I. del I: Ugeskrift for Læger. Række 2 1862, a total of 21 old ewes, all of which came from few farms on 2 small areas 37(15):225-235. in East-Iceland. There was an indication that the parasite had been 29. Krabb H: Om Echinokokkerne, II. del. I: Ugeskrift for Læger. 2 Række 1862, introduced to the country by an imported dog. After 1979 no hydatid cysts 37(16):241-259. have been found in any animal in Iceland. 30. Krabbe H: Echinokokksygdommen på Island. Ugeskrift for læger 1864, Why so successful control of hydatid disease in Iceland: Echino- 41(1):1-19, 2. Række. coccosis is a great public health and economic problem in many 31. Krabbe H: Blæreormlidelserne på Island og de imod dem trufne countries. It has been extremely difficult to eliminate it in many endemic Foranstaltninger. Tidsskrift for Veterinærer 1865, 20:205-222, 2. Række. areas. Apparently it was done in Iceland rather easily. How? 32. Krabbe H: Helmintologiske Undersögelser I Danmark og paa Island med The campaign against hydatid disease in Iceland was for more than one særlig hensyn til Blæreormlidelserne paa Island. 1: Det Kongelige Danske century and partially still is based on Harald Krabbe´s recommendations: Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter 5. Række, naturvidenskabelig og mathematisk 1) Succesful information to the people. Most people in Iceland had lost Afdeling 1865, 7:347-408, Köbenhavn, 64 pp. either relatives or friends as a victim to hydatid disease and the memory 33. Leared A: Athugasemdir um sullaveikina á Íslandi. Íslendingur 1862, of this disease was and still is dreaded. When people knew what to do, 3:105-106. strong parcipitation of both young and old was easy to activate. 34. Leared A: Athugasemdir um sullaveikina á Íslandi. Þjóðólfur 1862, 15:33-34. 2) Reduction of the dog population by taxes on all dogs, higher tax on 35. Magnússon G: Yfirlit yfir sögu sullaveikinnar á Íslandi. Fylgirit Árbókar unnessesary dogs and a ban on keeping a dog without permission. Háskóla Íslands fyrir háskólaárið 1912-1913. Reykjavík 1913. Outbrakes of distemper in 1870, 1888 and 1890 reduced the number of 36. Einarsson Matthías: Hvernig fær fólk sullaveiki? Læknablaðið 1925, dogs considerably, 3)Preventing the dog gaining access to raw offal 11:98-100. and burning cysts in organs 4) Caution in dealing with dogs, esp. 37. Nielsen JB: Parasitologi – et kompendium. Köbenhavn: FADL´s Forlag, 2 Children, 5) Yearly anthelmintic treatment of all dogs after the 1994. slaughtering sesion. Some factors that assisted in the campaign: -Ceasing 38. Olafsens og Povelsens Reise gennem Island. Soröe 1772. of milking sheep on the farms, - improvement of the houses and hygiene, 39. Pálsson PA, Vigfússon H, Henriksen K: Læknablaðið. 1971, 57:39-51. -strictly practiced caution on the contact between dogs and animals/ 40. Pálsson PA: Echinococcosis and its elimination in Iceland. Hist Med Vet people. Building of slaughterhouses all over the country in the period 1976, 1:4-10. 1900-1920, then slaughtering on the farms almost ceased. The hydatid 41. Pálsson PA: Echinococcosis in Iceland – historical review. XVII. disese was never found in horses, rodents or in wild animals in Iceland. Interrnational Congress of Hydatology, Limassol, Cyprus, nov. 6-10 1996. References 42. Pétursson J: Lækningabók fyrir Almúga. Köbenhavn: Udg. Af Thorsteinn 1. Pálsson PA: Echinococcosis and its elimination in Iceland. In a book in regi Jónsson 1834. of Ivan Kati´c Köbenhavn Harald Krabbe Dagbog fra Island 2000, 93-100, 43. Roberts L, Janovy J: Foundations of Parasitology. Boston: Wm.C. Brown Ferðasaga(1863, 1870, 1871). Publishers, 5 1996. 2. Þórarinsdóttir KH: Echinokokkosen i Island og dr. Harald Krabbes indsats 44. Schleisner PA: Island undersögt fra et lægavidenskabeligt Synspunkt. for dens bekæmpelse. Köbenhavn OSVAL II – opgave, Köbenhavns Köbenhavn: Boghandler C.G.Iversen 1849. University, medicinske fakultet 1999. 45. Sun T, Rackson M, Farber B: Current status of Hydatid Disease. Digestive 3. Dungal N: New Zealand medical journal. 1957, 56:212-222. Diseases 1988, 6:170-184. 4. Einarson M: Búnaðarrit. 1901, 15:125-164. 46. Thorsteinsson B, Jónsson B: Íslandssaga til okkar daga. Reykjavík: Sögufélag 5. Einarson M: Dýralækningabók. Reykjavík 1931, 91-93, 232-235. 1991. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 10 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

S7 S8 Toxoplasma gondii in the Subarctic and Arctic Trichinella in the North Kristin W Prestrud1*, Kjetil Åsbakk1, Antti Oksanen2, Anu Näreaho3, Niina Airas1, Seppo Saari1, Taina Mikkonen1, Anna-Maija Virtala1, Jani Pellikka1, Pikka Jokelainen3 Antti Oksanen2, Marja Isomursu2, Antti Sukura1* 1Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Department of Food Safety and 1Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Infection Biology, Section of Arctic Veterinary Medicine, Tromsø, Norway; University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland; 2Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira, 2Finnish Food safety Authority Evira, Fish and Wildlife Health Research Unit Oulu, Finland (FINPAR), Oulu, Finland; 3Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S8 Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki (FINPAR), Helsinki, Finland Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S7 Background: Endemic human trichinellosis has been rare in Norway, Sweden and Finland. In Norway the last outbreak involving five persons Summary: The coccidian protozoan Toxoplasma gondii has a world-wide is from 1953 and before that there were reported six epidemics with 711 distribution. It causes toxoplasmosis, a potentially very serious disease to patients since 1881 (reference in [1]). In Sweden 10 outbreaks involving humans and other warm-blooded animals. Infection has in many studies 504 patients were documented 1917-1969 (reference in [2]). In Finland been shown to be rather common in the Nordic countries also, where its only eight human cases have been reported since 1890, the latest being prevalence both in domestic animals and wildlife can be explained by three hunters at 1977 who got the infection from bear meat (reference contacts with cats and their faeces, cats and wild felids being the only in [1]). definitive hosts of the parasite known. Sporadic cases of trichinellosis in production animals have been Before the discovery of the complete life cycle of the parasite, other detected in pig meat inspection in these countries. In Norway there infection routes to animals were studied e.g. in Russia, where lateral was a peak of positive pigs in the 1950’s and 1960’sbutsince1981no transmission of infection in a reindeer herd was reported. The vehicle of positive finding in pigs has been reported. In Sweden, 127 positive pigs infection was apparently body fluids, such as e.g. saliva and lacrimal fluid were reported 1970-1999 and no cases since 2000. The first infected containing parasite tachyzoites, which might invade another reindeer via Finnish pig was found 1954, and the total number of positive pigs in mucosal membranes. According to the finding, toxoplasmosis might be fifty years was up to 714 (1954-2003). There was a peak of cases in the apprehended to be also a sexually transmitted disease. Following the 1980’sand90’s when a total of 671 pigs were found positive. During discovery of the pivotal role of the cat in the epidemiology of T. gondii, 1981-2000, the positive animals originated from 0-19 farms yearly. Since possible alternative pathways of infection have generally been ignored. In Fennoscandian semi-domesticated reindeer, a clear association of the seroprevalence of antibodies to T. gondii wasseenwiththedegreeof domestication, and, thus, with cat contacts [1]. In the high Arctic of Svalbard, there is a considerably high seroprevalence of infection both in polar bears and Arctic foxes [2-4]. The source of infection is unlikely to be found in the seals constituting the major part of the polar bear’s diet, as in one study, antibodies were not found in North Atlantic marine mammals. However, in other, less arctic and remote, cetacean and pinniped populations studied, T. gondii infection has been found. Because Svalbard reindeer and sibling voles studied have been free from T. gondii infection, it can be assumed that sexual stages of infection (in definitive hosts) leading to oocyst production is not a major part of the Svalbard T. gondii life cycle [2]. Then, carnivores probably get the infection with food, anyhow. Cannibalism is considered common in polar bears and Arctic foxes, and probably can explain a lot. One parasite isolate from an Arctic fox proved to belong to the Type II strain, the predominant T. gondii lineage in the world [3]. This somewhat objects to the suggested idea of a specific Arcticlifecycleoftheparasite,but incorporates the Arctic to the global T. gondii infection network. Further support to the hypothesis is gained from the finding that Svalbard barnacle geese (Branta leucopsis) are rather commonly infected. They may get the infection when wintering in Scotland. So, perhaps migratory birds are important in T. gondii globalisation. Cats are crucial to T. gondii epidemiology. However, the Arctic example proves that the successful parasite can thrive even in the absence of cats. References 1. Oksanen A, Åsbakk K, Nieminen M, Norberg H, Näreaho A: Antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii in Fennoscandian reindeer — Association with the degree of domestication. Parasitology International 1997, 46:255-261. 2. Prestrud KW, Åsbakk K, Fuglei E, Mørk T, Stien A, Ropstad E, Tryland M, Gabrielsen GW, Lydersen C, Kovacs KM, Loonen MJ, Sagerup K, Oksanen A: Serosurvey for Toxoplasma gondii in arctic foxes and possible sources of infection in the high Arctic of Svalbard. Vet Parasitol 2007, 150:6-12. 3. Prestrud KW, Dubey JP, Åsbakk K, Fuglei E, Su C: First isolate of Toxoplasma gondii from arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) from Svalbard. Vet Parasitol 2008, 151:110-114. 4. Oksanen A, Åsbakk K, Prestrud KW, Aars J, Derocher A, Tryland M, Wiig Ø, Dubey JP, Sonne C, Dietz R, Andersen M, Born EW: Prevalence of antibodies Figure 1 (abstract S8) Prevalence gradient is seen in all sampled against Toxoplasma gondii in polar bears (Ursus maritimus) from Svalbard animal species with sample size over 100 individuals. and East Greenland. JParasitol2008, 1, [Epub ahead of print]. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 11 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

2004 no trichinella has been found in pigs. The decrease in Trichinella prevalence and incidence in domestic swine has been speculated to be S9 due the change in Finnish swine industry since Finland joined the EU in Detection of infection with Angiostrongylus vasorum (Nematoda, 1995 [3]. During recent years, the industry has moved towards large- ) by PCR scale enterprises with corporative ownership with new facilities. These Mohammad Al-Sabi1*, Pia Webster2, Jacob Willesen3, Peter Deplazes4, are better protected against the Trichinella infection commonly present Alexander Mathis4, Christian Kapel1 in surrounding wildlife in Finland [3]. High sylvatic trichinellosis 1Department of Agriculture and Ecology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 prevalence has been reflected to farmed wild boars in which Frederiksberg C, Denmark; 2Department of Disease Biology, University of condemnation due trichinelllosis has been relatively more common Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark; 3Small animal hospital, than in pig. To clarify the spatial variation of sylvatic trichinella University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark; 4Institute of prevalence suggested in earlier studies, a new Finnish sample set was Parasitology, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Winterthurerstrasse 266A, Zurich, analyzed. Switzerland Material and methods : Muscle samples of 2487 carnivorous wild Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S9 animals from eight host species during 1999-2005 were collected by volunteer hunters. Molecular identification was performed on larval Background: The French heart worm Angiostrongylus vasorum is a isolates with multiplex PCR. parasitic nematode of the pulmonary arteries and heart of canines often Results : Out of 2487 animals analyzed, Trichinella spp were revealed with severe and in some cases fatal outcome. The diagnosis is based on from 618 animals. Different host species showed variable sample detection and species identification of larvae in faeces which can be prevalence (range: 0- 46 %). Almost half of the harboured problematic in Veterinary praxis especially in cases with low excreting Trichinella spp (46%); in species rank, lynx were followed by animals. A reliable technique is thus needed for correct diagnosis and (39%), dogs (28%), and red foxes (19%). Lower than ten estimation of the true prevalence of infection in a population as well as percent prevalences were detected in sampled pine , badgers, for monitoring and control campaigns. bears, and otters. No larvae were detected from mink. The overall Materials and methods: A PCR was developed from the ITS2 region of Trichinella prevalence from all sampled host species was not the rDNA of A. vasorum. The sensitivity of the primers was tested with geographically equally distributed varying from 2.6% (Lapland) up to DNA from adult A. vasorum from a naturally infected fox and first stage 67% on different game districts (P< 0.001), showing obvious larvae (L1) from an experimentally infected foxes. The specificity of the diminishing gradient form south to north (figure 1). primers was tested against DNA from the most common helminth Molecular analysis was performed with 328 larval isolates. Trichinella parasites of canines in Denmark and neighbouring countries. Furthermore species were successfully identified from 303 animals, from 25 animals the PCR system was applied as a confirmative test in a screening study of amplification did not give specific reaction (7.6%). Four species were Danish hunting dogs and an epidemiological study of helminth parasites discovered: T. spiralis, T. nativa, T. britovi,andT. pseudospiralis.Single of wildlife in Denmark. Trichinella species were revealed from 281 (93%) of the infected host Results: The designed primers were very sensitive and could detect a animals and 22 (7%) showed mixed infections. T. nativa was the most single A. vasorum L1. The primers were also very specific and did not common single species (80.1%) followed by T. spiralis (12.8%) T. britovi react with DNA from any of the common canine helminths. When used (6.0%) and T. pseudospiralis (1.1%), which was found in single infection as a confirmative test, the PCR system proved to be robust and easy to in only three animals but in mixed infection in four more individuals. work with detecting a single larva, and for use in post mortem From mixed infections, never more than two different species were examination of wildlife. There are practical problems that can face the found, but all possible two-species combinations of four species were PCR system such as isolating dead larvae from frozen samples and the discovered. Species geographic distribution showed that all four known problem of intermittent larval excretion in dogs. These two species were discovered only from the southern part of the country; in problems can be solved by isolation of larvae by sieving instead of by the middle and northern part, only T. nativa and T. spiralis were Baermann sedimentation if samples were frozen, and examining revealed. consecutive fresh faecal samples. The parasite burden was not normally distributed. Different hosts showed Conclusions: We were able to design a new PCR to detect DNA of variations in the infection density and also different Trichinella species A. vasorum in canines. The test proved to be very sensitive and specific made different parasite burdens. There was a significant interaction when tested in clinical and epidemiological studies. The test will be between animal species and Trichinella species showing for example that further applied in many epidemiological and clinical studies to come. T. spiralis gave a higher larval burden in than in other animals. However, in raccoon dogs, the host specie with the highest burden, infection densities did not differ between infecting Trichinella S10 species. Wild life surveillance on Echinococcus multilocularis in Sweden Conclusion: In Finland sylvatic trichinellosisisverycommonwithbig Birgitta Andersson*, Bodil Christensson, Susanne Johansson, geographical differences showing clear diminishing along south to north Eva Osterman Lind, Göran Zakrisson gradient. T. nativa was the most prevalent species in the country but, National Veterinary Institute, Department of Virology, Immunobiology and remarkably, the domestic species T. spiralis was isolated from 15% of Parasitology, Section for Parasitological Diagnostics; SE-751 89 Uppsala, sylvatic isolations. T. spiralis was recovered all around in Finland. Sweden Intriguingly, T. spiralis wasrevealedformtheverynorthinafoxinan Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S10 area where never any domestic outbreak of trichinellosis has been reported, and seldom any swine has been seen, indicating that T. spiralis Background: Echinococcus multilocularis is a tapeworm whose adult may exist in sylvatic cycle without external sources from synanthropic stages parasitize the intestine of canids such as foxes and wolves. Also animals. domestic dogs and cats can act as definitive hosts. The sylvatic life When population sizes are considered, the major reservoir animals in cycle includes small rodents as intermediate hosts but humans may Finland are the raccoon dog and the red fox. become accidentally infected by ingestion of eggs. Sweden, Finland, References UK, Ireland, and Malta are considered to be free of this parasite and 1. Oivanen L: Endemic trichinellosis – experimental and epidemiological therefore have maintained their national rules as regards deworming of studies. Dissertation 2005, Yliopistopaino, Helsinki. pets at movement into the countries. According to the EC regulation, 2. Pozio E, Christensson D, Steen M, Marucci G, La Rosa G, Bröjer C, Mörner T, these national rules can be applied during a transitional period to Uhlhorn H, Ågren E, Hall M: Trichinella pseudospiralis foci in Sweden. Vet 2010. Parasitology 2004, 125:335-342. In order to confirm the absence of E. multilocularis in Sweden, monitoring 3. Oivanen L, Oksanen A: Synanthropic Trichinella infection in Finland. Vet of foxes is being carried out continuously. These investigations are Parasitol 2009, 159:281-284. financed by the Swedish government. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 12 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

Materials and methods: In 2007, 245 red foxes were shot and sent to in Lithuania, E. multilocularis has already been identified in one of 5 SVA by local hunters in different parts of Sweden. To kill potential muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) captured in the Šilutė district [10]. The high tapeworm eggs, the carcasses were placed in –80°Cforatleastone prevalence of E. multilocularis in red foxes and raccoon dogs as well as a week before sampling. Faecal samples were then collected from the notable increase of AE in humans was also recently documented [11,12]. rectum and sent to Switzerland for testing by coproantigen ELISA Human infection: In the early eighties, sporadic cases of cystic (Deplazes et al., 1999). Forty-eight foxes that were positive in the ELISA echinococcosis caused by the larval stage of E. granulosus were and additional 28 randomly selected individuals were also examined by a diagnosed in humans in Lithuania. However, during the last decades, the sedimentation technique according to the OIE guidelines. diagnostic techniques have improved and the incidence of human AE has Results and discussion: Forty-eight foxes out of 245 were positive for risen to considerable levels, with an increasing concern among the Echinococcus sp. by the coproantigen ELISA. With the sedimentation human population and the health authorities. technique however, Echinococcus sp was not detected in any of the From 1997 to July 2008, 96 AE cases have been diagnosed at the State examined animals, including those who had been positive in the ELISA. Hospital for Tuberculosis and Infectious Diseases in cooperation with the OnepossibleexplanationforobtainingfalsepositiveELISAresultswas Santariškių Clinic (Vilnius University). Eighty-one percent of AE patients that some kind of cross-reaction had taken place. The majority of the were farmers or persons involved in agricultural activities. Most of the foxes were infected with other parasites, for example Taenia sp, patients (59%) owned dogs. The AE cases were recorded from many parts Mesocestoides sp, Alaria alata, Toxocara canis, . of the country suggesting that the whole territory of Lithuania should be Conclusions: There is a need for good screening methods with high considered as an endemic area [11,12]. sensitivities and specificities. The results obtained by the sedimentation Animal infection: The helminth fauna of carnivores from Lithuania was technique indicate that Sweden was still free from the fox tapeworm in investigated in earlier studies, but no record was made on 2007. E. multilocularis [13,14]. The methods used in these studies are not well Reference documented but the reported findings of E. granulosus as well as other 1. Deplazes P, Alther P, Tanner I, Thompson RCA, Eckert J: Echinococcus small helminths in dogs and wolves indicate that E. multilocularis would multilocularis coproantigen detection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent most probably have been detected in the 122 foxes investigated, at least assay in fox, dog and cat populations. J. Parasitol 1999, 85:115-121. if highly prevalent at that time. In neighboring Poland, E. multilocularis in red foxes was recorded for the first time in the Gdansk region in 1995 [6] which is close to the S11 Lithuanian border. Interestingly, the parasite’sprevalenceinredfoxes Emerging alveolar echinococcosis (AE) in humans and high prevalence (35%) in the southern part of Lithuania [11] is comparable to the one of Echinococcus multilocularis in foxes and raccoon dogs in Lithuania (34.5%) reported from Poland [15]. However, based on these limited data, Mindaugas Šarkūnas1*, Rasa Bružinskaitė1,4, Audronė Marcinkutė2, it remains unclear whether the East Baltic region is a newly established Kęstutis Strupas3, Vitalijus Sokolovas3, Alexander Mathis4, Peter Deplazes4 endemic area of an extending distribution to the eastern part of Europe, 1Department of Infectious Diseases, Lithuanian Veterinary Academy, Tilžės str. or just a hitherto unnoticed one. 18, LT–47181, Kaunas, Lithuania; 2Clinic of Infectious Diseases, Microbiology In Lithuania, E. multilocularis was detected in 158 (58.7%, 95% and Dermatovenereology, Vilnius University, Lithuania; 3Santariškių Clinic, CI 50.2%–64.1%) of 269 red foxes examined. It was present in foxes from Vilnius University, Lithuania; 4Institute of Parasitology, WHO Collaborating most tested localities with the highest prevalence of 62.3% (CI 49.0–74.4%) Centre for Parasitic Zoonoses, University of Zürich, Switzerland being observed in the Kaunas district. Mean worm burden was 1309 E-mail: [email protected] (1-20,924) worms per fox in this district [11]. It was found that 17% of the Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S11 infected adult red foxes were harboring heavy infections (>1000 worms per animal) while none of the juvenile foxes were heavily infected. This Summary: The presence of the most important definitive and finding differs from other studies suggesting that juvenile foxes play a intermediate hosts suggests that conditions for the live cycle of more important role in the life cycle of E. multilocularis [16,17]. However, E. multilocularis are favorable in Lithuania. While the main rodent hosts our result may be biased by the low number of juvenile foxes investigated. have not been investigated systematically in Lithuania, E. multilocularis The high prevalence (58.7%) of E. multilocularis in red foxes in the has already been identified in one of 5 muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) examined areas suggests that these animals may play the most important captured in the Šilutė district. The high prevalence of E. multilocularis in role in the zoonotic transmission of this tapeworm in Lithuania. red foxes and raccoon dogs as well as a notable increase of AE The raccoon dog is a highly susceptible definitive host for E. multilocularis in humans document that E. multilocularis is of emerging concern in [2] and there are reports on infected animals from Germany [18], Poland Lithuania. The human AE cases were recorded from many parts of the [19] and Lithuania [11]. However, the prevalence of E. multilocularis in country suggesting that the whole territory of Lithuania should be raccoon dogs is relatively low in these countries when compared to those considered as an endemic area for E. multilocularis. Considering the long of the red foxes (2.7%, 8% and 10%, respectively). Further, the prepatent period of AE in humans we suggest that this zoonosis is significance of the raccoon dogs regarding the transmission of present in the area investigated for at least a few decades. E. multilocularis to the intermediate host population is poorly understood. Introduction: Echinococcus multilocularis is a small tapeworm exploiting In addition to the morphological detection of E. multilocularis in one of 5 mainly wild animals with the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) being the crucial muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) captured in the Šilutė district of Lithuania definitive host in Europe [1]. Dogs and raccoon dogs are also highly [10], infertile and calcified metacestodes of E. multilocularis were susceptible definitive hosts of E. multilocularis, while reproduction of this identified by PCR in 0.4% (3/685) of pigs, and 2 of 240 examined dogs parasite is significantly lower in cats as shown by experimental infections (0.8%) from the same area excreted E. multilocularis eggs [20] as [2]. Humans may get infected by uptake of eggs, and the tumor-like characterised by multiplex PCRusingprimersspecificforE. granulosus, growth of the metacestode stage mainly in the liver may lead to a E. multilocularis and Taenia spp. according to Trachsel et. al. [21]. serious disease – alveolar echinococcosis (AE). Conclusions: The identification of AE in pigs and of E. multilocularis Although a rare disease, the numbers of AE cases have increased in in dogs demonstrates that transmission of E. multilocularis is occurring in endemic areas in Central Europe [3]. AE is of considerable public health the rural environment in close vicinity to the human population. Red importance because of its high lethality if untreated and high treatment foxes may be considered as the most important species for transmission costs [4]. of E. multilocularis to humans while the respective epidemiological The known central–European endemic area of E. multilocularis has importance of rural dogs and raccoon dogs is still unknown and deserves expanded during the 1990s especially to the North and East [5], and the further studies. parasite was recently reported in the Baltic and neighboring regions i.e. The high number of human AE cases and the high prevalence of Poland [6], Belarus [7] and Estonia [8]. The presence of the most E. multilocularis indefinitivewildhostsaswellasitspresenceinpigsand important definitive and intermediate hosts [9] suggests that conditions dogs document that E. multilocularis is of emerging concern in Lithuania. for the live cycle of E. multilocularis are therefore favorable in Lithuania. Considering the long prepatent period of AE in humans we suggest that While these main rodent hosts have not been investigated systematically this zoonosis is present in the area investigated for at least a few decades. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 13 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

Acknowledgments: The study was financially supported by the Food 21. Trachsel D, Deplazes P, Mathis A: Identification of eggs of canine Taeniids and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, project TCP/ by multiplex PCR. Parasitology 2007, 134:911-920. LIT/ 3001 (T)), the SwissBaltNet (supporter: GEBERT RÜF STIFTUNG), Lithuanian Veterinary Academy, Hospital of Tuberculosis and Infectious Diseases and Santariškių Clinic of Vilnius University. The authors wish S12 to thank Regina Virbalienė and Jolanta Žiliukienė, Parasitology A survey for Toxoplasma gondii in red fox (Vulpes vulpes) from Laboratory, National Public Health Centre, Aušrinė Barakauskienė,MD, Finnmark County, Norway PhD, National Centre for Pathology and Jonas Valantinas MD, PhD, Renate Sjølie Andresen Santariškių Clinic for their valuable assistance in diagnosing human Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Department of Food Safety and echinococcosis. Infection Biology, Section of Arctic Veterinary Medicine, Stakkevollveien 23, References NO-9010 Tromsø, Norway 1. Eckert J, Deplazes P: Biological, epidemiological, and clinical aspects of Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S12 echinococcosis, a zoonosis of increasing concern. Clin Microbiol Rev 2004, 17:107-35. Summary: Samples (blood or tissue fluid) from 405 red foxes (Vulpes 2. Kapel CM, Torgerson PR, Thompson RC, Deplazes P: Reproductive potential vulpes) from Finnmark, Northern Norway, were assayed for antibodies of Echinococcus multilocularis in experimentally infected foxes, dogs, against T. gondii using the direct agglutination test (DAT). The proportion raccoon dogs and cats. Int J Parasitol 2006, 36:79-86. of seropositive animals was 42.5 %, with no significant relationship 3. Schweiger A, Ammann RW, Candinas D, Clavien PA, Eckert J, Gottstein B, between sex and infection. The proportion of seropositives seemed to Halkic N, Muellhaupt B, Prinz BM, Reichen J, Tarr PE, Torgerson PR, increase with age, in agreement with findings in previous studies in other Deplazes P: Human alveolar ecihnococcosis after fox population increase, species. Genotyping of brain tissue by PCR was not successful what Switzerland. Emerg Infect Dis 2007, 13(6):878-882. concerned T. gondii genomic DNA. This first report of Toxoplasma gondii 4. Torgerson PR, Schweiger A, Deplazes P, Pohar M, Reichen J, Ammann RW, infection in Norwegian red foxes from Finnmark County indicates that Tarr PE, Halkik N, Müllhaupt B: Alveolar echinococcosis: from a deadly T. gondii is fairly common in red foxes from this area, and the high disease to a well-controlled infection. Relative survival and economic seroprevalence might be explained by widespread of the parasite in the analysis in Switzerland over the last 35 years. J Hepatol 2008, 49(1):72-77. diet of the foxes. This implies that the red fox is a host of significance in 5. Romig T, Dinkel A, Mackenstedt U: The present situation of the maintaining of T. gondii in this northern region. echinococcosis in Europe. Parasitol Int 2006, 55:S187-191. 6. Malczewski A, Rocki B, Ramisz A, Eckert J: Echinococcus multilocularis (), the causative agent of alveolar echinococcosis in humans first S13 record in Poland. J Parasitol 1995, 81:318-321. Toxoplasma gondii in Australian smallgoods 7. Shimalov VV, Shimalov VT: Helminth fauna of red fox (Vulpes vulpes Tatjana Momcilovic Linnaeus, 1758) in southern Belarus. Parasitol Res 2003, 89:77-78. Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, P.O.Box 8146, 0030 Dep Oslo, 8. Moks E, Saarma U, Valdmann H: Echinococcus multilocularis in Estonia. Norway Emerg Infect Dis 2005, 11(12):1973-1974. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S13 9. Prūsaitė J, Mažeikytė R, PaužaD,Paužienė N, Baleišis R, Juškaitis R, et al: Fauna of Lithuania. Mokslas, Vilnius 1988, (In Lithuanian). Summary: Toxoplasma gondii is one of the most common parasitic 10. Mažeika V, Paulauskas A, Balčiauskas L: New data on the helminth fauna of infections of humans and other warm-blooded animals. In most adults it rodents of Lithuania. Acta Zoologica Lituanica 2003, 13:41-47. does not cause serious illness, but severe disease may result from 11. Bružinskaitė R: Epidemiology of Echinococcus species with reference to infection of fetuses and immuno-compromised people. Consumption of helminths of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes raw or undercooked meats has been consistently identified as an procyonoides) in Lithuania. PhD Thesis Lithuanian Veterinary Academy, important source of exposure to T. gondii. Several studies indicate the Department of Infectious Diseases 2007. potential failure to inactivate T. gondii in the processes of cured meat 12. Bružinskaitė R, Marcinkutė A, Strupas K, Sokolovas V, Deplazes P, Mathis A, products, referred to as smallgoods in Australia. Eddi C, Šarkūnas M: Alveolar echinococcosis, Lithuania. Emerg Infect Dis This publication presents a qualitative risk-based assessment of the 2007, 13(10):1618-1619. processing of ready-to-eat smallgoods.Therawmeatingredientsare 13. Danilevičius E: Echinococcosis in Lithuanian SSR and immunodiagnosis of rated with respect to their likelihood of containing T. gondii cysts and an echinococcosis in pigs. PhD Thesis Lithuanian Veterinary Institute 1964, (in adjustment is made based on whether all the meat from a particular Russian). source is frozen. Next the effectiveness of common processing steps to 14. Kazlauskas J, Prūsaitė J: Helminths of carnivores in Lithuania. Acta inactivate T. gondii cysts are assessed, including addition of spices, Parasitologica Lituanica 1976, 12:33-40, (in Russian). nitrates, nitrites and salt, use of fermentation, smoking and heat 15. Gawor J, Malczewski A, Stefaniak J, Nahorski W, Paul M, Kacprzak E, et al: treatment, and the time and temperature during maturation. It is Risk of alveococcosis for humans in Poland. Przegl Epidemiol 2004, concluded that processing steps which may be effective in the 58:459-465, (in Polish). inactivation of T. gondii cysts include freezing, heat treatment and 16. Tackamnn K, Loschner U, Mix H, Staubach C, Thulke HH, Conraths FJ: cooking, and the interaction between salt concentration, maturation time Spatial distribution patterns of Echinococcus multilocularis (Leucart and temperature. The assessment is the illustrated using a Microsoft Excel 1863) (Cestoda: : ) among red foxes in an based software tool which was developed to facilitate the easy endemic focus in Branderburg, Germany. Epidemiol Infect 1998, assessment of four hypothetical smallgoods products. 120:101-109. 17. Hofer S, Gloor S, Muller U, Mathis A, Hegglin D, Deplazes P: High prevalence of Echinococcus multilocularis in urban red foxes (Vulpes S14 vulpes) and voles (Arvicola terrestris) in the city of Zurich, Switzerland. Echinococcus granulosus (‘pig strain’, G6/7) in Southwestern Lithuania Parasitol 2000, 120:135-142. Mindaugas Šarkūnas1*, Rasa Bružinskaitė1,3, Audronė Marcinkutė2, 18. Thiess A, Schuster R, Nockler K, Mix H: Helminth findings in indigenous Alexander Mathis3, Peter Deplazes3 raccoon dogs Nyctereutes procyonoides (Gray, 1834). Berliner und 1Department of Infectious Diseases, Lithuanian Veterinary Academy, Kaunas, Munchener Tieraztlichr Wochenschrift 2001, 114:273-276, (in German). Lithuania; 2Clinic of Infectious Diseases, Microbiology and 19. Machnicka B, Dziemian E, Rocki B, Kolodziej-Sobocinska M: Detection of Dermatovenereology, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania; 3Institute of Echinococcus multilocularis antigens in faeces by ELISA. Parasitol Res Parasitology, University of Zürich, Switzerland 2003, 91:491-496. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S14 20. Bružinskaitė R, Šarkūnas M, Torgerson PR, Mathis A, Deplazes P: Echinococcosis in pigs and intestinal infection with Echinococcus spp. in Background: Cystic echinococcosis (CE) of pigs is widespread and known dogs in Southwestern Lithuania. Vet Parasitol in press. since many years in Lithuania [1]. Recently, the number of diagnosed Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 14 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

cases of human CE began to increase [2] but only limited information is take part of the Trichinella spp life cycle. The opposite cannot be available on the main epidemiological aspects of this zoonosis. confirmed, either, as absence of evidence is not equal to evidence of Material and methods: During 2005-2006, post slaughter examination absence. The predilection sites of Trichinella muscle larvae in microtid and morphological identification of cysts from pigs from small family rodents are not well-known. Perhaps the right hind leg is not a good farms (n=612) and industrial farms (n=73) was performed. Dog fecal matrix for Trichinella larvae. In addition, even though the material samples (n=240) were collected in 12 villages and microscopically consisting of 1899 small mammals may appear large at topical inspection, examined by egg flotation/sieving (F/Si) [3] and modified McMaster the potential impact of microtid rodents on Trichinella transmission methods [4]). For the genetic identification of E. granulosus to species/ biology is based on the high numbers of animals. The Finnish vole strain level, PCR was performed with DNA from typical hydatid cysts from population fluctuates all the time, but during the peaks there are pigs (n=2), morphologically unidentifiable lesions from pigs (n=3), estimated to be about 200 000 000 voles in the country. nonfertile cysts from cattle (n=3) and taeniid eggs from dog faecal References samples (n=34) [5]. Risk factors for cystic echinococcosis were evaluated 1. Oivanen L: Endemic trichinellosis – experimental and epidemiological by a questionnaire. studies. Dissertation 2005, Yliopistopaino, Helsinki. Results: CE was prevalent in 13.2% (81/612) of the pigs reared in small 2. Dell’Arte GL, Laaksonen T, Norrdahl K, Korpimäki E: Variation in the diet family farms and 4.1% of those reared in industrial farms. Molecular composition of a generalist predator, the red fox, in relation to season analysis of isolated taeniid eggs revealed in 10.8% of the dogs and density of main prey. Acta Oecologica 2007, 31:276-281. investigated Taenia spp., in 3.8% E. granulosus(G6/7)andin0.8% 3. Holliman RB, Meade BJ: Native in wild rodents in Henrico E. multilocularis. In addition, three samples from livers of human and from County, Virginia. J. Wildl. Dis 1980, 16:205-207. a cow were confirmed as E. granulosus larval stage by PCR. Sequence 4. Mikkonen T, Valkama J, Wihlman H, Sukura A: Spatial variation of analysis confirmed the ‘pig strain’ (G 6/7) in all pig, dog, cattle and Trichinella prevalence in rats in Finnish waste disposal sites. J. Parasitol human isolates investigated. No significant risk factor for infections with 2005, 91:210-213. E. granulosus or Taenia spp. could be identified. Conclusion: The ‘pig strain’ of E. granulosus is highly prevalent in the southwestern part of Lithuania, and transmission is more likely in small S16 family farms indicating a high exposure to cestode eggs in rural areas. Aggregation in cattle dung-colonizing insect communities Therefore control programs should be initiated with special reference to Richard Wall*, Colin Lee small family farms. & Ecology Group, School of Biological Sciences, References University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol, BS8 1UG, UK 1. Danilevičius E: Cystic echinococcosis and immunodiagnosis in pigs in Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S16 Lithuania. PhD thesis. Kaunas 1964, (in Lithuanian). 2. Marcinkutė A, Bareišienė MV, Bružinskaitė R, Šarkūnas M, Tamakauskienė R, Background: Ruminant dung is a highly ephemeral, patchily distributed Vėlyvytė D: Cystic echinococcosis in Lithuania. Lithuanian General resource, which is utilized by a diverse community of invertebrate species. This Practitioner 2006, 10:8-11. ecologically important community may be affected adversely by insecticide 3. Mathis A, Deplazes P, Eckert J: An improved test system for PCR-based and endectocide residues in the faeces of treated cattle. The aim of the specific detection of Echinococcus multilocularis eggs. J Helminthol 1996, present work was to quantify the aggregation of the insects colonising cow- 70:219-222. dung in cattle pastures and test the hypothesis that the dung-pat community 4. Roepstorff A, Nansen P: The epidemiology, diagnosis and control of assemblage observed is the result of stochastic colonization events. helminth parasites of swine. FAO Animal Health Manual 3, Food and Methods: Fresh dung from dairy cattle was used to construct arrays of Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 1998, Rome, Italy. standardised, 1.5kg, artificial cow pats in cattle pastures. Batches of ten 5. Trachsel D, Deplazes P, Mathis A: Identification of taeniid eggs in the pats were placed out each week for 24 weeks, between May and October faeces from carnivores based on multiplex PCR using targets in in 2001. Pats were left exposed in the field for seven days, to allow mitochondrial DNA. Parasitology 2007, 134:911-920. colonisation. Pats were then brought back to the laboratory and insect colonizers were collected and identified. Results: Individual pats contained on average, only half the number of S15 insect taxa present in an entire batch put out at any one time. Among six Sylvatic Trichinella reservoir not found among voles in Finland representative taxa of Diptera and four of Coleoptera, significant levels of Hanna Välimaa1*, Jukka Niemimaa2, Antti Oksanen1, Heikki Henttonen2 intraspecific aggregation were observed in all but one (Mesembina 1Finnish Food safety Authority Evira, Fish and Wildlife Health Research Unit meridiana), with the abundance of most taxa within pats approximating a (FINPAR), Oulu, Finland; 2Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research negative binomial distribution. A simulation analysis was used to show Unit, Finland that the observed relative frequency of taxa within pats does not differ Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S15 from that expected by chance if colonisation is a random binomial event in which each species colonises a pat independently of all other species. Background: Sylvatic Trichinella infection has been found to be very Conclusion: The highly aggregated distributions observed in this study commoninFinnishwildcarnivores[1],especially locally in Southern and highlight the need for relatively large sample sizes when attempting to partly Central Finland. Cannibalism and carrion feeding have been assess the abundance and distribution of individual taxa in cow dung. In regarded as the major source of infection to red foxes and raccoon dogs. addition, the results suggest that the aggregated populations of even Voles have been found the major food items of red foxes [2]. They are highly abundant insects will be more susceptible to the deleterious regarded as herbivorous, but many herbivores consume animal tissues effectsofinsecticidalresiduesindungthaniftheywereevenly occasionally. Therefore, voles might be assumed potentially to take part in distributed, if by chance they colonize a pat containing insecticidal Trichinella life cycle in the wild. Microtus spp and Myodes spp have been residues from a recently treated animal. found to be infected with Trichinella, e.g. [3]. In Finland, refuse tip rats have been found to be rather commonly infected with [4]. Material: A total of 1761 bank voles Myodes glareolus, and 138 field voles S17 Microtus agrestis, trapped on 30 transect sampling locations in Finland. In Important ectoparasites of Alpaca (Vicugna pacos) addition, also 60 shrews, Sorex spp. accidentally found succumbed in the Set Bornstein traps, were also included in the study. After killing, during dissection, the Dep. of Virology, Immunobiology and Parasitology, National Veterinary right hind leg of each animal was removed and frozen until thawed at Institute, Uppsala, Sweden laboratory. Left hind legs were spared for confirmation analyses. Following Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S17 thawing, the legs were treated as meat inspection samples according to Commission Regulation (EC) No 2075/2005 utilizing pepsin-HCl digestion. Summary: Background: Alpacas (Vicugna pacos), earlier named Lama Results and discussion: No Trichinella spp larva was found in any of the pacos, belong to the family of which there are 7 living samples. Therefore, microtid rodents in Finland cannot be confirmed to species. Four are native to South America and of those four two are Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 15 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

domestic species, the alpaca (Vicugna pacos) and the llama (Lama Important livestock: The alpacas as well as the llamas were and still are glama) and two are wild, the vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) and the guanaco very important livestock in large areas of South America, particularly in (Lama guanicoe). These species are often referred to as the New World Peru,Bolivia,Ecuador,ChileandArgentina ([3,4,1]. Since the llamas and camels (NWCs) or the South American Camels (SACs) [1]. To the three alpacas were domesticated about 4-5000 BC [1], they have been the most Old World camels (OWCs) belong the bactrians or the two-humped important resource of human culture and survival in the high altitude camel (Camelus bactrianus). Lately it has been established that there are environments of the Andes. The SACs are better adapted than any other two different species of bactrians, one domesticated and one wild domesticated species to the very cold, hard and fragile areas with very endangered species [2]. The latter lives on the border between low oxygen pressure (altitudes between 4-5000m). Mongolia and China. The other domesticated OWC species is the more Alpaca provide meat, hides, fuel, manure and particularly very fine fibres well known, the one-humped or the dromedary camel (Camelus (wool), which are highly priced. Today more than 500,000 peasant dromedarius). families are raising SACs in the Andes and these livestock are the main The Camelidae evolved and developed parallel to the Ruminantiae over source of income for the campesinos. Increasing numbers of alpaca are 35 million years ago in North America [1] and have developed special being imported to various countries outside of South America including anatomical and physiological features which are of great significance to Europe for wool production, breeding and as companion animals. This is their biology, well adapted to the extreme climatic environments of the a fairly recent phenomenon that started with larger exports from Chile in rough countries of deserts and semi-deserts of Asia, the Middle East and 1983-84, first to North America [1]. Northern Africa (OWC) and the high altitude country of the Andes in Ectoparasites: The alpacas as other livestock are exposed to and affected South America (SAC/NWC), respectively. The Camelidae (long neck and by a range of ectoparasites (see Table 1). Of particular importance are the small head) are members of the order of Artiodactyla (even number of mange mites, the burrowing Sarcoptes scabiei and the non-burrowing digits), suborder Tylopoda (modified with pad or callus on Chorioptes sp and Psoroptes sp and lice, both biting and sucking each foot). Phthiraptera. The mange mites have been reported to be common All camelids have 37 pairs of chromosomes and the karyotypes are quite infestations on alpacas also in countries outside of South America. similar. The SACs can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Problems with mange are reported frequently from several countries in

Table 1 (abstract S17) Ectoparasites of alpaca belonging to the Phylum, Arthropoda Order Family Species Disease Astigmata Sarcoptidae Sarcoptes scabiei sarcoptic mange Psoroptidae Chorioptes sp chorioptic mange Psoroptes sp psoroptic mange (ear canker) Prostigmata Demodicidae Demodex sp demodectic mange Metastigmata Argasida (Soft ticks) Otobius mengnini otitis Ixodidae (Hard ticks)1 Ixodes holocyclus Tick paralysis Dermacentor spp Tick toxicosis Phthiraptera Sucking lice2 Microthoracius spp Biting lice3 Bovicola (Damalinia) brevis Siphonaptera Flees Vermipsylla sp Diptera (flies) Culicidae (mosquitos) Simulidae (black flies) Tabanidae Tabanus spp (horse flies, deer fly) Muscidae Musca domestica (house fly) M autumnalis (face fly) Stomoxys calcitrans (biting stable fly) Hydrotea spp Haematobia spp Sarcophagidae Calliphoridae (blowflies) Calliphora sp Cochliomyia hominivorax (primary screw worm) Phaenicia spp (green blow fly) Phormia spp (black blow fly) Oestridae (Bot flies) Oestrus sp Cephenomyia sp 1 Alpacas are at risk to be infested by native ticks e.g. in Scandinavia by various Ixodes and Haemophysalis spp, many that are known vectors of pathogens 2 Suborder; Anoplura 3 Suborder; Mallophaga Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 16 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

Europe [5-10]. In the UK e.g. 23 % of alpaca owners were concerned [8] Some variants of S scabiei are known to cross-infect humans resulting in and in Switzerland alpaca owners regarded mange as one of the four pseudo-scabies. Successful experimental infections of humans with most frequent health problems [11]. Sarcoptes scabiei var aucheniae is Sarcoptes scabiei from alpacas have been reported [16,25]. Some authors very prevalent in alpacas as well as in other SACs [3]. It is said to be do recognize that S scabiei var aucheniae should be regarded as zoonotic responsible for 95 % of all losses due to ectoparasites in alpacas [12,13]. [16]. Infestations with Chorioptes sp are also very common. Some regard Diagnosis: The above highlights the importance of correct diagnosis. For Chorioptes mites as the most common ectoparasite infesting SACs [14]. all three mite species apply the same traditional skin scraping The mite is assumed to be Cbovis[15,16]. Psoroptes (aucheniae) ovis may procedures, particularly deep skin scrapings for the burrowing Sarcoptes also be found to infest particularly the earlaps (pinna) and the outer ear mites with microscopic identification of the species. In relatively acute canals, but can also be found elsewhere on the body of alpacas. Mixed infections the mites may be difficult to find. Multiple skin scrapings, infections occur with two and even three of the mite species [9,17,16]. employing a blunted scalpel blade often coated with liquid paraffin, are Mange: Sarcoptic mange: The early acute manifestation of sarcoptic necessary to make on the same individual and on several animals in mange include mild to severe pruritus with erythema, papules and the affected herd, preferably on all animals. The thickly crusted parts pustules, developing soon to crusting, alopecia and lichenification and of chronic lesions often yield high numbers of sarcoptic mites. thickening of the skin (hyperkeratosis), the chronic stage. Lesions may be Recommended procedures of taking skin scrapings and the following seen on the limbs (often between the toes), medial thighs, ventral analytical procedures vary [14]. Often the recommendations are to place abdomen, chest, axilla, perineum, prepuce, the head including the lips the skin scrapings on a glass slide and mix it either with a drop or two of and ears. Fibre-free areas are said to be more often affected. Damage to the solution of potassium hydroxide (NaOH) followed by applying heat the fibre and loss of condition occur. In very severe infections the disease for a few minutes or mix the skin scraping material with liquid paraffin, may result in death [3,17]. There are historical accounts of large followed by applying a glass cover slip. This is then examined for the epidemics of S scabiei var aucheniae affectingSACsinSouthAmerica presence of ectoparasites under low power. (1544, 1545, 1548, 1826, 1836 and 1839) causing havoc in SACs with Another laboratory procedure is to place the scrapings (scabs and debris) mortalities of over two thirds of the populations [3]. preferably in centrifuge tubes allowing the material to be soaked in a Prevalence of the infection among the alpaca of peasant communities in 10 % solution of potassium hydroxide and place the mix in a water bath the Andes is between 20-40 % [12]. The earlier high prevalence of the (370C) for a few hours after which the material is centrifuged at about infection also seen in the alpacas imported and bred in USA has been 3000 r.p.m. Then the supernatant is discarded and the sediment substantially reduced, most probably due to the frequent use of examined in a microscope under low power after having added 1-2 [18]. In Europe there are several case reports [11,17,10], but no drops of glycerine to the sediment. proper study addressing the prevalence of sarcoptic mange infections. One can often short-cut above procedure by first examining the collected A concern is that Sscabieihas a zoonotic potential and that some skin scrapings in a small petri-dish which is left in room temperature or variants are not host-specific. <350C for an hour or two followed by examining the scrapings under low Chorioptic mange: Previously Chorioptes sp infestations were considered magnification (stereo-microscope). The raised temperature (> +180C) will relatively rare in SACs [18,15], although Cremers [19] was of the opposite stimulate any live ectoparasite present to move enhancing the possibility opinion. Today chorioptic mange is a very common condition in many of detecting parasites which then may be isolated and identified. If no herds worldwide [14,20]. ectoparasite is found the previous described procedures follow. Clinical signs of chorioptic mange may mimic sarcoptic mange, but In regards to Chorioptes sp animals may harbour a relatively low level of animals affected usually exhibit a milder pruritus and sometimes none at showing no clinical disease, while other individuals may all (subclinical). Individuals with a heavy infestation may be free of any experience a hypersensitivity reaction with moderate to severe skin symptoms of mange although others in the same herd with lower lesions including pruritis, similar to a clinical reaction to acute S scabiei infestations may show severe extensive skin lesions [20]. Often alopecia infections. A recommended site for performing skin scrapings in search of and scaling are seen on the feet – oftenasinsarcopticmangebetween Chorioptes sp is the dorsal interdigital (between the toes) and axillae the toes and the base of the tail. Lesions may spread to the ventral areas [14]. abdomen, medial limbs and often the ears. Low power microscopical examination of material from superficial skin Psoroptic mange: Psoroptic mange is often seen at predilection sites; scrapings and swabs rubbed into the outer ear canal may identify pinna and outer ear canals, as erythema, crusting, papules serum Psoroptes sp. For proper identification isolates should be sent to experts exudates and alopecia. Pruritus is evident emanating from these lesions. in the field. Typical lesions seen in the outer ear canals are big flakes. Pus When diagnosis is not conclusive skin biopsies are recommended in skin occasionally appears which is most likely due to secondary infections. disease. Mites are seldom seen in acute cases in histological sections of Ears and parotid regions may become grossly swollen in severe lesions the skin. However, in cases of chronic sarcoptic mange, S scabiei may [3]. However, lesions may be generalised as well as pruritus with or often be seen in the epidermis. without involvement of the outer ear canal. Other sites with lesions Differential diagnosis: Any pruritic dermatitis may mimic infections/ reported include; nares, axillae, groin, neck and legs, abdomen, perineum, infestations by mange mites There are several other causes of skin lesions shoulders, back and its sides and the base of the tail [16]. Intermittent which should be mentioned as differential diagnostic possibilities apart bilateral ear twitching and short-duration head shaking may indicate from dermatitis of bacterial, viral and fungal etiology; e.g. immune otitis due to Psoroptes sp infestations [6]. mediated skin disease, hypersensitivity reactions, pemphigus like The Psoroptes sp of alpacas and llamas have previously been referred to as conditions, nutritional/metabolic disease, idiopathic hyperkeratosis, P auchenia or P communis auchinae [6], but adequate identifications of the mineral deficiencies i.e. zinc responsive dermatosis. Unfortunately the different isolates of the mites have not yet been done. There is a concern latter diagnosis (zinc responsive dermatosis) has become a very popular that the Psoroptes sp isolated from SACs, referred to as Pcommunis,the diagnosis that is seldom proven correct. cosmopolitan ear mite of many herbivores [21], might be able to infest Phthiriosis (lice): Bovicola (Lepikentron) breviceps Rudow, 1866 (the biting sheep and cattle i.e act as reservoirs for the very serious sheep scab. or more appropriate the chewing louse), varying in size from 0.5x1.2 mm Psoroptic mange was reported recently in two alpacas in the UK [13]. One to1.5x4mm,ismorecommoninllamasthaninalpacas.Thecolourof of the animals came from Chile and the other was born in the UK. the body of the louse is white or light tan and it has a blunt broad head Cross-transmission: The possibility of cross-transmission of any of the that is distinctly different from the elongated mouthparts of the sucking other mange mites and other ectoparasites of alpacas to domestic sheep lice. Infestations are mostly seen on the dorsal midline, base of the tail, and other livestock and vice versa is a concern and, to my knowledge, on the side of the neck and along the sides of the body. has not yet been sufficiently investigated. Sarcoptes scabiei var aucheniae Clinical signs of infestations are often a lack of lustre and a ragged was reported to be able to infect sheep and horses [22]. Another looking coat. Infested animals exhibit pruritus. Heavy infestations result in Sarcoptes scabiei variant (var. cameli), acommonpathogenin matting and loss of fibres [15], but do not seem to have negative effects dromedaries, was shown experimentally to be able to infect sheep and on the quality of the fibres or pose any health risk to alpacas [26]. goats [23], and S scabiei derived from goats and sheep readily infected Alpacas are more often infested with the sucking lice, Michrothoracius dromedaries experimentally [24]. mazzai Werneck 1932 characterized by its elongated spindle-shaped Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 17 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

head, which is almost as long as its abdomen. Earlier in the literature the therapies employed before deciding on whether to stop treatment or former species has been misnamed M prealongiceps [27]. Preferred sites change the regimen. Successful treatment should be followed by of attachment are around the flanks, head, neck and withers. Although effective biosecurity measures to prevent the risk of re-infection/ these lice are large enough to be seen with the naked eye, about two infestations. In addition it is recommended to treat all the animals in the thirds the size of the biting lice, they are often partly imbedded in the herd at the same time. skin taking a blood meal and thus may be difficult to see. Acknowledgement: The author is grateful to Mrs Anita Lilburn for Clinical signs are pruritus, restlessness, hair loss and poor growth. Severe valuable linguistic revision of the manuscript and to Dr Aiden P Foster for infestations can cause anaemia. The biting lice may be found by parting letting me use valuable images of his case material. the fibres down to the skin using a bright light in search of tiny moving References specks. Nits (eggs) may be seen attached to the fibres. The smaller 1. Hoffman E: The complete alpaca book. Bonny Doon Press, Santa Cruz, sucking lice can be seen clinging to the fibres close to the skin or California; 2003. imbedded in it. 2. Cui P, Ding F, Gao H, Meng H, Yu J, Hu , Zhang HA: Complete Treatment: A variety of insecticides and acaricides have been used on mitochondrial genome sequence of the wild two-humped camel SACs with varying levels of success. In the past there have been several (Camelus bactrianus ferus): an evolutionary history of camelidae. BMC substances and dosage regimes employed to treat mange mites. The Genomics 2007, 18:241. Peruvian Indian peasants believed that the fat of condors was a good 3. Alvarado J, Astrom G, GBS Heath: An investigation into remedies of Sarna cure. This practice was later replaced by used motor oil [3]. Relatively few (sarcoptic mange) of alpacas in Peru. Expl Agric 1966, 2:245-254. of the commonly used acaricidal substances and insecticides have been 4. Aba MA: Hormonal interrelationships in reproduction of female Llamas scientifically tested on SACs. The modern macrocyclic lactones e.g. have and Alpacas. PhD Thesis Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, been tried but not undergone proper testing for efficacy or safety on Uppsala 1998. these animals that have such a unique physiology and metabolism 5. Petrikowski M: Chorioptic mange in an alpaca herd. In Advances in compared to other domestic species. Pharmacokinetic studies of Veterinary Dermatology. Edited by: Kwocka, K.W., Willemse, T., von Tscharner, macrocyclic lactones as well as other well known therapeutic products C. 1998, 3:450-450. are limited in SACs [28,29]. As yet there are few if any therapeutic 6. Bates P, Duff P, Windsor R, Devoy J, Otter A, Sharp M: Mange mites species products available licenced for these particular animals. This forces the affecting camelids in the UK. Vet Rec 2001, 463-464. clinicians to use off-label products licenced for other production animals, 7. Frame NW, Frame RKA: Psoroptes species in alpacas. Vet Rec 2001, 128. mostly ruminants. However, several well known therapeutic substances 8. Tait SA, Kirwan JA, Fair CJ, Coles GC, Stafford KA: Parasites and their not licensed for use on camelids have been and are used on SACs, some control in South American camelids in the United Kingdom. Vet Rec with good results. 2002, 150:638-639. A number of authors have used ivermectin at 200 µg/kg by subcutaneous 9. Geurden T, Deprez P, Vercruysse J: Treatment of sarcoptic, psoroptic and injection with variable but often good results against mange mite chorioptic mange in a Belgian alpaca herd. Vet Rec 2003, 153:332-333. infestations and sucking lice in SACs [15,16]. Some have employed higher 10. Lau P, Hill PB, Rybnicek J, Steel L: Sarcoptic mange in three alpacas doses e.g. 400 µg/kg and with more frequent applications (even weekly) treated successfully with amitraz. Vet Dermatol 2007, 18:272-277. than the recommended standard dosages used for other livestock. Also 11. Burri HI, Martig I, Sager H, Liesegang A, Meylan M: South American topical use of products containing eprinomectin, doramectin and camelids in Switzerland. I. Population, management and health moxidectin have proved efficacious in some treatments, but not in others problems. Schweiz Arch Tierhheilk 2005, 147:325-334. [16,10]. Applying injectibles (systemic therapy) in combination with 12. Leguia G: The epidemiogy and economic impact of llama parasites. topical treatments is often required to get better results [30]. Particularly Parasitology Today 1991, 7:54-55. patients with chronic lesions with thickened crusty hyperkeratotic skin 13. D´Alteiro GL, Batty A, Laxon K, Duffus P: Psoroptes species in alpacas. Vet need to be treated aggressively. In addition, perhaps an earlier Rec 2001, 96. recommendation to employ hand-dressing (with a brush) of the thick 14. D´Alteiro GL, Callaghan C, Just C, Manner-Smith A, Foster AP, Knowles TG: hyperkeratotic areas of the skin with tepid water with soap and Prevalence of Chorioptes sp. mite infestation in alpaca (Lama pacos) in keratolytic agents (e.g. salicylic acid solutions) would shorten the recovery the south-west of England: implications for skin health. J Sm Rumin Res time and reduce the amount of acaricides used [31,32]. 2005, 57:221-228. Chorioptes sp infestations have often showed to be difficult to control and 15. Fowler ME: Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids Llama, eradicate [9]. Also Sarcoptes scabiei infections have been very difficult to Alpaca, Vicuña, Guanaco. Sec ed; Iowa State Press; 1998. successfully treat [17]. Whether ``fomites`` play any significant role in 16. Foster A, Jackson A, D´Alteiro GL: Skin diseases of South American regards to re-infection/infestation is debatable. Sarcoptes scabiei outside camelids. In Practice 2007, 29:216-223. their host will not survive more than about three weeks. However, 17. Borgsteede FHM, Timmerman A, Harmsen MM: Een geval ernstige Chorioptes spp may survive for a little more than 60 days. Sarcoptes-schurft bij alpaca´s (Lama pacos). Tijdschr Voor Diergeneeskunde The fibres of alpacas do not contain lanolin which is necessary for the (Voor de praktijk) 2006, 131:282-283. effective spreading of topically applied products, i.e. pour-ons, 18. Rosychuk RAW: Llama Dermatology. Veterinary Clinics of North America: formulations designed for other livestock than camelids e.g. cattle and Food Animal Practice 1989, 51:228-239. small stock. This may partly explain therapeutic failures on alpacas [6]. 19. Cremers HJWM: Chorioptes bovis (Acarina: Psoroptidae) in some When using pour-ons it is essential to apply the products direct on the camelids from Dutch zoos. Vet Quart 1985, 7:198-199. skin. 20. Plant JD, Kutzler MA, Cebra CK: Efficacy of topical eprinomectin in the There are numerous insecticides including pyrethrins, chlorinated treatment of Chorioptes sp. infestation in alpacas and llamas. Vet hydrocarbons, carbamates and organic phosphates which may eradicate Dermatol 2007, 18:59-62. lice,buttheproblemistheadministrationoftheproducts.Theclueto 21. Bates P: Inter- and intra-specific variation within the genus Psoroptes successful treatment is to establish contact with the parasites. Lice (Acari: Psoroptidae). Vet Parasitol 1999, 83:201-217. infestations are easier to treat than the above mentioned mange mites. 22. Neveu-Lemaire J: Traite d´Entomologie Medicale et Veterinaire. Vigot Ivermectin at a dose rate of 200µg/kg body weight administered Freres , 1 1938, Paris. subcutaneously is effective against sucking lice [15], but not against the 23. Nayel NM, Abu-Samra MT: Experimental infection of the one humped biting or chewing lice. Cypermethrin at a dose rate of 10 mg/kg has been camel (Camelus dromedarius) and goats with Sarcoptes scabiei var. used with good effect [33,34]. A single treatment is thought to be cameli and S. scabiei var. ovis. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1986, 80:553-561. enough but two treatments 14 days apart is recommended as back-up 24. Nayel NM, Abu-Samra MT: Experimental infection of the one humped [33]. Eradication of infestations require repeated treatments and isolation camel (Camelus dromedarius) and goats with Sarcoptes scabiei var. until the animals are found to be completely free of the parasites [33]. cameli and S. scabiei var. caprae. Brit Vet J 1986, 142:264-269. The results of several case reports indicate the need to treat more 25. Mellanby K: Sarcoptic mange in the alpaca, Lama huanaco var. paca. frequently and with higher dosages of some of the acaricidal substances J Soc Trop Med Hyg 1946 1947, 40:359. used, compared to the formula for ruminants [16]. It is vital to closely 26. Vaughan JL, Carmichael I: Control of the camelid biting louse, Bovicola monitor the results of treatment i.e. the clinical resolution following the breviceps in Australia. Alpacas Australia 1999, 27:24-28. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 18 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

27. Cicchino AC, Muñoz Cobeñas ME, Bulman GM, Diaz JC, Laos A: measured very accurately). The oocyst surface is colourless, smooth and Identification of Microthoracius mazzai (Phthiraptera: Anoplura) as an clear. There is neither Stieda body nor micropyle in the oocyst or economical important parasite of alpacas. J Med Entomol 1998, sporocyst. No oocyst granule, but sporocyst residuum sometimes present. 35:922-930. This species was identified as Isospora canivelocis (Weidman, 1915) 28. Hunter RP, Isaza R, Koch DE, Dodd CC, Goately MA: Moxidectin plasma Wenyon, 1923. Duszynski et al. [1] consider it possible that this species is concentrations following topical administration to llamas (Lama glama) identical with Isospora buriatica Yakimoff and Matschoulsky, 1940 in and alpacas (Lama pacos). J Small Rumin Res 2004, 52:273-277. Matschoulsky, 1941 from the Corsac fox and Indian fox, and, more 29. Hunter RP, Isaza R, Koch DE, Dodd CC, Goately MA: The pharmacokinetics interestingly, with Isospora canis Nemeseri, 1959 from the domestic dog. of topical doramectin in llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Lama pacos). The other species oocysts measured 21-26x16-21 µm (mean [n=10] 23.4 J Vet Pharmacol Therap 2004, 27:187-189. (SD=1.2) x 18.4 (SD=1.0) µm, and sporocysts measured 11-13x10-13 µm 30. Curtis CF, Chappell SJ, Last R: Concurrent sarcoptic and chorioptic (mean [n=10] 12.2 (SD=1.0) x 11.4 (SD=1.0). The oocyst of this species is acariosis in a British llama (Lama glama). Vet Rec 2001, 149:208-209. slightly smaller but essentially indistinguishable from Isospora ohioensis 31. Nayel NM, Abu-Samra MT: Sarcoptic mange in the one-humped camel Dubey, 1975, which was described to be 24x21 (21-27x19-23) µm in size. (Camelus dromedarius). A clinico-pathological and epizootiological study Variationinoocystsizecanbecausedbye.gcrowdinginheavy of the disease and its treatment. J Arid Environm 1986, 10:199-211. infections. Also the infection phase can affect oocyst size. 32. Bornstein S, Wernery U, Kaaden O-R: Infectious Diseases in Camelids. 2nd The animals were treated with oral sulfadiatzine-trimethoprim (ratio 5:1) edition. Blackwell Science Berlin Vienna; 2002:267-387. medication at a dose of 120 g per ton of semimoist feed for five days, the 33. Palma RL, McKenna PB, Aitken P: Confirmation of the occurrence of the effect was variable, but the whelps later gained their normal condition and chewing louse Bovicola (Lepikentron) breviceps (Insecta: Phthiraptera: started to gain weight. The treatment was judged to be satisfactory. Trichodectidae) on alpacas (Lama pacos) in New Zealand. New Zealand J A second outbreak was observed on thesamefarminbluefoxwhelps, 2006, 54:253-254. when they reached the age of three weeks. The symptoms were similar 34. Vaughan JL: Eradication of the camelid biting louse. Austral Vet J 2004, to that of the silver foxes earlier, but more severe. The mortality was low 82:218-219. also at this outbreak, but morbidity was higher, and the weight development was more affected. Whelps were submitted to post-mortem examination, and coccidiosis was confirmed. The affected whelps were S18 treated with one individual oral dosing of toltrazuril by syringe at 10 mg Coccidiosis in farmed silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and blue foxes (Alopex per whelp and with oral sulfadiatzine-trimethoprim medication for five lagopus) in Finland: a case report: days, similar to the silver fox whelps. The recovery in the blue fox Tapio Juokslahti1*, Teija Korhonen2, Antti Oksanen3 outbreak was pronounced, and better than that of the silver fox outbreak. 1Helsinki University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (Docent), Helsinki, Finland; Discussion: The whelps most probably received the infection from their 2Finnish Food safety Authority Evira, Production Animal Health Research dams, which are known to shed parasites at puerperal period. Also Unit, Seinäjoki, Finland; 3Finnish Food safety Authority Evira, Fish and Wildlife horizontal infection within litters in the whelping boxes is to be Health Research Unit (FINPAR), Oulu, Finland considered. The hygienic conditions on the farm deserve attention, and Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S18 on this farm they may have contributed to the outbreak. The farm is located in the intensive fur farming district with proximity to Summary: Fur animal farming was initiated during the 1890s on Prince other fur animal farms. The spread of the parasites within the farm and Edward Island in Canada. Farmed silver foxes descend from animals caught possibly also between other farms may have been facilitated by black- from the wild on the island. Finnish fur farming increased during the post war headed gulls (Larus ridibundus), which frequently feed under the cage period and in mid-1980s, there were about 6000 fur animal farms, mostly nettings and the feeding boards of the foxes. They may be vectors for located in Southern Ostrobothnia (Fig.), producing about 8 million fur animals the parasite spread with their feet. yearly. Currently, there are approximately 1300 fur farms and the yearly Clinical coccidiosis is reported on fur animals [2], clinical case of this production in 2007 was about 2 million fox and 2 million mink furs. The global severity is the first one encountered in Finland. From the Internet, it production at the same time was about 7 million fox and 58 million mink furs. appears that in Chinese veterinary medical literature, silver fox coccidiosis An outbreak of clinical enteric coccidiosis was encountered at a fox farm is described as a well-known disease and an important problem [3]. with silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes)andbluefoxes(Alopex lagopus)in This reported outbreak calls for closer examination of the occurrence of intensive farming district of Osthrobothnia in Finland during summer clinical coccidiosis amongst Finnish fox farms, the coccidian species 2008. The breeding animal stock of the farm consists of 1500 silver fox capable of infecting both blue foxes and silver foxes, and the control females and 4000 blue fox females. The whelping period of the silver measures of the clinical coccidiosis including potential infection routes, foxes was from April 20 to May 25, and the whelping period of the blue vehicles, and the therapy. foxes was from ay 5 to June 10. References The first clinical signs were seen on silver fox whelps at the age of three 1. Duszynski DW, Couch L, Upton SJ: Coccidia (Eimeriidae) of and weeks. The whelps were unthrifty, their stools were watery, and they Felidae. Supported by NSF-PEET DEB 9521687 2000 [http://biology.unm.edu/ littered the floors of the wooden whelping boxes. Their fur was moist and biology/coccidia/carniv1.html]. clamped. The females also had moist fur coat, which clamped in the 2. Wenzel UD, Berestov VA: Pelztierkrankheiten. VEB Deutscher, Berlin; cervical and abdominal areas. There was not increased mortality. The 1986:98-99. morbidity was about 50 %, with all the whelps in affected culls showing 3. Ping JiXing, Hongyong Wang, Zhou Zhenghong, Zhenchun to: Silver Fox the symptoms. At this time the females are still nursing their whelps, and coccidiosis treatment. Cure of the silver fox Coccidiosis. Poujian through the whelps keep themselves mostly inside the whelping boxes. After these pathology and laboratory checks to early diagnosis of the Silver Fox first symptoms, all whelps were studied clinically. They showed marked coccidiosis, and to Treatment. Coccidia powder words of the disease unthriftyness and poor growth. The body size of the animals was have a better effect, in addition, sanitation is also extremely important. significantly smaller than the normal at this age. Affected whelps were Hubei Animal Husbandry and Veterinary 2003, 01. submitted to post-mortem examination to Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira laboratory in Seinäjoki. In parasitological flotation test from intestinal contents, coccidian oocysts were detected. Faecal samples were submitted S19 for quantitative parasitological analysis and species identification. Haemonchosis in a sheep flock in North Finland Of the six silver fox whelp faecal samples, coccidian oocysts were found Saana-Maaria Manninen*, Antti Oksanen in 4; max 5600 oocysts per gram (opg), and of the four blue fox whelp Finnish Food Safety Authority (FINPAR), Evira Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, faeces, oocysts were found in two, max 120 opg. Two species of Isospora Oulu, Finland were found. Oocysts of the first one were 30-37x24-28 µm (mean [n=20] Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S19 35.3 (SD 0.9) x 26.2 (SD 0.4) µm, and sporocysts measured 15-16x14-15 µm (mean [n=20] 15.5 (SD 0.2) x 14.8 (SD 0.5). Sporozoites measured Background: In May 2008 two sheep from a farm in Ylikiiminki (65°N within sporocysts within oocysts were about 13x5 µm (cannot be 26°E) were autopsied at Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira in Oulu and Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 19 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

diagnosed with a Haemonchus contortus infection. Haemonchus contortus has a few years ago been reported on the island of Hailuoto just outside S20 Oulu, where it led to a lethal infection. Although this to sheep highly Comparative evaluation of efficiency of traditional McMaster chamber pathogenic nematode has been detected in Finland already in 1933 by and newly designed chamber for the enumeration of nematode eggs Agnes Sjöberg [1], it has apparently never been reported so far up north Asta Pereckiene1*, Saulius Petkevicius1,2, Antanas Vysniauskas1 in Finland. In Sweden H. contortus has almost reached the Arctic Circle 1Veterinary Institute of Lithuanian Veterinary Academy, Instituto 2, LT-56115 [2]. It does not survive the Nordic winter on pasture, but with almost 100 Kaisiadorys, Lithuania; 2Department of Infectious Diseases, Lithuanian % arrested development in the early fourth larval stage it is capable of Veterinary Academy, Tilzes 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania surviving the Nordic winter within its host [3]. E-mail: [email protected] The farm the infected sheep originated from is a small sheep farm with Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S20 also a few goats and other domestic animals such as horses, turkeys and rabbits. They had bought their first sheep in November 2006, part of the Summary: The objective of this study was to perform the comparative ewes being pregnant at time of purchase and lambed in January. The evaluation of efficiency of traditional McMaster chamber and the newly sheep are of Finnish race, Texel-Oxford, Kainuu grey and cross-breeds. In designed chamber for the enumeration of nematode eggs in different the winter the sheep are housed in an approximately 150 m2 barn with agriculture animals. Thirteen pig, two horse and two sheep farms were thick straw bedding and access to a corral sized about 500 m2.Grazing randomly selected, and 815 of pig faecal samples, 264 of horse and 264 grounds from May until snowfall (in October) consists of approximately of sheep faecal samples were examined. The positive samples were 4 ha of pasture and 1 ha of mixed forest. According to the owner the identified by Henriksen and Aagaard (1976) [1] modification of McMaster totally about 35 sheep and 4 goats mainly used the pasture grass as their method. Furthermore, experimental horse faeces were examined by [1] nutrition, but were also given hay in round bales, when the feeding area and Urquhart et al., 1996) [2] modifications, whereas pig and sheep became very contaminated with faeces. The drinking water was faeces were examined by [1] and Kassai, 1999 [3] modifications, accessible in the nearby river Kiiminkijoki. The animals were treated with respectively. All samples were evaluated in two replicates: using fenbendazole in the autumn of 2007. traditional McMaster 0.3 ml chamber – I and newly designed 1.5 ml In the spring of 2008 many of the sheep (age 1+) became weak and chamber – II [4]. In pig farms, 11.5% and 18.2% (chambers I and II, developed an oedema under the jaw. Two of these animals (one died and P<0.05) of pigs were found infected with Ascaris suum. Furthermore, one shot) were autopsied and the rest of the ones with symptoms were killed 14.6% and 17.8% (chambers I and II, P<0.05) of pigs were found infected and buried. The autopsy findings included oedema under the jaw, paleness with Oesophagostomum dentatum and 3.7% and 8.2% (chambers I and II, due to anemia and abomasitis caused by a severe parasite infection. P<0.05) with Trichuris suis, respectively. In horse farms, 65.5% and 83.7% Materials, methods and results: Contents of the abomasum were rinsed horses infected with strongyles were identified (chambers I and II, P<0.05. into 2L of water and a 200 mL sample was collected, the adult worms In sheep farms, the number animals of positive to strongyle infection was collected, counted and identified. In one of the sheep 300 abomasal 81.4% and 96.2% (I and II chambers, P<0.05). The new modification of nematodes were found, where of 90 % were identified as Haemonchus chamber [4] demonstrated statistically higher sensitivity for enumeration contortus, the rest being Teladorsagia circumcincta. In the faecal flotation of nematode eggs and for evaluation of farms with infected animals using a modified McMaster method an egg count (epg) of 5880 was compared to McMaster modifications described in [1-3]. counted and eggs identified as Trichostrongylidae spp. The other animal Introduction: Faecal examination is an important tool for monitoring had a more severe infection, and approximately 1600 adult worms were worm infections in farm animals and an important adjunct to maintaining found in the abomasum, also with 90 % H. contortus and 10 % effective worm control programmes. Described faecal examination T. circumcincta. The results of the faecal egg count for this individual methods are either qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative methods were following: Trichostrongylidae spp. 36 000 EPG, Strongyloides sp. 400 provide information on the species present, whereas quantitative epg and Eimeria sp. 2040 oocysts per gram faeces. methods provide an indication of the levels of infections. Both have their Discussion: The results indicate that Haemonchus contortus is becoming own importance in determining the health status of a herd and a potential threat to sheep in North Finland and the distribution of the determining appropriate treatments and control measures. Quantitative nematode should be monitored. The parasite is hereby proven to cause examinations are performed by different modifications of the McMaster very severe disease in the North Ostrobothnian sheep production. method, which is the most widely used and standard quantitative Considering the effects of the climate change, that can be very technique with sensitivity from 10 to 100 eggs per 1 g of faeces [5-15]. affirmative for H. contortus life cycle, and the increasing amount of sheep Furthermore, the following chambers are used for egg count: traditional in North Finland [4], the occurrence of this parasite in these latitudes McMaster chamber with two chambers (2 x 0.15 ml), Gordon-Whitlock should not be left without attention. Moreover, it may be transmitted to chamber (3 x 0.15), Whitlock McMaster chamber (3 x 0.3 ml), Whitlock other species such as reindeer [5]. In case of an infection with H. universal chamber (4 x 0.5 ml), FECPAK 1 ml chamber (2 x 0.5 ml), and contortus, the flock could be recommended treatment with a macrocyclic modified MAFF 1 ml chamber (2 x 0.5 ml) [5,7,16-19]. lactone antoparasitics, as eradication of the parasite on an individual farm We produced a new type of chamber and tested it by the high possible with correct administration of anthelmintics in the winterperiod performance modification of McMaster method using the highest when the animals are housed [6]. possible amount of faeces and reducing the sensitivity coefficient. The References new chamber was compared with the traditional McMaster chamber in 1. Sjöberg-Klaavu A: Om nematoder i matsältningsorganen hos får i both cases using the McMaster method modifications [1-3]. The Finland. [About nematodes in the gastrointestinal tract in sheep in traditional (I) and the new chambers (II) were used for comparative Finland]. In 4. Nordiska veterinärmötet, section IX Helsingfors, Tilgmanns analysis to evaluate the performance and stability of faecal examination tryckeri, (In Swedish). results. 2. Lindqvist Å, Ljungström B-L, Nilsson O, Waller PJ: The dynamics, Materials and methods: Thirteen pig, two horse and two sheep farms prevalence and impact of nematode infections in organically raised were randomly selected, and 815 of pig faecal samples, 264 of horse and sheep in Sweden. Acta vet. scand 2001, 42:377-389. 264 of sheep faecal samples were examined. The positive samples were 3. Waller PJ, Rudby-Martin L, Ljungström BL, Rydzik A: The epidemiology of identified by [1] modification of McMaster method. Experimental horse abomasal nematodes of sheep in Sweden, with particular reference to faeces were examined by [1] and [2] modifications, whereas pig and over-winter survival strategies. Veterinary Parasitology 2004, 122:207-220. sheep faeces were examined by [1] and [3] modifications, respectively. All 4. TE-keskus: Statistics. 2008, Available online: http://www.te-keskus.fi/Public/ samples were evaluated in two replicates: using traditional McMaster download. [Accessed 20. July 2008]. 0.3 ml chamber – I, and newly designed 1.5 ml chamber - II [4]. The new 5. Hrabok JT, Oksanen A, Nieminen M, Rydzik A, Uggla A, Waller PJ: Reindeer egg count chamber (II) has a bead, which prevents the faeces suspension as hosts for nematode parasites in sheep and cattle. Veterinary from seeping out and protects the optics of microscope from adverse Parasitology 2006, 136:297-306. effect. Comparisons were made as to the number of samples found to be 6. Waller PJ, Rydzik A, Ljungström BL, Törnquist M: Towards the eradication positive by each of the chamber. of Haemonchus contortus from sheep flocks in Sweden. Veterinary Results: Ascaris suum infection was identified in all investigated pig Parasitology 2006, 136:367-372. farms, but the number of infected pigs estimated with the two chambers Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 20 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

was significantly different − 11.5% (94/815) of pigs positive (chamber I) 17. Lyndal-Murphy M: Anthelmintic resistance in sheep in Australian and 18.2% (148/815) of pigs positive (chamber II). Whipworm infection standard diagnostic techniques for animal diseases. Edt. Corner L. A., was identified only in 8 farms (chamber I) and in 11 farms (chamber II) − Bagust T., J. 1993, 3-9. 3.7% (30/815) and 8.2% (67/815) of samples were positive to T. suis 18. Cringoli G, Rinaldi L, Veneziano V, Capelli G, Scala A: The influence of infection. Nodular worm infection was identified in 5 and 7 farms flotation solution, sample dilution and the choice of McMaster slide area (chambers I and II) − 14.6% (119/815) and 17.8% (145/815) of positive (volume) on the reliability of the McMaster technique in estimating the pigs, respectively. The number of positive samples (chamber II) to Ascaris faecal egg counts of gastrointestinal strongyles and Dicrocoelium suum was on 1.6, Oesophagostomum dentatum on 1.2, and Trichuris suis dentriticum in sheep. Vet. Parasitol 2004, 123:121-131. on 2.2 times higher compared results with chamber I. In farms where up 19. Presland SL, Morgan ER, Coles GC: Counting nematode eggs in equine to 10% of samples were identified as infected with chamber I, the faecal samples. Vet. Rec 2005, 156:208-210. difference coefficient was highest (1.8). However, in the farms where >50% of infected pigs were identified with chamber I, the difference coefficient was lowest (1.02). S21 In horse farms, 65.5% (173/264) and 83.7% (221/264) of horses were spp. infection in a farmed wild boar (Sus scrofa)in identified infected with strongyles (chambers I and II, P<0.05). The number Finland of samples positive to Strongylus spp. was on 1.2 times and to Parascaris Paula Syrjälä1*, Antti Oksanen2, Outi Hälli3, Olli Peltoniemi3, Mari Heinonen3 equorum on 3.4 times higher with chamber II compared to chamber I. In 1Veterinary Bacteriology Research Unit, Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira, sheep farms, the number of animals positive to strongyle infection was Kuopio, Finland; 2Fish and Wildlife Health Research Unit, Finnish Food Safety 81.4% (215/264) and 96.2% (254/264) (I and II chambers, P<0.05). The Authority Evira, Oulu, Finland; 3Department of Production Animal Health, number of samples identified as infected with spp. was 1.3 University of Helsinki, Pohjoinen pikatie 800, 04930 Saarentaus, Finland times higher for chamber II compared to chamber I, 3.1 times higher for Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S21 Toxocara vitulorum, 2.5 times higher for Nematodirus filicollis, and 1.9 times higher for Trichuris ovis, respectively. Summary: Metastrongylus spp. (Nematoda, Metastrongylidae) are lung Conclusion: The experimental examination of pig, horse and sheep faeces worms of swine and occur worldwide. Species in the family include using the new 1.5 ml chamber (II) helped to identify a higher percentage of M. apri, M. pudendotectus, M. asymmetricus, and M. salmi. Earth worms are infected animals compared to the traditional McMaster 0.3 ml chamber (I). intermediate hosts and pigs get infected when eating earth worms. The new modification of chamber [4] demonstrated statistically higher In Finland wild boar farming began in the 1980s and now there are over sensitivity for enumeration of nematode eggs and for evaluation of farms hundred farms and over 2000 wild boars in different parts of the country. with infected animals compared to McMaster modifications desribed in [1-3]. This case report is part of a study aiming to get more information about References the diseases that occur in the farmed wild boar population in Finland. 1. Henriksen SA, Aagaard KA: A simple flotation and McMaster method. Nord Lungworms were detected in an eight month old farmed wild boar sent Vet. Med 1976, 28:392-397. for necropsy from a farm situated in eastern Finland. In the group of 2. Urquhart GM, Armour J, Duncan JL, Dunn AM, Jennings FW: Veterinary 25 animals of about the same age, the farmer had noticed poor growth Parasitology. Blackwell Science Ltd., Oxford, UK; 1996:307. and gait abnormalities. He submitted two euthanized boars (A and B) for 3. Kassai T: Veterinary Helminthology. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford; necropsy. A routine necropsy was performed and tissue samples were 1999:260. collected for histopathology, bacteriology and parasitology. 4. Vyšniauskas A, Pereckienė A, Kaziūnaitė V: Comparative analysis of The boar A was in a poor nutritional condition. The lungswereslightly different modifications of McMaster method. Veterinarija ir Zootechnika mottled, but otherwise normally inflated. Large numbers of white thread 2005, 29:61-66, (in Lithuanian). like nematodes were detected in the bronchi (Fig. 1.). Bones were soft. In 5. Whitlock HV: Some modifications of the McMaster helminth egg- the faecal sample, 7500 EPG Metastrongylus spp. eggs were detected with counting technique and apparatus. J. Counc. Sci. Ind. Res 1948, 21:177-180. flotation (Fig. 2.). The boar B was in a moderate nutritional condition. No 6. MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food): Manual of Veterinary lung worms were detected. The main pathological diagnosis of both was Parasitological Laboratory Techniques. HMSO, London, 3 1986, 24. osteomalacia due to deficiency of mineral feeding. However, the the poor 7. Anon : Manual of veterinary parasitological laboratory techniques. nutritional condition of the boar A infected with lung worms was possibly Ministry of Agriculture 3rd edition. 1986, 24-25. partly due to the lung worm infection. Four additional faecal samples 8. Coles GC, Bauer C, Borgsteede FHM, Geerts S, Taylor MA, Waller P, Wold J: were sent from remaining boars from the farm and two of them were Assotiation for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (W.A.A.V.P.) also positive for Metastrongylus spp. eggs (100 and 200 EGP). methods for the detection of anthelmintic resistance in nematodes of In Finland Metastrongylus spp. has occurred sporadically in pigs decades veterinary importance. Vet. Parasitol 1992, 44:35-44. ago in southeastern parts of the country [unpublished, Nikander, [1]. It 9. Ihler CF, Bjørn H: Use of two in vitro methods for the detection of benzimidazole resistance in equine small strongyles (Cyatostoma spp.). Vet. Parasitol 1996, 65:117-125. 10. Ward MP, Lyndal-Murphy M, Baldock FC: Evaluation of a composite method for counting helminth eggs in cattle faeces. Vet Parasitol 1997, 73:186-187. 11. Roepstorff A, Nansen P: A Simple McMaster technique. Epidemiology, diagnosis and control of helminth parasites of swine. FAO. Animal Health Manual. Rome, Italy; 1998:47-56. 12. Craven J, Bjørn H, Barnes A, Henriksen SA, Nansen P: A comparison of in vitro tests and a faecal egg count reduction test in detecting anthelmintic resistance in horse strongyles. Vet. Parasitol 1999, 85:49-59. 13. Varady M, Konigova A, Čorba J: Benzimidazole resistance in equine cyatostomes in Slovakia. Vet. Parasitol 2000, 94:67-74. 14. Mercier P, Chick B, Alves-Branco F, White CR: Comparative efficacy, persistent effect, and treatment intervals of anthelmintic pastes. Vet. Parasitol 2001, 99:29-39. 15. Pook JF, Power ML, Sangster NC, Hodgson JL, Hodgson DR: Evaluation of tests for anthelmintic resistance in ciathostomes. Vet. Parasitol 2002, 106:331-343. 16. Whitlock HV, Kelly JD, Porter CJ, Griffin DL, Martin ICA: In vitro field screening for anthelmintic resistance in strongyles of sheep and horses. Figure 1 (abstract S21) Cross section of Metastrongylus spp. in the lung. Vet. Parasitol 1980, 7:215-232. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 21 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

nematodes was formed on the curvatura major of the stomach. The fox was a male individual in good condition. In a 1.5 year-old female fox from Pyhtää, Southeast Finland, a solitary female individual of French heartworm Angiostrongylus vasorum was lodged in the right ventricle, in the opening of the pulmonary artery. The existence of this parasite in Finland is very inadequately known, but it is spreading in Europe, e.g. in Denmark [2]. A massive Metorchis albidus infection was observed in an aged (6.5 yrs) female fox from Virolahti, Southeast Finland. The flukes had caused a severe cholangitis. Although Metorchis is a very occasionally seen parasite in Finland, it is regarded as common in Germany [3]. In addition to these isolated cases, a small survey of the occurrence of the bladder hairworm plica was conducted in February 2008. Scrapings of wall were taken from 44 foxes from North Lapland and 7 of them (16%) were positive for eggs or worms. In a Danish study, about 80 % of foxes examined were found infected with this parasite [2]. All four parasite species mentioned above have at least one intermediate or paratenic host which may facilitate their persistence in the nature. It is interesting to notice that a similar amount of raccoon dogs are also Figure 2 (abstract S21) Metastrongylus spp. egg with a larva inside. examined and comparable findings to the abovementioned have not been made. The raccoon dog often harbours higher Trichinella infection densities than the red fox does, and this has been speculated to be was not detected in domestic pigs in a large study done in all Nordic caused by some innate or acquired cause of immunoincompetence countries in 1980’s [1]. It was also not found in a study of Danish (unpublished). Therefore, raccoon dogs might be expected to harbour organic swine herds [2]. In natural wild boar in many countries this occasional parasite infections even more commonly than foxes. parasite is common [3-6]. In the modern pig industry this infection References seems to have been disappeared, because there is no contact with the 1. Nikander -S: Sukkulamadon (Spirocera lupi) aiheuttama osteosarkooma intermediate host, the earth worms. However, in the farmed wild boar, koiran ruokatorvessa. [Oesophageal osteosarcoma associated with and in situations where pigs are kept outdoors, Metastrongylus spp. Spirocerca lupi in a dog.]. Suomen Elainlaakarilehti. 1994, 100(3):173-177. should be considered as a possible cause of poor growth and 2. Saeed I, Maddox-Hyttel C, Monrad J, Kapel CMO: Helminths of red foxes respiratory signs. (Vulpes vulpes) in Denmark. Veterinary Parasitology. 2006, 139(1/3):168-179. References 3. Schuster R, Bonin J, Staubach C, Heidrich R: Liver fluke (Opisthorchiidae) 1. Roepstorff A, Nilsson O, Oksanen A, Gjerde B, Richter SH, Örtenberg E, findings in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in the eastern part of the Federal Christensson D, Martinsson KB, Bartlett PC, Nansen P, et al: Intestinal State Brandenburg, Germany—a contribution to the epidemiology of parasites in swine in the Nordic countries, prevalence and geographical opisthorchiidosis, Parasitol. Res 1999, 85:142-146. distribution. Vet Parasitol 1998, 76:305-319. 2. Carstensen L, Vaarts M, Roepstorff A: Helminth infections in Danish organic swine herds. Vet Parasitol 2002, 106:253-264. S23 3. Järvis T, Kapel Ch, Moks E, Talvik H, Mägi E: Helminths of wild boar in the Control of livestock ectoparasites with entomopathogenic fungi: a isolated population close to the northern border of its habitat area. Vet review Parasitol 2007, 150:366-369. Stephen Abolins, Richard Wall* 4. Morita T, Haruta K, Shibata-Haruta A, Kanda E, Imai S, Ike K: Lung worms of Veterinary Parasitology & Ecology Group, School of Biological Sciences, wild boars in the western region of Tokyo, Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2007, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol, BS8 1UG, UK 69:417-420. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S23 5. de-la-Muela N, Hernandez-de-Lujan S, Ferre I: Helminths of wild boar in Spain. J Wildl Dis 2001, 37:840-843. The abundance of ectoparasites requires ongoing management and this 6. Barutzki D, Schoierer R, Gothe R: Helminth infections in wild boars in is most commonly achieved with insecticides or endectocides. However, enclosures in southern Germany: species spectrum and infection the growth in resistance, the slow rate of development of new actives, frequency. Tierarztl Prax 1990, 18:529-534. coupled with environmental and health concerns associated with the continued use of some of the existing neurotoxic insecticides, suggest that alternative approaches to their management need to be identified. S22 Here one possible alternative approach, the use of entomopathogenic Rare canine parasites survive in the wild fox population biological control agents, is reviewed highlighting the remaining Marja Isomursu*, Niina Salin, Antti Oksanen obstacles that should be overcome to enable their practical application. Finnish Food safety Authority Evira, Fish and Wildlife Health Research Unit, Oulu, Finland Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S22 S24 Anthelmintic resistance. An overview of the situation in the Nordic Summary: Members of the canid family – e.g. domestic dog Canis countries familiaris,wolfCanis lupus,redfoxVulpes vulpes and raccoon dog Carl Fredrik Ihler Nyctereutes procyonoides – share a wealth of parasite species. Nowadays, Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Norwegian School of the diversity of the parasitic fauna of domestic dogs is reduced by Veterinary Science, P:O 8146, 0030 Dep Oslo, Norway antiparasitic medications and disposal of faeces, but a thriving population E-mail: [email protected] of wild foxes can host even rare parasite species. Finnish Food Safety Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S24 Authority Evira, Fish and Wildlife Health Research Unit, examines approx. 250 fox carcasses for zoonoses every year. Some rarely seen canine Introduction: Gastrointestinal nematodes in grazing animals cause major endoparasites were observed in the winter 2007-2008. production losses and represent an animal welfare problem worldwide. In January 2008, one of the first Finnish domestic cases of Spirocerca sp. For decades use of anthelmintics has been central in the control infection was observed in a fox hunted from North Lapland fjeld area in programs of these parasites. This intensive use of anthelmintic drugs has Utsjoki (69° N 27°E). The previous one reported was imported from resulted in problems with resistance to the anthelmintic drugs available Tanzania [1]. A 30 x 15 mm granuloma containing two large, red, coiled today. Resistance to all classes of broad-spectrum anthelmintics available Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 22 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

benzimidazoles (BZ), imidothiazoles-tetrahydropyrines and macrocyclic The controlled test is the most reliable method but is rarely used because lactones has been reported [1].The time from introducing a new class of of high costs. This test uses untreated control groups and the parasitized anthelmintic drugs until resistance has been detected seems to be less animals are euthanized about 10 days post treatment and a necropsy is than 10 years [1]. As time has passed problems of multiresistance to subsequently preformed. more than one class has occurred as well. Multiresistant Haemonchus Different in vitro methods are described. The egg hatch assay (EHA) was contortus has become a major threat to the whole small ruminant first described by Le Jambre for the detection of BZ- resistance [16]. industry in part of South Africa and in the South-East of USA [2,3]. Modification of the original method is developed by Taylor et al. [17] and At present, resistant nematode populations are detected in all the method is mostly used for the detection of possible BZ resistance in our naturally grazing species; sheep, goats, cattle and horses [1]. sheep and horses [18].The larval development assay (LDA) uses the ability In pigs, resistance to pyrantel, levamisole and benzimidazoles in of the anthelmintic to arrest the normal development from eggs to L3 Oesophagostumum spp have been detected [4,5]. larvae. By observing the proportion of L3 larvae developed in different Development of anthelmintic resistance: Anthelmintic resistance (AR) concentrations of an anthelmintic, a LC50 value can be determined. In is defined by Køhler as genetically transmitted loss of sensitivity of a drug this assay anthelmintics with different modes of action can be tested at in worm populations that were previously sensitive to the same drug [6]. the same time and it has been useful in surveys of sheep nematodes In a worm population, alleles coding for resistance will be present as a [19]. The test has shown to be difficult to use in equine strongyles due to result of mutations, also in unexposed populations. Resistance will repeatability problems [20]. develop if there are survival advantages for parasites carrying these A biochemical test for detection of BZ resistance based on reduced alleles [7]. Treating worms with drugs corresponding to the “resistance” affinity to tubulin has also been introduced [21]. The method requires a alleles will give these worms an advantage and the frequency of resistant large number of larvae and is therefore unsuitable for field surveys [17]. worms in the population will increase. The frequency of alleles coding for Molecular based tests are only in use for detection of BZ resistance as the resistance at the time of exposure to a drug will be important for the molecular mechanisms for resistance to tetrahydropyrimidenes and rate of the development of a resistant population. macrocyclic lactones are not fully understood [18]. The principle of the The amount of anthelmintic drugs used and thereby the exposure will diagnosis of resistance relies on a multiple allele specific PCR. The influence the development of AR. Therefore, it is important to establish method has been used for testing ovine trichostrongyles and equine de-worming strategies that take this into consideration. Parasite control small strongyles for BZ resistance. The most common mechanism for BZ programs must have a specific aim and the use of drugs must be kept to resistance in ovine trichostrongyles involves a phenylalanine to tyrosine a minimum to achieve this aim. For horses a reasonable aim of a parasite mutation located at residue 200 of the isotype 1 beta-tubulin gene [22]. control program would be to eliminate the large strongyles and have the The same polymorphism is described in equine small strongyles [23]. cyathostomes and infestations under control. Anthelmintic resistance in gastrointestinal nematodes in the Nordic The prepatent period of a parasite will be of importance. Species with countries: AR most likely represents a problem of all Nordic countries short prepatent periods will have more generations during a grazing although few studies have been performed in Finland and Iceland season. Frequent anthelmintic treatment will then expose more (Oksanen and Sigurdsson, personal communication). generations of these parasites than species with longer generation The Danish veterinary parasitologists have been important expanding intervals. The trichostrongyles in ruminants (prepatent period approx. our knowledge of AR in the Nordic countries. In the early 90s the 3 weeks) and cyathostomes in horses (prepatent period 6-8 weeks) are Centre for Experimental Parasitology in Copenhagen, lead by the examples of short generation interval species. Strongylus vulgaris has, enthusiastic Professor Peter Nansen, performed many studies and however, a prepatent period of 6 months. This difference in generation research programs in this field involving PhD students from many interval might be the reason why resistance is common in cyathostomes countries. The Centre through Dr. Henrik Bjørn, also inspired research and has not been reported in S. vulgaris so far. on anthelmintic resistance in Sweden and Norway together with Dr. Parasites in refugia represent the fraction of the worm population not Peter Waller. exposed to the drug when animals are treated. The free living stages of In Denmark, several studies have been performed on AR in small the parasites are the most important part of the refugia. The higher the ruminants, horses and swine. The first study on resistance in sheep proportion of parasites in refugia the slower the development of nematodes in Denmark was published in the early 90s where resistance resistance as the selection pressure of the whole population is lower [8,9]. to levamisole in Ostertagia circumcincta was described [24]. Later Maingi The importance of refugia can be illustrated by looking at the difference et al. [25] reported evidence of BZ, ivermectin and levamisole resistance in development of resistance in Australia compared to New Zealand. In in caprine trichostrongyles in a survey from 15 Danish goat herds. Most New Zealand, where the climate is wet, up to 75% of the H. contortus other studies concerning AR in sheep nematodes in Denmark have population are larval stages on the pasture [10], which is considerably focused on comparison of different in vitro tests with the faecal egg higher than in the more dry climate in Australia. In spite of the fact that count reduction test and to my knowledge no surveys have been the benzimidazoles and levamisole have been used over the same period performed to evaluate changes in the resistance situation over the last of time, the resistance to these drugs was detected much later in New 10-15 years. Zealand [11]. In Sweden there are no published surveys on resistance in small ruminant In the Nordic countries parasites which do not overwinter on the pasture, nematodes while there is one single report on the situation in Norway such as H. contortus, have only a small proportion in refugia and hence [26]. In this report BZ-resistance was detected in four out of 26 herds. have a greater selection pressure when animals are treated in this period Resistance in O. circumcincta was found in all 4 herds while resistance in than in species where larval stages overwinter on pasture. Nematodirus battus and H. contortus were suspected in one of these Selective treatment of animals will also have impact on the refugia. In herds. horses selective treatment of animals expelling > 200 eggs per gram In swine, Roepstorff et al. [4] confirmed resistance to pyrantel citrate in when treated in the grazing season has been suggested. This will reduce Oesophagostomum spp. in Denmark. Later Bjørn et al. [27] confirmed side- the exposed proportion of the population and thus dilute the resistant resistance between levamisole and pyrantel in the same species. To my alleles in the population. Such strategy will, however, need an egg count knowledge no studies on AR in swine parasites have been conducted in of faeces from every single animal before treatment. This strategy is the other Nordic countries. The prevalence of resistant Oesophagostomum widely used in Denmark [12]. spp. is reported from Germany is estimated to 2-3.5 % [5]. Detection of anthelmintic resistance: Different methods, both in vivo No studies concerning resistance in cattle nematodes have so far been and in vitro methods, have been used to detect and monitor AR. Faecal published from the Nordic countries. Worldwide there are however egg count reduction test is the most used in vivo method and gives an studies confirming resistance to all three major classes of anthelmintic estimation of the efficacy of the drug by comparing the egg counts pre drugs in cattle nematodes [1]. Looking at the experience of other and post treatment. Guidelines for the method are described by Coles et countries, anthelmintic resistance in cattle nematodes might be a threat al. [13]. The accuracy of the method depends on a correlation between to the cattle industry in our countries as well. egg counts and worm burdens which is not always present. Nematodes Anthelmintic resistance in intestinal parasitesofthehorseiswithout like Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Ostertagia circumcincta show little doubt the area where most studies concerning AR are conducted in the correlation whereas H. contortus show good correlation [14,15]. Nordic countries. In Sweden Nilsson et al. [28] reported BZ-resistance in Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 23 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

equine small strongyles. Later Bjørn et al. [29] and Ihler [30] published 2. Van Wyk JA, Stenson MO, Van der Merwe JS, Vorster RJ, Viljoen PG: high prevalence of BZ-resistance in Denmark and Norway. Anthelmintic resistance in South-Africa: surveys indicate indicate an Pyrantel resistance in small strongyles has also been reported from the extremely serious situation in sheep and goat farming. Onderspoort J Vet Nordic countries [30-32]. Resistance to macrocyclic lactones in the equine Res 1999, 66:273-284. small strongyles has so far not reported, but there is a worldwide 3. Mortensen LL, Williamson LH, Terrill TH, Kircher RA, Larsen M, Kaplan RM: agreement that it is just a question of time before this will occur. Evaluation of prevalence and clinical implications of anthelmintic However, reports on resistance to ivermectin in the equine roundworm resistance in gastrointestinal nematodes of goats. J Am Vet Med Assoc P. equorum have been published. From Denmark Schougaard and Nielsen 2003, 223:495-500. [33] have reported reduced efficacy of ivermectin as have Lindgren et al. 4. Roepstorff A, Bjørn H, Nansen P: Resistance of Oesophagostomum spp. in from Sweden [34]. Resistance to ivermectin in the equine roundworm is pigs to pyrantel citrate. Vet Parasitol 1987, 24:229-239. suspected in Norway, but a proper study on this has not been conducted yet. 5. Gerwert S, Failing K, Bauer C: Prevalence of levamisole and benzimidazole Although most reports on AR in nematodes concern anthelmintics to resistance in oesophagostomum populations of pig breeding farms in ruminant and horse parasites, there are also reports of resistance in the North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Parasitol Res 2002, 88:63-68. canine hookworm to pyrantel [35,36]. No reports in 6. Køhler P: The biochemical basis of anthelmintic action and resistance. Int the Nordic countries on resistance to canine nematodes have been J Parasitol 2001, 31:336-345. published. 7. Gilleard JS, Beech N: Population genetics of anthelmintic resistance in Reducing the development of AR: AR is a major problem when parasitic nematodes. Parasitology 2007, 134:1133-1147. controlling parasite infections in production animals and horses 8. Martin PJ, Le Jambre LF, Claxton JH: The impact of refugia on the worldwide. As documented, the reason for development of resistance to development of thiabendazole resistance in Haemonchus contortus. Int anthelmintics is a selection of resistant individuals in the worm J Parasitol 1981, 11:35-41. population as a result of anthelmintic exposure. Therefore, efforts to 9. van Wyk JA: Refugia- overlooked as perhaps the most potent factor reduce this exposure will slow down further development of resistance concerning the development of anthelmintic resistance. Onderspoort J but will not reverse the existing resistance in a population. The most Vet Res 2001, 66:55-67. obvious way to reduce the exposure is to reduce the use of anthelmintic 10. Le Jambre LF: Anthelmintic resistance in gastro intestinal nematodes of drugs and look to other ways to control parasites beside anthelmintic sheep. In The epidemiology and control of gastro intestinal parasites of sheep. use. Edited by: Donald AD, Southcott WH, Dineen JK. CSRIO, Division of Animal As no new broad-spectrum anthelmintic drugs with new modes of action Health, Melbourne; 1979:109. have been introduced since the macrocyclic lactones in the 80s, it is 11. Kettle PR, Vlassoff A, Lukies JM, Ayling JM, McMurtry LW: A survey of necessary to take the warnings of AR as a major problem seriously. nematode control measures used by sheep farmers and of anthelmintic Improvement of the grazing management is important in reducing the resistance on their farms. Part I. North Island and the Nelson region of the use of anthelmintics. Reduction of the stocking rate, reducing the grazing South Island. NZ Vet J 1981, 29:81-83. season on the pastures and mixed grazing between animal species are all 12. Nielsen MK, Monrad J, Olsen SN: Prescription-only anthelmintics- a key factors. Furthermore, the animals have to be treated at times when questionnaire survey of strategies for surveillance and control of equine the effect of treatment is best and underdosing is to be avoided. strongyles in Denmark. Vet Parasitol 2006, 135:47-55. Biological control of nematodes is an interesting way of reducing the use 13. Coles GC, Bauer C, Borgsteede FH, Geerts S, Klei TR, Taylor MA, Waller PJ: of anthelmintic drugs. The principle of biological control is the use of the World Association of Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (WAAVP) natural enemies of the nematodes to reduce the infection level on methods for detection of anthelmintic resistance in nematodes of pastures [37]. These methods have no intention of eliminating the free veterinary importance. Vet Parasitol 1992, 44:35-44. living larval stages but aim to reduce them to a level where no clinical or 14. Sangster NC, Whitlock HV, Russ IG, Gunawan M, Griffin DL, Kelly JD: subclinical effects are present while stimulating an acquired immune Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Ostertagia circumcincta resistant to response. Nematode destroying fungi have been a potential candidate in levamisol, morantal tartrate and thiabendazole: occurrence of field biological control and the fungus Duddingtonia flagrans has shown to be strains. Res Vet Sci 1979, 27:106-110. effective through several studies [38-41]. Most studies on the effect of 15. Martin PJ, Anderson N, Jarrett RG: Resistance to benzimidazole resistance feeding D. flagrans have been based on daily intake of the fungi through in field strains of Ostertagia and Nematodirus in sheep. Aust Vet J 1985, feed supplementation. Mineral blocks containing fungal spores or slow- 62:38-43. release devices might be practical ways of feeding the fungal material in 16. Le Jambre LF: Egg hatch as an vitro assay of thiabendazole resistance in the future and make the method practical in commercial farming. nematodes. Vet Parasitol 1976, 2:385-391. Development of effective vaccines against intestinal parasites will allow 17. Taylor MA, Hunt KR, Goodyear KL: Anthelmintic resistance detection the opportunity to reduce the use of antiparasitic drugs. In spite of great methods. Vet Parasitol 2002, 28:183-194. efforts making vaccines protecting grazing animals against helminth 18. Coles GC, Jackson F, Pomroy WE, Prichard RK, von Samson- infections, only a vaccine against the bovine lungworm Dictyocaulus Himmelstjerna G, Silvestre A, Taylor MA, Vercruysse J: The detection of viviparus is commercially available [42] anthelmintic resistance in nematodes of veterinary importance. Vet HowtodealwiththechallengeofARintheNordiccountries: Parasitol. 2006, 136:167-85. Keeping in mind that new classes of anthelmintic drugs with different 19. Lacey E, Redwin JM, Gill JH, Demargherity VM, Waller PJ: A larval mode of action have not been introduced since the 80s and that the AR development assay for the simultaneous detection of broad spectrum problem seems to escalate worldwide, we have to take action. anthelmintic resistance. Resistance of parasites to antiparasitic drugs.MSD Monitoring the resistance situation by systematic surveys in different AGVET, Rahway, NJ.: Boray JC 1990, 177-184. worm populations is an important means to control AR. I think that the 20. Tandon R, Kaplan RM: Evaluation of a larval development assay agricultural industry has to be financially responsible for this work (DrenchRite®) for the detection of anthelmintic resistance in through their organisations. We have good knowledge on the cyathostomin nematodes of horses. Vet Parasitol 2004, 121:125-142. development of AR and we know how to deal with it, but we lack 21. Sangster NC, Prichard RK, Lacey E: Tubulin and benzimidazole resistance information on the development AR over time in our region. in Trichostrongylus colubriformis (nematoda). J Parasitol 1985, 71:645-651. Prescription from veterinarians must be the only way for the farmers to 22. Elard L, Cabaret J, Humbert JF: PCR diagnosis of benzimidazole- obtain anthelmintics. This will subsequently demand a qualified advice susceptibility or-resistance in natural population of the small ruminant from the veterinarians in order to give the best advice concerning type parasite, Teladorsagia circumcincta. Vet Parasitol 1999, 80:231-237. of formulations and when to treat the animals to achieve the best effect 23. Pape M, Posedi J, Failing K, Schnieder T, von Samson-Himmelstjerna G: of the treatment and at the same time take development of AR into Analysis of the beta-tubulin codon 200 genotype distribution in consideration. This is a challenge in the education of both veterinary benzimidazole-susceptibility and –resistance cyathostome population. students and veterinary colleagues. Parasitology 2003, 127:53-59. References 24. Bjørn H, Monrad J, Nansen P: Anthelmintic resistance in nematode 1. Kaplan RM: Drug resistance in nematodes of veterinary importance. A parasites of sheep in Denmark with special emphasis on levamisole status report. Trends Parasitol 2004, 20:477-481. resistance in Ostertagia circumcincta. Acta vet Scand 1991, 32:145-154. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 24 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

25. Maingi N, Bjørn H, Thamsborg SM, Bøgh HO, Nansen P: A survey of since the 1950’s in the cattle sector, herd size has increased and the anthelmintic resistance in nematode parasites of goats in Denmark. Vet number of production units, especially the number of dairy farms, have Parasitol 1996, 66:53-56. been dramatically reduced. In contrast, the numbers of organic farms are 26. Reiersen A, Ihler CF: Ormemiddelresistens hjå saueparasittar i Norge. steadily increasing. The goal of the Swedish government is to increase Proceedings Husdyrforsøksmøtet 1996, 401-405. the Swedish organic production of agricultural commodities to 20% 27. Bjørn H, Roepstorff A, Waller PJ, Nansen P: Resistance to levamisole and within a three-year period. cross-resistance between pyrantel and levamisole in Oesaphagostomum According to the Swedish animal welfare regulations, both conventional qudrispinulatum and Oesophagostomum dentatum of pigs. Vet Parasitol and organic cattle must have access to pasture for a period of 2–3 1990, 37:21-30. months per year [2]. The grazing season normally occurs between early 28. Nilsson O, Lindholm A, Christensson D: A field evaluation of anthelmintics May and October. As pasture-borne parasites are ubiquitous wherever in horses in Sweden. Vet Parasitol 1989, 32:163-171. animals are grazing, they remain one of the most important productivity 29. HBj rn, Sommer C, Schougrd H, Henriksen SA, Nansen P: Resistance to constraints in Swedish cattle production. These parasites have in common benzimidazole anthelmintics in small strongyles (Cyathostominae) of that they often exhibit simple direct life cycles with infective stages horses in Denmark. Acta vet Scand 1991, 32:253-260. transmitted on pasture by the faecal–oral route. The most important 30. Ihler CF: A field survey on anthelmintic resistance in equine small pasture-borne parasites of grazing cattle in Sweden are the strongyles in Norway. Acta vet Scand 1995, 36:135-143. gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes and Cooperia 31. Craven J, Bjørn H, Henriksen SA, Nansen P, Larsen M, Lendal S: Survey of oncophora. To a lesser degree, the lungworm Dictyocaulus viviparus, and anthelmintic resistance on Danish horse farms, using 5 different also the coccidian Eimeria alabamensis, are important pathogens. methods of calculating faecal egg count reduction. Equine vet J 1998, Furthermore, in wet areas the liver fluke , with a complex 30:289-293. life cycle, sometimes cause problems. 32. Lind EO, Kuzmina T, Uggla A, Waller PJ, Höglund J: A field study on the The importance of GI-nematodes and lungworms on the productivity in effect of some anthelmintics on cyathostomins of horses in Sweden. Vet first-season grazing (FSG) cattle has been demonstrated in a range of Res Commun 2007, 31:53-65. independent grazing trials conducted at SWEPAR over the last decade 33. Schougaard H, Nielsen MK: Apparent ivermectin resistance of Parascaris [3-8]. According to the results, the weight-gain penalties in unprotected equorum in foals in Denmark. Vet Rec 2007, 160:439-440. set stocked FSG animals were on an average in the range of 20 to 65 kg, 34. Lindgren K, Ljungvall O, Nilsson O, Ljungström BL, Lindahl C, Höglund J: compared to simultaneously grazed calves but that were fully protected Parascaris equorum in foals and in their environment on a Swedish stud from parasites by the use of effective anthelmintics. Combined, these farm, with notes on treatment failure of ivermectin. Vet Parasitol 2008, trials demonstrate the importance of nematode parasites on animal 151:337-343. productivity under Swedish climatic and management conditions. They 35. Jackson R, Lance D, Townsend K, Stewart K: Isolation of antehelmintic also show that good levels of nematode control can be achieved through resistant Ancylostoma caninum. NZVetJ1987, 35:215-216. the correct use of anthelmintics. However, at the same time there are 36. Kopp SR, Kotze AC, McCarthy JS, Coleman GT: High-level pyrantel concerns that over-dependence on ‘chemical’ control may lead to long- resistance in the hookworm Ancylostoma caninum. Vet Parasitol 2007, term difficulties. This occurs partly through development of anthelmintic 143:299-304. resistance, but also because these substances are not widely accepted 37. Larsen M: Biological control of nematodes in sheep. J Anim Sci 2006, 84: among consumers. Routine prophylactic use of anthelmintics is not E133. accepted in organic livestock farming [9]. However, “blanket” treatment of 38. Faedo M, Barnes EH, Dobson RJ, Waller PJ: The potential of the whole grazing group or herd is accepted, even on organic farms, in nematophagous fungi to control the free-living stages of of nematode response to a worm problem after it has been diagnosed. parasites of sheep.: Pasture plot study of Duddingtonia flagrans. Vet Although the results from our grazing trials also have shown that good Parasitol 1998, 76:129-135. levels of parasite control can be achieved without anthelmintics, some of 39. Larsen M, Faedo M, Waller PJ, Hennessy DR: The potential of the alternative non-chemical parasite control approaches that we have nematophagous fungi to control the free-living stages of of nematode tested are impractical. For example, when it comes to the use of natural parasites of sheep: Studies with Duddingtonia flagrans. Vet Parasitol pasturelands there are situations where high grazing pressure must be 1998, 76:121-128. maintained in order to maintain a profile necessary for the generation of 40. Fontenot ME, Miller JE, Peña MT, Larsen M, Gillespie A: Efficiency of subsidies. Young and adult stock on Swedish dairy farms are also often feeding Duddingtonia flagrans chlamydospores to grazing ewes on grazed on dedicated pastures, which omits the opportunities for mixed reducing availability of parasitic nematode larvae on pasture. Vet grazing between different age groups. There are many examples of Parasitol 2003, 118:203-213. organic cattle farmers who have obtained exemptions from the organic 41. Waller PJ, Schwan O, Ljungström BL, Rydzik A, Yeates GW: Evaluation of guidelines because their animals have suffered from nematode parasites. biological control of sheep parasites using Duddingtonia flagrans under In this contribution, the focus is on diagnostic methods that can be used commercial farming conditions on the island of Gotland, Sweden. Vet for individual and/or herd parasite monitoring in parasite surveillance Parasitol 2004, 126:299-315. programmes. I will also briefly discuss future ways to refine the use of 42. Smith WD, Zarlenga DS: Developments and hurdles in generating anthelmintics through targeted selective treatments (TSTs). The latter is a vaccines for controlling helminth parasites of grazing ruminants. Vet sustainable deworming method that can be applied in both conventional Parasitol 2006, 139:347-459. and organic cattle production. Finally, some results from an ongoing EU project (PARASOL, http://www.parasol-project.org/) will be presented. Sustainable use of anthelmintics: For the foreseeable future it can be S25 assumed that anthelmintics will constitute the cornerstone of most Parasite surveillance and novel use of anthelmintics in cattle parasite control programmes, irrespective of whether they are used alone Johan Höglund or in an integrated programme. However, to preserve the efficacy and to Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Div. of reach a wider level of acceptance, including organic producers, it is Parasitology and Virology (SWEPAR), Swedish University of Agricultural unavoidable to refine the ways in which anthelmintics are used. One Sciences (SLU), SE-751 80 Uppsala, Sweden possibility is to replace current treatment regimes with TSTs. Today in Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S25 Sweden, anthelmintics are either administered at strategic times to all first grazing season cattle at risk (e.g. against GI-nematodes), or given as Background: Cattle are economically the most important livestock for metaphylactic mass treatments following the appearance of clinical signs farmers in Sweden. However, both dairy and beef production has been in some animals in a grazing group (e.g. against lungworm). In order to subjected to considerable structural change over recent decades. create low input and sustainable programs for nematode control, TST Currently, there are approximately 1.5 million cattle, including ≈370 000 strategies must not only be further developed but also validated under dairy cows producing milk worth 1 m€ [1]. The trend is that the numbers practical farming conditions. The long-term aim with TST is to minimise of dairy cows are decreasing slowly, while beef cows are somewhat the number of whole herd/flock anthelmintic treatments by directing increasing. At the same time as the productivity has been intensified treatments towards only those animals/herds that are likely to suffer from Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 25 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

disease and production loss. Overall, this will reduce the opportunities for with serum from ~10 FSG at the time of housing. The same farms any associated environmental and health risks, while maintaining were also approached to participate the following year, and in 2006 agricultural productivity. 36 farms participated together with one additional farm. In both years The concept of TST is simple and easy to accept, especially in situations the farmers were asked to complete a form containing questions where animals with a high worm burden are easily identified, for about the management of the cattle on the farm, including questions example by showing clinical signs such as coughing, diarrhoea, concerning deworming practices. In the second year the form was emaciation or reduced productivity. However, it is well recognised that more detailed, and it then also contained questions about utilization the greatest losses associated with pasture-borne nematode parasites in of the pastures and figures on the milk production. Pepsinogen grazing livestock are sub-clinical. Economic assessments have also shown concentrations and O. ostertagi antibody levels were measured in sera that the financial costs associated with sub-clinical are following ring-testing and according to standard operating procedures enormous [10]. It can also be argued that it is suboptimal and often too (SOP). In each run a set of standard samples was included to validate late to treat with an anthelmintic when clinical signs have already been the test results. Also, the milk samples were analysed in a similar observed, as animals showing signs of disease are most likely to fashion using the O. ostertagi-ELISA from SVANOVA biotechnology, propagate infection. Essential fortheTSTapproachisthattherebe Uppsala, Sweden. access to good and reliable indicators, and identification of treatment It was found that the majority of the herds were stabled in September thresholds. to October. However, the housing dates varied a lot. Notably, some Potential TST indicators: There are many potential TST indicators, which farmers housed their animals in late December. In both years, most can be grouped according to whether they are parasitological, farmers treated their FSG with an anthelmintic. However, a large pathophysiological or performance factors. Those indicators based on proportion (38%) was left untreated. The preferred anthelmintic in traditional parasitological techniques, such as faecal egg counts (FEC), 2006 was the oxfenbendazole intermittent release device (Systamex and in particular pasture larval counts and tracer tests, are generally Repidose®). This drug was used on 85% of the farms. No samples had impractical, as they are either extremely laborious and/or non-informative a serum pepsinogen concentration that exceeded the proposed cut-off when required [11]. Accordingly, it can be expected that they will not be concentration of 3.5 U tyrosin, indicative of subclinical ostertagiosis. feasible as indicators for the purpose of monitoring cattle health. One The highest value measured was 2.9 U tyrosin. Still, both the mean exception might be the recently developed FECPAC technology (http:// pepsinogen concentrations and serum antibody levels against www.fecpak.com/), which might serve its purpose. However, this O. ostertagi were on an average higher for calves from the untreated technology must first be carefully tested and evaluated in field before it herds. However, there was only a weak positive correlation between can be recommended as a routine measure. the Ostertagia- antibody levels and pepsinogen concentrations when Among the serological tests there are several promising candidates. theresultsofthesameserumsampleswascompared(R=0.34). Recently it has been demonstrated that both serum pepsinogen Furthermore, there was no association between the Ostertagia- concentrations (SPC) and antibody levels at housing provide very antibody levels in bulk tank milk and in sera from the FSG from the useful information about previous exposure to nematode parasites. same herd. On the other hand, there was a good agreement between SPC is a pathophysiological indicator measuring the damage caused to OD values obtained in different years, and in particular for the milk the abomasal mucosa, and it has been shown to correlate with the samples. occurrence of parasitic gastroenteritis, both in naturally infected A retrospective study was also carried out to assess the possibility of animals [12] and in young cattle experimentally infected with different using daily weight gain in first-season grazing cattle (FSG) as a marker for levels of O. ostertagi [13]. However, the use of SPC is restricted, as it treatment decisions to prevent parasite-induced losses caused by can only be used to predict exposure of FSG animals to this particular gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes. Data were combined from three parasite. independent grazing trials, each of which was repeated over 2–3 years, in Another option is to detect specific IgG antibody serum levels with order to investigate the influences of parasites on the performance of immunological methods using ELISA. Currently there are several in- FSG cattle subjected to different levels of parasite control. ROC analyses house ELISAs for the detection of Ostertagia and Cooperia spp. Of showed that anthelmintic treatment of animals with a daily weight gain particular interest is the ELISA using crude proteins from whole worm (Dwgt) of <0.75 kg/day by mid-season had a sensitivity of ~70% and a extracts of O. ostertagi, as it has been demonstrated that this ELISA not specificity of ~50%. It thus seems feasible to base a targeted selective only reflects parasite exposure [13] but also reflects the damage caused treatment for FSG cattle on Dwgt recorded approximately 4–8weeks in terms of reduced production traits and milk yield [14,15]. afterturn-out,providedthatitisacceptedthatsomeanimalswillbe Interestingly, this test was recently evaluated to measure antibody levels dewormed without need. However, these data were pooled from a against this abomasal parasite in bulk tank milk [16]. To what level number of disparate trials, so that these sources of variation were parasite exposure in cows is correlated with the situation found in included in the experiment but their individual effects cannot be heifers and calves on the same farm remains obscure. Although this determined. The next stage is to validate the conclusions in a controlled aspect is currently being investigated within PARASOL, it is certainly a field trial. topic that requires more attention in the future. Milk is commonly Acknowledegements: The financial support of PARASOL (Parasite tested for a range of infectious diseases, and results from the Ostertagia Solutions), EU thematic priority areas Food Quality and Safety (FP6, test could then easily be incorporated into existing herd health FOOD-2004-T5.4.6.6), and FORMAS (220-2007-1616) and the linguistic surveillance programmes. revision by David Morrison is gratefully acknowledged. If not tested beforehand, the suitability of using milk ELISAs against other References important parasites should also be explored. It is important to realise that 1. Anon: Jordbruksstatistisk årsbok. 2008, (tab 10.2). the costs of sampling and testing must be minimised before a herd 2. DFS: Djurskyddsmyndighetens författningssamling. Saknr L 2007, health monitoring programme can reach more general acceptance 100D. among representatives in authorities, livestock organisations and, not 3. Dimander SO, Höglund J, Uggla A, Spörndly E, Waller PJ: The impact of least, the farming community. internal parasites on the productivity of young cattle organically reared Ongoing research: Since 2006 SWEPAR has been actively involved in on semi-natural pastures in Sweden. Veterinary Parasitology 2000, the PARASOL project. This is an ongoing STREP activity coordinated by 90:271-284. Professor Joseph Vercruysse, Ghent University, Belgium, and aimed at 4. Dimander SO, Höglund J, Spörndly E, Waller PJ: Evaluation of gastro- helminth control in grazing ruminants. The work in Sweden has mainly intestinal nematode parasite control strategies for first-season grazing been focussed on cattle, with the the specific aims: (1) to compare the cattle in Sweden. Veterinary Parasitology 2003, 111:193-209. pepsinogen and antibody levels against O. ostertagi in FSG animals at 5. Höglund J, Svensson C, Hessle A: A field survey on the status of internal housing, and (2) to predict the situation in the FSG stock parasites in calves on organic dairy farms in southwestern Sweden. by investigating the antibody levels in bulk tank milk from the same Veterinary Parasitology 2001, 99:1-17. herds. 6. Höglund J, Viring S, Törnqvist M: Seroprevalence of Dictyocaulus viviparus A total of 44 dairy farms in south-central Sweden were randomly in first grazing season calves in Sweden. Veterinary Parasitology 2004, selected in 2005. From each farm bulk tank milk was sampled along 125:343-352. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 26 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

7. Höglund J, Törnqvist M, Rydzik A, Ljungström B-L: Best use of doramectin in first season grazing cattle in Sweden. Svensk Veterinärtidning 2008, S27 4:11-18, (In Swedish with an English summary). Alternative approaches to control of parasites in livestock: Nordic and 8. Larsson A, Dimander SO, Rydzik A, Uggla A, Waller PJ, Höglund J: A 3-year Baltic perspectives field evaluation of pasture rotation and supplementary feeding to Stig Milan Thamsborg*, Allan Roepstorff, Peter Nejsum, Helena Mejer control parasite infection in first-season grazing cattle-Effects on animal Danish Centre for Experimental Parasitology, Department of Veterinary performance. Veterinary Parasitology 2006, 142:197-206. Disease Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark 9. KRAV: Standards for organic certified production. Heatlh and medical care Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S27 2007, 5.4:50-52. 10. Corwin RM: Economics of gastrointestinal parasitism of cattle. Vet Introduction: It is evident from several on-farm surveys that levels of Parasitol 2007, 72:451-457. parasite infections vary markedly between livestock production systems 11. Eysker M, Ploeger HW: Value of present diagnostic methods for and from one farm to another [1]. The background for these differences gastrointestinal nematode infections in ruminants. Parasitology 2000, 120: relates to livestock breeds, different management factors and other S109-119. practices that directly or indirectly affect parasite infections, and also to 12. Dorny P, Shaw DJ, Vercruysse J: The determination at housing of farmers’ attitudes e.g. the chosen threshold for intervention. This paper exposure to gastrointestinal nematode infections in first-grazing season deals with practices or interventions that can be actively applied by calves. Veterinary Parasitology 1999, 80:325-340. farmers aiming specifically at control of mainly helminth infections, either 13. Ploeger HW, Kloosterman A, Borgsteede FH: Effect of anthelmintic by reducing the parasite infrapopulations directly, e.g. by means of treatment of second-year cattle on growth performance during winter antiparasitic crops, or by limiting the uptake of external stages, e.g. by housing and first lactation yield. Veterinary Parasitology 1990, pasture management. The term “alternative” approaches has been 36:311-323. applied (despite several options not being very alternative or novel but 14. Ploeger HW, Kloosterman A, Bargeman G, von Wuijckhuise L, van den relatively old) to denote only limited focus on use of commercial Brink R: Milk yield increase after anthelmintic treatment of dairy cattle anthelmintics. Focus will be on approaches relevant to primarily ruminant related to some parameters estimating helminth infection. Veterinary and pig production and which can be applied in the Nordic-Baltic context Parasitology 1990, 35:103-116. after some modification or which may serve as a guideline for relevant 15. Ploeger HW, Kloosterman A, Rietveld FW, Berghen P, Hildersson H, research in our region. For practical reasons the options will be dealt with Hollanders W: Quantitative estimation of the level of exposure to one at a time although, as pointed out in several reviews [2,3], the gastrointestinal nematode infections in first-year calves. Veterinary combination of two or more options, or the combination with limited use Parasitology 1994, 55:287-315. of anthelmintics, will in many cases be the optimal approach. 16. Sanchez J, Dohoo IR, Markham F, Leslie K, Conboy G: Evaluation of the Pasture management: The basic principle of pasture management is repeatability of a crude adult indirect Ostertagia ostertagi ELISA and limiting the intake of infective stages of pasture-borne parasite infections. methods of expressing test results. Veterinary Parasitology 2002, Pasture management encompasses practices related to grazing: time of 109:75-90. turn-out, length of grazing period, age composition of flocks, co-grazing with other species and frequency of pasture changes, although other factors like type of herbage and productivity, stocking rates and parasite S26 contamination levels at turn-out also are very important. On most Changes in production systems and effects on parasitic infections ruminant farms, pasture management is guided by nutritional Allan Roepstorff*, Stig Milan Thamsborg, Helena Mejer requirements of animals in combination with customary practices, and in Danish Centre for Experimental Parasitology, Department of Disease Biology, general little attention is paid to parasites when the season’sgrazingis Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Dyrlægevej 100, DK-1870 planned. Pasture management practices aiming at parasite control have Frederiksberg C, Denmark been extensively researched (and reviewed by [2,4,5] and in most cases Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S26 demonstrated to be quite successful in controlling mainly gastrointestinal nematodes of ruminants. The strategies can be grouped as preventive i.e. Summary: A plentity of parasites of great diversity is the rule for all starting off with low (or nil) infection levels in animals and on pastures, animals in nature. A successful parasite has to be transmitted from one evasive i.e. moving animals away from pastures before harmful host to the next and this transmission is often the weakest point in the contamination levels are generated, or dilutive strategies i.e. lowering the life cycle, as the parasites depend on the surrounding environment for ratio between susceptible and resistant animals (or lowering the overall days to months to become infective either as free-living stages or stocking rate). Despite obvious benefits, these strategies are not readily within intermediate hosts. For domestic animals, housing and other adopted by cattle farmers, although still more by organic than factors characterizing the production system thus have a great impact conventional farmers [6,7], and this mayberelatedtotherelativeease on transmission, the ectoparasites being an exception due to their and low cost of using anthelmintics compared to labour-intensive fencing transmission by physical contact between host animals. In the present and moving. Furthermore, in sheep grazing management is difficult to paper, the effects of production systems on parasitic infections are practice totally without drugs. discussed with focus on pigs. During the last century pigs have moved In dairy cattle, the most susceptible groupofanimals,i.e.firstseason from traditional husbandry systems with poor hygiene and access to grazing calves, is uninfected at turn-out and if placed on an uninfected outdoor areas towards highly intensive, exclusively indoor industries, a (or lightly contaminated) pasture this will result in good control for the process which has gradually reduced the number of endoparasite first half of the season. By repeated moves to clean pastures (e.g. 2-3 species. Furthermore, ectoparasitic arthropods are easily eradicated by times), excellent control is obtained for the entire season [8]. Even drug treatment in modern pig enterprises. It is thus only a small though the first paddock is contaminated, infections are reduced if the number of protozoan parasites that are common across farms. At flock is moved by 15 July to a paddock ungrazed the same year [9]. A present, the trend of decreasing parasitism is for the first time reversed. recent Swedish study showed very convincingly that a practice of turning Organic pigs or other free-range pigs make up the best and most out first year grazing steers (castrated bulls) on paddocks grazed by extreme example, and these pigs may harbour many more parasites second year grazers in the previous season combined with a mid-summer than conventional pigs. Only a small minority of domestic pigs, move to clean pasture, result in acceptable control of gastrointestinal however, live in organic/free-range herds. It may therefore be more nematodes [10]. Male animals are generally more susceptible to parasites important in the future that conventional pig herds are also changing than females and steers are believed to have intermediate susceptibility their housing system due to animal welfare issues; straw bedding is [11]. Recent Danish studies on nematode infections showed susceptibility being reintroduced, the pregnant sows are untethered to become free- in steers to be very similar to that of heifers [9]. Several studies have moving, and facilities may include water sprinkling devices which will indicated an exacerbating effect of high stocking rates on gastrointestinal increase the humidity and thereby the survival of transmission stages. levels in both cattle and sheep [12,13] whereas the The future challenge of domestic pigs may therefore, for the first time, effect is less clear in outdoor pigs [14], which presumably is because pigs betocontrolanincreasingparasiteload. tend to stay in the feeding area instead of utilising the paddocks evenly. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 27 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

Coccidia in ruminants are often transmitted by overwintering pasture ratio between prodelphinidins and procyanidins [29]. It has long been infections from one year’s young stock to the next [15], and clean debated whether the effects are direct by harming residing/incoming pastures at turn-out (read ungrazed the previous year) are thus crucial in nematodes, or indirect by improving immunity through more rumen-by- control [16]. This is a fact often overlooked by sheep or cattle farmers, pass protein [28]. Recent studies have clearly indicated direct effects of e.g. if they have a permanent, after-lambing collecting paddock or if condensed tannins from conserved sainfoin including inhibited calves as a rule are grazed in close vicinity of the farm [17]. In the case of exsheathment of infective larve, diminished pathological changes in sheep, similar management practices may also result in problems of larvae following short term exposure and reduced penetration of nematodirosis in early season (“lamb-to-lamb” disease) as observed in abomasal mucosa ([29,30]; Severine Brunet, pers. communication, 2008). A Denmark [18]. Increasing problems with liver flukes (Fasciola hepatica) are leafy cultivar of chicory (Cichorium intybus) suitable for ruminant grazing, becoming evident in many places in Northern Europe where grazing of although not rich in condensed tannins, does exhibit similar effects on cattle is re-introduced on natural wetlands for aesthetical reasons and to nematodes,andthisforagemayprovetobemoreappropriateinthe maintain biodiversity [19]. In many cases control is achieved by strategic Nordic-Baltic context [31,26]. application of flukicides but it would be relevant to employ evasive It has been known for more than a decade that structure and grazing i.e. a move in mid-August as a means of control. However, few composition of the feed may influence establishment and fecundity of studies, if any, have addressed this approach. intestinal nematodes of monogastric animals [32]. A low fibre content The majority of the pig production in Nordic countries is indoor but and high level of easily fermentable carbohydrates may lower parasitism. pasture management is relevant in conventional outdoor and organic Roots of chicory (Cichorium intybus)andseedsoflupinarerichinsuch farming where the breeding stock, or all stock, have to be outside for a fermentable carbohydrates, particularly fructans (inulin). In pigs, almost part of the year. The most common helminths (Ascaris suum and Trichuris complete reduction of the egg output of Oesophagostomum spp. has suis) are characterized by hard-shelled eggs and thus sustained longevity been acheived by adding purified inulin [33] or dried chicory roots to the on pasture – up to 10 years (reviewed by [1], despite initial high death diet [22]. High reductions in worm counts have been observed in some rates [20]. Ongoing Danish experiments using parasite-naïve pigs to trace studies [33,34] but not in all [22]. Incomplete elimination of worms may the levels of contamination on pastures after initial deposition of eggs, explain why depression of egg excretion has been partially reversible as have yielded 2 interesting results: firstly, transmission levels are increasing egg counts were shown to increase when the carbohydrates were the first 2 years, indicating an unexpected slow development to withdrawn from the diet ([33]; Helena Mejer, unpublished data, 2008). infectivity; secondly, infection levels were not markedly decreased after 4 The fermentable carbohydrates are only partially degraded in the small years (Mejer and Roepstorff, 2006, unpublished data). This demonstrates intestine, and the mechanism of action is most likely related to the fully that at present we cannot provide evidence-based recommendations production of short chain fatty acids during their fermentation in the with regard to paddock rotation in pigs – 2-3 years are obviously not large intestine [35]. It is believed that the short chain fatty acids directly enough! In contrast, it seems that Oeosphagostomum spp. have a poor or indirectly cause adverse conditions for residing nematodes just as survival over winter [14,21,22] and do not constitute a problem in strictly there is a shift in microbial composition [36]. Consequently, T. suis, outdoor sow herds [23] while the coccidian parasite Isospora suis seems another inhabitant of the large intestine, is moderately affected but to be controlled by routine moving of the farrowing huts between results are inconsistent [37-39]. Furthermore, early larval stages of A. suum farrowings [24]. penetrate the large intestine before the migratory liver phase and The principles of pasture management may be applied to indoor stabling establishment of incoming infections may be affected [22] but not of pigs in large pens with plenty of straw bedding, e.g. deep-litter established adult infections (Helena Mejer, unpublished data, 2008). As systems. In these cases, the continuous use of a pen will inevitably lead the major targets of nematode control in pig outdoor production in the to increasing levels of parasite infections [25] and all-out-all-in systems Nordic context are indeed A. suum and T. suis, these findings need need to be applied. With the forthcoming implementation of EU- further investigation to be of practical relevance. legislation stipulating loose housing in enriched environments (e.g. Selective breeding for host resistance: In ruminants, faecal egg counts, wallowing) for sows for part of the gestation, an increased risk of nematode worm counts and related morbidity markers, like pepsinogen helminth transmission may be anticipated. for cattle and anaemia scores for sheep with haemonchosis, show Bioactive crops and nutrition: It is difficult to draw a clear distinction moderate heritabilities (0.3-0.4), and this forms the basis for a breeding between bioactive crops, plant (herbal) medicine and nutrition as such. approach to control of gastrointestinal nematodes, as reviewed by e.g. Bioactive crops (nutraceuticals) are plants containing secondary [40] and [41]. In large wool producing countries (New Zealand and metabolites that are considered beneficial for their positive effect on Australia) selective breeding for host resistance is now implemented on animal health (in casu helminth control) rather than their direct many commercial enterprises. Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) have been nutritional value [26]. These crops can be used as fresh forages for identified and a first DNA test for sheep is now commercially available grazing or as conserved feed in the daily ration without any adverse (Catapult Genetics NZ) but breeding values are in most instances still effect. They may be grown in the normal crop rotation and therefore based on faecal egg counts. Reduction rates in faecal egg counts are draw some attention from commercial seed companies. In plant medicine estimated to be approx. 2% annually [42] but the reduction in dosing is usually a very critical issue and extraction steps are often anthelmintic treatment frequency remains to been demonstrated. included. Selective breeding for resistance has been associated with disadvantages, In small ruminants, extensive studies worldwide on bioactive crops have e.g. low productivity when unexposed, or increased tendency to scouring focused on forages rich in condensed tannins (4-8% of dry matter) and associated with larval exposure, due to higher immunological their effect on gastrointestinal nematodes [26,27]. The relevant responsiveness [43]. Combining low faecal egg counts with other traits, e. temperate/subtropical forages include sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia), sulla g. productivity, in a selection index is therefore presently considered (Hedysarum coronarium) and larger trefoil (Lotus pedunculatus), all with most suitable [41]. limited distribution in Nordic-Baltic countries. Condensed tannins are In pigs, Danish studies based on examination of 200 offspring of known secondary metabolites related to plant defence against herbivory and matings revealed heritabilities of faecal egg counts of A. suum of 0.3-0.4 constitute a poorly defined group of polyphenolic compounds, based on and of T. suis of 0.4-0.7 [44]. For T. suis the heritabilities depended on flavan-3-ol monomers (prodelphinidins or procyanidins) and characterized time in relation to start of infection: during the early expulsion phase by a protein-binding capacity (tanning!) [28]. The variability is large within heritabilities were highest, probably indicating close genetic control of condensed tannins and is related to plant species, growth conditions, the onset of immunity. For Ascaris a number of other parameters like stage of development, cuts etc. Due to this variability many findings are actual worm burden, total egg output and antibody-levels were also inconsistent or even contradictory. However, there is now ample heritable whereas this was not the case for the size and fecundity of the evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies that forages with condensed worms (Peter Nejsum, unpublished data, 2009). It is obvious that tannins may affect all stages of parasitic nematodes, leading to reduced breeding for increased host resistance is also an option within the pig establishment of infective larvae, lowered fecundity of adult nematodes industry and may be highly relevant in free-range systems. and in some cases, reduction in worm burdens. Effects have been Conclusions: Other options, apart from those mentioned above, remain, observed against both abomasal and intestinal nematodes but this may, including biological control with nematode-trapping fungi against free- like in many other instances, depend on plant species or stage, e.g. the living larvae, copperoxide needles against abomasal nematodes, Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 28 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

vaccination against gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep, etc. For different 12. Thamsborg SM, Jørgensen RJ, Nansen P: Internal parasitism of steers reasons these options are not expected to be available in the Nordic or grazing extensively at different stocking rates. Acta vet. scand 1998, Baltic context in the foreseeable future. In contrast, many forms of 39:311-323. grazing management do work in ruminants and should always form the 13. Thamsborg SM, Jørgensen RJ, Ranvig H, Bartlett P, Waller PJ, Nansen P: The backbone of any control program. Nutritional supplementation to grazing performance of grazing sheep in relation to stocking rate and exposure ruminants is also immediately available but the costs and benefits need to nematode infections. Livestock Production Science 1998, 53: to be considered – if herbage amount and quality is sufficient very little 265-277. extra is gained by additional supplementation. Selective breeding is an 14. Thomsen LE, Mejer H, Wendt S, Roepstorff A, Hindsbo O: The influence of obviousoptioninsmallruminantsandperhapsinpigsandbeef/dual stocking rate on transmission of helminth parasites in pigs on purpose cattle. More basic research is needed on bioactive forages with permanent pasture during two consecutive summers. Veterinary regard to mode of action and possible active compounds in order to Parasitology 2001, 99:129-146. select the most appropriate forage species/cultivars. None of these 15. Svensson C: Survival of oocysts of Eimeria alabamensis on pastures approaches should be considered ’stand alone’ control measures due to under different climatic conditions in Sweden. Acta Vet. Scand 1995, their moderate efficacy and integration with anthelmintics will continue 36:9-20. to be a necessity. 16. Lindqvist A: Animal Health and Welfare in Organic Sheep and Goat Today it is widely recognized that with the limited arsenal of Farming - Experiences and reflections from a Swedish outlook. In: anthelmintics and the constant spread of anthelmintic resistance, we Veterinary challenges in Organic Farming. Proc. 14th Nordic Committee for cannot keep livestock free of nematodes during their entire production Veterinary Scientific Cooperation Symposium, Acta vet. Scand. 2001, life by drug application alone. We need to provide support for the 95:27-31. susceptible young stock, e.g. optimal nutrition and limited parasite 17. Nielsen B, Thamsborg SM, Kristensen T: Feed supplements for young dairy challenge, during the phase of acquisition of immunity until they can breed calves after turn-out to pasture: Effect on weight gain and cope with infections. Thus, our mission as veterinarians and subclinical coccidiosis in organic production systems. Acta Agricultura parasitologists has changed accordingly and a new approach to achieve Scandinavica, Section A, Animal Science 2003, 53:1-10. sufficient levels of immunity with acceptable levels of production loss 18. Thamsborg SM, Githigia SM, Larsen ML, Nansen P, Henriksen SAa: Infektion and uncompromised animal welfare by prudent (read minimal)useof med Nematodirus battus, en ny parasit hos får i Danmark (Nematodirus anthelmintics has emerged. This represents a shift in paradigm, because battus, a new parasitic infection in sheep in Denmark). Dansk previously the issue of most concern was achieving the highest Veterinærtidsskrift 1996, 79:231-232. production possible. Now we must consider how to transfer this new 19. Pritchard GC, Forbes AB, Williams DJ, Salimi-Bejestani MR, Daniel RG: message ‘across the fence’ to farmers and extension staff. The future Emergence of fasciolosis in cattle in East Anglia. Vet.Rec 2005, challenges are indeed numerous. 157:578-582. Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful for valuable comments 20. Larsen MN, Roepstorff A: Seasonal variation in development and survival from Dr. A. L. Willingham on an earlier version of this paper. of Ascaris suum and Trichuris suis eggs on pastures. Parasitology 1999, References 119:209-220. 1. Roepstorff A: Ascaris suum in pigs: population biology and 21. Roepstorff A, Murrell KD: Transmission dynamics of helminth parasites of epidemiology. Doctorate Thesis, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural pigs on continuous pasture: Oesophagostomum dentatum and University, Copenhagen 2003, 227. Hyostrongylus rubidus. International Journal for Parasitology 1997, 2. Waller PJ: Sustainable nematode parasite control strategies for ruiminant 27:553-562. livestock by grazing management and biological control. Animal Feed 22. Mejer H: Transmission, infection dynamics and alternative control of Science and Technology 2006, 126:277-289. helminths in organic swine. Ph. D. Thesis, The Royal Veterinary and 3. Waller PJ, Thamsborg SM: Nematode control in ‘green’ ruminant Agricultural University, Copenhagen 2006. production systems. Trends in Parasitology 2004, 20(10):493-497. 23. Carstensen L, Vaarst M, Roepstorff A: Helminth infections in Danish 4. Barger I: Grazing Management for the Control of Nematode Parasites. In organic swine herds. Veterinary Parasitology 2002, 106(3):253-264. Sustainable Parasite Control in Small Ruminants. Editeb by: LF Le Jambre, MR 24. Roepstorff A, Jørgensen RJ, Nansen P, Henriksen SAa, Skovgaard J, Knox. ACIAR; 1996:146-150. Andreasen MPetersen: Parasitter hos økologiske svin (Parasites in certified 5. Thamsborg SM, Roepstorff A: Parasite problems in organic livestock organic production of swine). Project report from Danish Abattoirs 1992, 36. production systems and options for control. Journal of Parasitology 2003, 25. Holmgren N, Nilsson O: Inverkan av produktionsplanering och 89:S277-S284. skabbsanering på tarmnematoder hos bis-grisar (Influence of production 6. Svensson C, Hessle A, Höglund J: Parasite control methods in organic and planning and mange control on nematodes of pigs). Project report from conventional dairy herds in Sweden. Livestock Production Science 2000, Köttböndernas Forskningsprogram project No. G37-97, Svenska 66:57-69. Djurhälsovården 1998. 7. Weinreich LL, Thamsborg SM, Jensen AM, Vaarst M, Rasmussen J: Parasite 26. Hoste H, Jackson F, Athanasiadou S, Thamsborg SM, Hoskin SO: The effects control in Danish organic dairy herds and farmers’ attitudes to of tannin-rich plants on parasitic nematodes in ruminants. Trends in agricultural production. In Enhancing Animal Health Security and Food Parasitology 2006, 22(6):253-261. Safety in Organic Livestock Production. Proceedings of the 3rd SAFO Workshop. 27. Hoste H, Torres-Acosta JF, Alonso-Diaz MA, Brunet S, Sandoval-Castro C, 16–18 September 2004, Falenty, Poland. Edited by: Hovi, M., Zastawny, J. and Adote SH: Identification and validation of bioactive plants for the control Padel, S. Sustaining Animal Health and Food Safety in Organic Farming, of gastrointestinal nematodes in small ruminants. Proc. of 5th University of Reading, Reading; 2005:165. International Workshop: Novel Approaches to the Control of Helminth 8. Eysker M, van der Aar WM, Boersema JH, Githiori JB, Koyman FNJ: The Parasites of Livestock. Tropical Biomedicine 2008, 25(1 Supplement):56-72. effect of repeated moves to clean pasture on the build up of 28. Mueller-Harvey I: Unravelling the conundrum of tannins in animal gastrointestinal nematode infections in calves. Veterinary Parasitology nutrition and health. Journal of Science, Food and Agriculture 2006, 1998, 76:81-94. 86:2010-2037. 9. Kristensen T, Thamsborg SM, Andersen HR, Søegaard K, Nielsen AL: Effects 29. Brunet S, Jackson F, Hoste H: Effects of sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) of grazing system on production and parasitism of dairy breed heifers extract and monomers of condensed tannins on the association of and steers grazing wet marginal grasslands. Animal Science 2006, abomasal larvae with fundic explants. International Journal for Parasitology 82:201-211. 2008, 38:783-790. 10. Larsson A, Dimander SO, Rydzik A, Uggla A, Waller PJ, Höglund J: A 3-year 30. Brunet S, Aufrere J, Babili F El, Fouraste I, Hoste H: The kinetics of field evaluation of pasture rotation and supplementary-feeding to exsheathment of infective nematode larvae is disturbed in the presence control parasite infection in first-season grazing cattle – Effects on of a tannin-rich plant extract (sainfoin) both in vitro and in vivo. animal performance. Veterinary Parasitology 2006, 142:197-206. Parasitology 2007, 134:1253-1262. 11. Barger I: Influence of sex and reproductive status on susceptibility of 31. Thamsborg SM, Mejer H, Bandier M, Larsen M: Influence of different ruminants to nematode parasitism. International Journal for Parasitology forages on gastrointestinal nematode infections in grazing lambs. Proc. 1993, 23:463-469. of 19th International Conference of WAAVP, New Orleans 2003, 189. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 29 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

32. Bjørn H, Roepstorff A, Nansen P: A possible influence of diet composition on the establishment of nematodes in the pig. Veterinary Parasitology S28 1996, 63:167-171. Gastrointestinal helminths and lungworms in suckler cow beef herds in 33. Petkevičius S, BachKnudsen KE, Murrell KD, Wachmann H: The effect of Southern Finland, a pilot study inulin and sugar beet fibre on Oesophagostomum dentatum infection U Eerola1*, H Härtel2, A Oksanen3, T Soveri4 in pigs. Parasitology 2003, 127:61-68. 1Private Practitioner, Hämeentie 22, 16900 Lammi, Finland; 2LSO Foods Oy, 34. Petkevičius S, Bach Knudsen KE, Nansen P, Murrell KD: The effect of dietary Animal Health Service, Forssa, Finland; 3Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira, carbohydrates with different digestibility on the populations of Fish and Wildlife Health Research Unit, Oulu, Finland; 4Department of Oesophagostomum dentatum in the intestinal tract of pigs. Parasitology Production Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of 2001, 123:315-324. Helsinki, Finland 35. Petkevičius S, Murrell KD, Bach Knudsen KE, Jørgensen H, Roepstorff A, E-mail: [email protected] Laue A, Wachmann H: Effects of short-chain fatty acids and lactic acids Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S28 on survival of Oesophagostomum dentatum in pigs. Veterinary Parasitology 2004, 122:293-301. Introduction: The number of suckler cow beef herds is increasing in 36. Mølbak L, Thomsen LE, Jensen TK, Knudsen KEB, Boye M: Increased Finland. Prevalence studies about gastrointestinal parasites and amount of Bifidobacterium thermacidophilum and Megasphaera elsdenii lungworms of grazing beef cattle in southern Finland are not available. in the colonic microbiota of pigs fed a swine dysentery preventive diet Systematic anthelmintic treatment is not widely used and there is no containing chicory roots and sweet lupine. Journal of Applied Microbiology recommended treatment protocol available. The aim of this study was 2007, 103(5):1853-1867. to obtain basic knowledge of the prevalence of gastrointestinal 37. Thomsen LE, Petkevičius S, Bach Knudsen KE, Roepstorff A: The influence of parasites and lungworms in grazing suckler cow beef herds in southern dietary carbohydrates on experimental infection with Trichuris suis in Finland. pigs. Parasitology 2005, 131:857-865. Materials and methods: The study was conducted in summer 2002. It 38. Petkevičius S, Thomsen LE, Bach Knudsen KE, Murrell KD, Roepstorff A, included 13 voluntary beef cattle herds (herd size 26 – 95 adult Boes J: The effect of inulin on new and on patent infections of Trichuris animals) in southern Finland. None of the herds had clinical symptoms suis in growing pigs. Parasitology 2007, 134:121-127. of parasitic infection. None of the herds was treated in the spring and 39. Thomsen LE, Knudsen KEB, Jensen TK, Christensen AS, Møller K, 11 of the herds had not used anthelmintic treatments within a year. Roepstorff A: The effect of fermentable carbohydrates on experimental The first set of faecal samples were taken from 4-10 calves on 10 farms, swine dysentery and whip worm infections in pigs. Veterinary 4-10 heifers on 7 farms and 8-12 cows on 13 farms. The first sampling Microbiology 2007, 119:152-163. was done more than 3 weeks after the beginning of the grazing period 40. Sonstegard TS, Gasbarre LC: Genomic tools to improve parasite and the second sampling was done at the end of the grazing period in resistance. Veterinary Parasitology 2001, 101:387-403. autumn. Faecal samples were investigated at Finnish Food Safety 41. Hunt PW, McEwan JC, Miller JE: Future perspectives for the Authority Evira, Oulu. The methods used were modified McMaster for implementationm of genetic markers for parasite resistance in sheep. In: gastrointestinal helminth eggs and the Baermann technique for Proc. of 5th International Workshop: Novel Approaches to the Control of detecting Dictyocaulus viviparus. Egg count less than 50 eggs/gram Helminth Parasites of Livestock. Tropical Biomedicine 2008, 25(1 faeces (epg) was considered low infection, 50-500 epg moderate Supplement):18-33. infection and more than 500 epg heavy infection considering 42. Pomroy WE: Anthelmintic resistance in New Zealand: a perspective on Trichostrongylidae spp. Dictyocaulus viviparus infections were evaluated recent findings and options for the future. New Zealand Veterinary Journal on herd level as negative or positive. 2006, 54(6):265-270. Results: Trichostrongylidae spp were found in all herds in all groups 43. Karlsson LJE, Pollott GE, Eady SJ, Bell A, Greeff JC: Relationship between examined. The egg counts in individual calves varied from 0 to 1540 epg faecal worm egg counts and scouring in Australian Merino sheep. at the first and from 0 to 780 epg at the second sampling. Egg counts in Animal Production Australia 2004, 25:100-103. heifers varied between 0 - 120 epg and 0 - 140 epg, in older cows 44. Nejsum P, Roepstorff A, Jørgensen CB, Fredholm M, Göring HHH, between 0 - 360 epg and 0 - 200 epg, respectively. Only three individual Anderson TJC, Thamsborg SM: High heritability for Ascaris and Trichuris samples had egg count higher than 500 epg. Median values for calves, infection levels in pigs. Heredity 2009, 102:357-364. heifers and cows are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 (abstract S28) Median egg count values (epg) of Trichostrongylidae spp. in 13 beef cow herds calves in summer calves in autumn heifers insummer heifers in autumn cows in summer cows in autumn Farm 1 50 60 M M 0 0 Farm 2 0 70 M 10 0 0 Farm 3 0 0 M 60 60 0 Farm 4 20 30 20 0 0 0 Farm 5 60 120 20 20 0 0 Farm 6 10 50 0 0 0 0 Farm 7 20 40 0 M 10 0 Farm 81 50 M 0 0 30 M Farm 9 40 20 M M 0 0 Farm 10 M 2 40 M 50 20 0 Farm 11 M 0 M M 0 0 Farm 121 M M 70 70 0 0 Farm 13 60 160 0 M 0 0 1 Dictyocaulus viviparus positive herd 2 M = Information missing Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 30 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

Dictyocaulus viviparus was detected in two herds. Other than Table 1 (abstract S29) Summary statistics for egg counts trichostrongylid gastrointestinal parasites (Capillaria sp., Nematodirus sp., (epg) for coccidia, Strongylus, Ascaris suum and Trichuris suis. Moniezia sp., Paramphistomum sp.) were detected in very few samples at low levels. Parasite Mean, epg SD, epg Min, epg Max, epg Discussion : Gastrointestinal parasites, mainly Trichostrongylidae spp., Coccidia 6 118 1987 0 102 000 were found widely in beef cattle, but the parasite egg counts were low or moderate at all farms in all groups of animals. None of the herds Strongylus 300 945 0 6 150 had clinical signs of infection and did not seem to need regular Ascaris suum 29 15 0 1 450 anthelmintic treatment. However, summer 2002 was exceptionally dry Trichuris suis 0000 and warm in southern Finland which may be one reason for low egg counts. Other gastrointestinal parasites (Capillaria sp., Nematodirus sp., Moniezia sp., Paramphistomum sp.) were rare and considered not important. The most important finding of this study was some farms having a Isospora. Smaller number of animals and farms were Strongylus or Ascaris subclinical Dictyocaulus viviparus infection. In light of the low incidence of suum positive. Adult animals are known to be able to develop immunity disease in Finland, subclinical infections are a risk in cattle trade and towards ascarids, thus the low egg burden in sampled animals was quite should be considered. expected. Reference 1. Corwin RM, Stewart TB: Internal Parasites. In Diseases of Swine. Edited by: S29 Straw BE, D’Allaire S, Mengeling WL, Taylor DJ Ames, Iowa: Iowa State The prevalence of internal parasites in wild boar farms in Finland University Press; 1999:713-730. Outi Hälli*, Eve Ala-Kurikka, Olli Peltoniemi, Mari Heinonen Department of Production Animal Medicine, University of Helsinki, Saarentaus, Finland S30 Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S29 Cross-infection of gastrointestinal nematodes between winter corralled semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and sheep Background: In Finland, the most important internal parasites in (Ovis aries) domestic pigs are nematode Ascaris suum and coccidia Isospora suis. As Saana-Maaria Manninen*, Antti Oksanen, Sauli Laaksonen the environmental conditions and management practices in wild boar Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira, Fish and Wildlife Health Research Unit, (Sus scrofa) outdoor farming are suitable for parasites during most Oulu, Finland seasons, we wanted to explore the parasite burden of wild boars in Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S30 Finland. This kind of research has not been carried out earlier in our country. Economical losses caused by internal parasites, especially Summary: The increasing number of sheep (Ovis aries)inthereindeer ascarids, are mainly due to reduced daily weight gain and feed (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) herding area in North Finland and conversion ratio [1]. supplementary winter feeding of reindeer in corrals shared with sheep Materials and methods: Based on a national record of wild boar farmers, causes potential for cross-infection of gastrointestinal nematodes a sampling frame of farms was compiled. Every farm on that list was between reindeer and sheep. The aim of this study was to elucidate contacted first by mail and the non-responders received a phone call from this potential. The study included 46 animals, of which 12 reindeer research group personnel. All volunteer farms that still had wild boars and 8 sheep had shared a corral. Twelve reindeer had no known were included. From all animals slaughtered in study farms during the contact with sheep. Both reindeer groups shared free ranging areas study period (autumn 2007 – spring 2008), a faecal sample was obtained with wild moose (Alces alces). Two moose were included in this study, directly from rectum after slaughter. Faecal egg or oocyst counts regarding as were 12 sheep which had no contact with other ruminants. After Ascaris suum, coccidia, Strongylus and Trichuris suis were counted by the slaughter in September-November abomasa and proximal small concentration McMaster technique. The number of positive farms (at least intestines were collected and examined for gastrointestinal one animal with parasite eggs in faecal sample) and summary statistics of nematodes. The parasites were collected, counted and identified. egg counts for every parasite type was calculated. Following species were found in reindeer: Ostertagia gruehneri, Results: Altogether 113 samples were collected from 22 farms, a median Ostertagia arctica, Spiculopteragia dagestanica, Nematodirus tarandi, of 4 samples (1-15) per herd. The median age of sampled wild boars was Nematodirella longissimespiculata and Bunostomum trigonocephalum. 18 months. Mean age was found to be 21,5 months (standard deviation Sheep were infected with Teladorsagia circumcincta, Teladorsagia 14,5). The number of positive farms can be seen in Figure 1. and trifurcata, Ostertagia gruehneri, Ostertagia arctica, Nematodirus filicollis summary statistics for egg or oocyst counts for different parasites studied and Nematodirus spathiger. Spiculopteragia dagestanica and Ostertagia can be found in Table 1. gruehneri were identified in moose. Ostertagia gruehneri,whichis Conclusion: Almost all farms were positive regarding coccidia. The exact considered to be a reindeer parasite, was only found in the sheep that diagnosis of the species of the oocysts was not reached, whether they had shared a corral with reindeer. These sheep were not found to be were Isospora or Eimeria. Although the established oocyst counts infected with other abomasal nematodes. The reindeer that had probably are harmless for adult animals, the risk for piglets could be shared a corral with sheep were not infected with nematodes usually substantial because of environmental contamination, especially in case of having sheep as their primary host.

Figure 1 (abstract S29) Number of farms with at least one pig positive for different parasites in fecal examination (22 farms included in the study). Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, Volume 52 Suppl 1 Page 31 of 31 http://www.actavetscand.com/supplements/52/S1

helminths were studied using hierarchical loglinear modelling with S31 backward elimination procedure (P = 0.05) (SPSS programme ver. 11.5). Intestinal parasite infection exposes grouse to canine predators Two different models were studied, one for cestodes (all three species Marja Isomursu1*, Osmo Rätti2, Pekka Helle3, Tuula Hollmén4 pooled together) and one for nematodes. 1Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira, Research Department, Fish and Wildlife Results and conclusions: Grouse were infected by four helminth species: Health Research Unit, P.O.Box 517, FI-90101 Oulu, Finland; 2Arctic Centre, a nematode Ascaridia compar and cestodes Skrjabinia cesticillus, Paroniella University of Lapland, P.O.Box 122, FI-96101 Rovaniemi, Finland; 3Finnish urogalli and Hymenolepis sp. Nematode infection was not connected to Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Oulu Game and Fisheries Research, dog-assisted hunting. However, there was a significant interaction Tutkijantie 2 E, FI-90570 Oulu, Finland; 4Alaska Sealife Center, 301 Railway between cestode infection and the use of dog (P < 0.01). Cestodes were Avenue, P.O. Box 1329, Seward, AK 99664, USA more common in grouse hunted with a dog (see Figure 1). Cestodes Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S31 were mostly parasites of juvenile grouse but even among juveniles only, cestodes were more prevalent in the dog-assisted hunting bag. The Background: Sublethal parasite infections may cause mortality indirectly results suggest that mammalian predators prey more selectively on by exposing the host to predation. The best known example of this parasitized individuals and that intestinal parasites may contribute to the among birds is red grouse in which caecal nematode infection causes high mortality of juvenile grouse through increased predation. increased risk of predation and can even affect population dynamics [1]. This abstract is based on a recent paper published in Annales Zoologici Intestinal helminth parasites are common in forest grouse, capercaillie Fennici by the same authors [3]. Tetrao urogallus, black grouse Tetrao tetrix and hazel grouse Bonasa References bonasia [2], and these grouse are valuable prey for several species of 1. Dobson A, Hudson P: The interaction between the parasites and predators. We evaluated the hypothesis that parasite infection makes the predators of red grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus. Ibis 1995, 137:S87-S96. host more vulnerable to predation by comparing the intestinal parasite 2. Isomursu M, Helle P, Rätti O: Intestinal helminths in Finnish grouse. infection status of grouse hunted with a trained dog to that of grouse Suomen Riista 2004, 50:90-100, (In Finnish with English summary). hunted without a dog. Hunting with a dog can be regarded as close 3. Isomursu M, Rätti O, Helle P, Hollmén T: Parasitized grouse are more simulation of natural predation because the dog presumably locates the vulnerable to predation as revealed by a dog-assisted hunting study. prey by the same cues as wild canine predators. Ann Zool Fennici 2008 in press. Material and methods: We collected whole grouse intestines from hunters and received 623 samples of which the bird species, age class and sex were determined. All sample birds were shot with a shotgun during legal hunting season in September and October. Intestines were cut open and parasites visible to naked eye or stereomicroscope were Cite abstracts in this supplement using the relevant abstract number, extracted and identified. The associations between host sex, age, species, e.g.: Isomursu et al.: Intestinal parasite infection exposes grouse to the month of sampling, the use of dog and the occurrence of intestinal canine predators. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52(Suppl 1):S31

Figure 1(abstract S31) Prevalence of cestodes in grouse hunted with a dog or without a dog. Shaded bars = with dog, open bars = without dog.