Alewife/Blueback Herring

Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (Mid-Atlantic): Alewife/Blueback Herring

Item Type monograph

Authors Fay, Clemon W.; Neves, Richard J.; Pardue, Garland B.

Publisher U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Ecology Group, Waterways Experiment Station.

Download date 27/09/2021 08:08:20

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/1834/21268 RIEFEWNLL LU~I Do Not Remove from the Library U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

National-. Wetlands Researchn CenterA FWS/OBS.82/11.9 /UU Lalun October 1983 ~afoyette,Louisiana 70506 TR EL.82-4

Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (Mid-Atlantic) ALEWIFE/BLUEBACK HERRING

Coastal Ecoloav Grou~ - - I- Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways ~x~erirne%Station U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of ~n~inee& FWS/OBS-82/11.9 TR EL-82-4 October 1983

Species Profi1 es: Life Histories and Envi ron~nentalRequirements of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (Mid-Atlantic)

ALEWI FE/BLUEBACK HERRING

Clemon W. Fay, Richard J. Neves, and Garland €3. Pardue Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, VA 24061

Project Manager Larry Shanks Project Officer Norman Benson National Coastal Ecosystems Team U.S. Fish and Nildlife Service 1010 Gause Boulevard Sl idell, LA 70458

This study was conducted in cooperation with Coastal Ecology Group U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station

Performed for National Coastal Ecosystems Team Division of Biological Services Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Department of the Interior Washi ng ton, DC 20240 CONVERSION FACTORS

Metric to U.S. Customary

Mu1 tiply mi 11imeters (mm) inches centimeters (cm) inches meters (m) feet kilometers (krn) mi1 es square meters (m2) square feet square kilometers (km2) square rr~iles hectares (ha) acres

1iters (1) gallons cubic meters (m3) cubic feet cubic meters acre-feet mi11 i grams (mg) ounces grams (gm) ounces kilograms (kg) pounds metric tons (mt) pounds metric tons (mt) short tons kilocalories (kcal) BTU

Cel sius degrees Fa hrenhei t degrees

U.S. Customary Jg Metric i'nc hes millimeters inches centimeters feet (ft) rneters fatholr~s meters miles (mi) kilometers nautical miles (nmi) kilometers square feet (ft2) square meters acres hectares square miles (mi 2, square kilometers gallons (gal) 1i ters cubic feet (ft3) cubic meters acre-feet cubic meters ounces (oz) grams pounds (Ib) k i1 ograms short tons (ton) metric tons BT U kilocalories

Fahrenheit degrees Celsius degrees CONTENTS

Page

CONVERSION TARE ...... PREFACE ...... ACKNOWLEDGFIENTS ...... PROFILE SCOPE ...... NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY/RANGE ...... NORPHOLOGY /IDENT1 FICATION AIDS ...... Alewife ...... Bl ueback Herring ...... Aids for Species Separation ...... REASON FOR INCLUSION IIV SERIES ...... LIFE HISTORY ...... Reproductive Physiology/Strategy ...... Spawning ...... Eggs ...... Yo1 k-Sac Larvae ...... Larvae ...... Juveniles ...... Adul ts ...... GROiJTH CHARACTERISTICS .... Growth Rates ...... Length-Weight Re1 ationships THE FISHERY ...... Commercial Fisheries .... Recreational Fisheries ... Population Dynamics .... ECOLOGICAL ROLE ...... Food Habits ...... Feeding Behavior ...... Conpeti tors ...... Predators ...... ENVIRON~>IENTAL REQU IREMENTS . . Terr~perature ...... Sal ini ty ...... Other Envi ronrnental Factors Environmental Contani nants . L ZTERATURE CITED ......

iii PREFACE

This species profile is one of a series on coastal aquatic organisms, principally fish, of sport, commercial, or ecoloqical importance. The profiles are designed to provide coastal managers, engineers, and biologists with a brief comprehensive sketch of the bi01 ogical characteri stics and envi ronmental requi re- ~nents of the species and to describe how populations of the species may be expected to react to envi ronmental changes caused by coastal devel opment. Each profile has sections on taxonomy, 1i fe history, ecological role, environmental requi rements, and econotnic importance, if appl icable. A three-ring binder is used for this series so that new profiles can be added as they are prepared. This project is jointly planned and financed by the 1J.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Fish and Uildlifc Service.

Habitat Suitability Index (XI) models are being prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for the alewife and bluekack herring. HSI models are designed to provide a numerical index of the relative value of a given site as fish or wildlife habitat.

Suggestions or questions regarding this report should be directed to:

Irlforrnation Transfer Special ist National Coastal Ecosystems Team U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service NASA-Sl idel 1 Computer Corrlpl ex 1010 Gause Boulevard Sl idel 1, LA 70458

U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station Attention: WESER Post Office Box 631 Vicksburg, MS 39180

This series should be referenced as follows:

U.S. Fish and idildlife Service. 1983. Species profiles: life histories and envi ronmental requi rements of coastal fishes and invertebrates. 1J.S. Fish anti Wildlife Service, Division of Biological Services, FWS/OBS-82/11. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4.

This profile should be cited as follows:

Fay, C.W., R.J. Neves, and G.B. Pardue. 1983. Species profiles: life histories and environmental requirenients of coastal fishes and invertebrates (Mid- Atlantic) -- alewifelblueback herring. 1J.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Biological Services, FWS/OBS-82111.9. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 25 pp. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are grateful for the review by Dr. Joseph Loesch, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point. We appreciate permission from the Canadian Journal of -Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences for reprinting Figures 1 and 3. Permission is acknow- ledged from the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies for reprinting Figure 4. I Figure 1. A: alewife; B: blueback herring.

ALEWIFE/BLUEBACK HERRING

PROFILE SCOPE species. When available, these differences are addressed by separate This profile covers life history statements for each species. In addi- and environmental requirements of tion, a special section on the most both alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) readily distinguishing characteristics and blueback herring (Alosa-- aesti- for separating eggs, larvae, and valis), since their distribution is adults of the two clupeids is pre- overlapping and their morphology, sented in the morphology section of ecological role, and environmental this profile. requirements are similar. Neverthe- Because most of the information less, significant differences in certain available concerns the alewife, charac- physical, physiological, and biological teristics of this species are given pri- characteristics exist between the two ority reference in the text. Features should not be considered similar Alewife in the two species unless noted as such. In a few studies (particularly Dorsal rays 12-19 (usually commercial fisheries statistics), the 13-14), anal rays 15-21 (usually two species are referred to collectively 17-18), scales in lateral series 42-54. as "river herring" or "gaspereau" Prepelvic scutes 17-21 (usually (Canada). 19-20), postpelvic scutes 12-17 (usually 14-15), gill rakers on first arch 38-46. Body strongly compressed, deep. Mouth oblique, anterior end of lower jaw thick, heavy, and extending to middle of orbit. Eye large, diameter greater than snout length. Color: Scientific names. .Alosa pseudoharengus dorsally grey to grey-green, laterally (Wilson)/Alosa aestivalis itchil ill) silver with prominent dark shoulder Preferred common names~,~lewife/blue- spot; fins pale, yellow or green. back herring (Figure 1) Other common t~dmes.... River herring, gaspereau, oldwife. Blueback Herrina Class...... Osteichthyes Order ...... Cl upeiformes Dorsal rays 15-20, anal rays Family...... Clupeidae 15-21, scales in lateral series 46-54. Prepelvic scutes 18-21, postpelvic scutes 12-16, gill rakers on first arch Geographical range: The alewife is 41 -52. Body moderately compressed, an anadromous species found in elongate, eye diameter small, equal to riverine, estuarine, and Atlantic or less than snout length. Upper jaw coastal habitats, depending on with definitive median notch, no teeth life cycle stage, from Newfound- on premaxillaries. Color: dorsally land (Winters et al. 1973) to blue to blue-green, laterally silver Soutn Carolina (Berry 1964). with prominent dark shoulder spot; Landlocked populations are in the fins pale, yellow or green. Great Lakes, Finger Lakes, and many other freshwater lakes (Bigelow and Sch roeder 1953; Aids for Species Separation Scott and Crossman 1973). The blueback herring is an anadro- Eggs. Unfertilized blueback her- mous species found in riverine, ring eggs amber, alewife eggs green. estuarine, and Atlantic coastal Oil droplets of fertilized eggs unequal habitats, depending on life stage and scattered for blueback herring, cycle, from Nova Scotia to the numerous and uniformly tiny for ale- St. Johns River, Florida (Hilde- wife (Kuntz and Radcliffe 1917; Nor- brand 1963) (see Figure 2 for a den 1967). map of the mid-Atlantic distribution of alewives and blueback Larvae. Myomeres between i nser- herring). tion of dorsal fin and anal vent 11-13 (mean 11.8) for blueback herring larvae, 7-9 (mean 8.0) for alewife larvae MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS (this characteristic is definitive according to Chambers et al. 1976) Larvae less than approximately 15 mm The following information was can be separated using regressions of taken from summaries in Jones et al. vent to tail distance (mm) and vent to (1978), unless otherwise indicated. urostyle distance (mm), against

- '25.4 mm = 1 inch PHILADELPH

A TL A N TIC OCEAN

MILES

KILOMETERS

Coastal dlstributlon

Area of high abundance

I Figure 2. Mid-Atlantic distribution of the alewife and blueback herring. standard length (.SL); presented in Chambers et al. (1976).

Adults. Externally, by scale imbrication patterns and individual scale markings (Figure 3). Scale baseline and dividing line coincidental on alewife scales, not on blueback herring scales (O'Neill 1980; MacLellan et al . 1981) . Internally, peritoneal lining uniformly dark in blueback herring; pale, grey, or silvery with dark punctations in alewife (Leim and Scott ALEWIFE BLUEBACK HERRING 1966; Scott and Crossman 1973). approx. scale: ulcm Shape of otolith distinctive (Scott and I: I: mirnlol MAKIN Crossman 1973) and differences - described in Price (1978) and illus- trated in O'Neill (1980). Biochemically distinguished by muscle myogen and retina LDH enzyme migration patterns (electrophoresis) (McKenzie 1973, 1975) .

Alewives possess fewer verte- brae, dorsal rays, anal rays, and gill rakers on the first arch, in general, compared with blueback herring. Eye diameter to snout length ratios are ALIWICE BLUfWK Hllllffi approx. scale U5 mm also significantly different between the two clupeids, but mean values are Figure 3. Scale imbrication patterns close and ranges overlap (Messieh (top) and individual scale morphology 1977). The applicability of these (bottom) used for external discrimina- meristic characters for absolute species determination is limited since tion of the alewife and blueback herring (from MacLellan et a1 1981; with there is at least some overlap between . species for each characteristic. permission of the Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic sciences). Though dorsal coloration has been cited as species-distinctive in important links in estuarine and fresh specimens (Bigelow and Schroe- marine food webs, between zooplan k- der 1953), this character may not be ton and top piscivores. Commercially, reliable. MacLelIan et al. (1981) both species have recently (last two found no significant or detectable dif- decades) gained in recognition and ference in dorsal coloration and interest as sources of fish meal, fish observed that such coloration oil, and fish protein, particularly for appeared to vary substantially with the animal food industries. ambient lighting conditions.

LIFE HISTORY REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES

Reproductive Physiology/Strategy The alewife and blueback herring are important ecologically and to a Alewives and blueback herring lesser extent as commercial tish spe- are heterosexual, though hermaphro- 1 cies. Ecologically, these species are ditism in landlocked populations of alewives from Lake Michigan has been (310-mm female) (Loesch and Lund reported (Edsall and Saxon 1968; Hla- 1977). From 10% to 30% of vek and Norden 1977). Females of the initial number of eggs present in both species are slightly larger and a female blueback herring remained heavier than males of the same age after spawning. Left ovaries were '(Cooper 1961; Netzel and Stanek 1966; significantly heavier than right ova- Marcy 1969; Loesch and Lund 1977). ries, though left ovaries did not contain more eggs per gram of ovary Some male anadromous alewives, than did right ovaries (Loesch and and a slightly smaller percentage of Lund 1977; Loesch 1981). Chesapeake females, spawn for the first time at Bay alewives ranged in fecundity from age 3. Most fish of both sexes have 60,000 to 100,000 eggs per female spawned once by age 4, and all by (Foerster and Goodbred 1978). The age 5. Generally, males dominate age fecundity-to-age relationship for classes 3 to 5 on the spawning Georgia populations of blueback her- grounds, while females dominate age ring did not fit a linear relationship classes 7 and older. Blueback her- well (r* = 0.42) (Street 1969). It was ring vary more than alewives in age suggested that the age-fecundity rela- of first spawning, though in general tionship is asymptotic for both ale- maturation rates are similar for the wives and blueback herring, and thak two clupeids (Joseph and Davis 1965; "fecundal senility" may occur in all Loesch and Lund 1977; O'Neill 1980). long-lived stocks of these species (Street 1969; Loesch and Lund 1977). Age of first spawning, percentage of repeat spawners, and longevity Spawning in populations seem to decrease as one proceeds from north to south. Anadromous alewives and blue- Spawning populations of alewives in back herring spawn once a year, dur- southern North Carolina comprised ing spring or early summer, in fresh primarily 3-year-old fish, and no fish or brackish water (Raney and Mass- over 4 years old were found (Tyus mann 1953). Males arrive at mouths 1974). In contrast, alewife spawning of spawning rivers earlier than populations in Chesapeake Bay were females (Cooper 1961; Tyus 1971; represented by ages 3 to 8 (Joseph Richkus 1974a). Spawning environ- and Davis 1965), Connecticut River ments vary from streams only a few stocks by ages 3 to 8 (Marcy 1969; meters (yards) wide and a few centi- Loesch and Lund 1977), and Nova meters (inches) deep to large rivers Scotian stocks (both alewives and such as the Delaware, Susquehanna, blueback herring) by ages 4-10 and Potomac (Mansueti 1956). Ponds, (O'Neill 1980). Percentage of repeat including barrier beach ponds, with spawners was 60% for alewives in Nova an open outlet to the sea, are also Scotia (O'Neill 1980), 61% in the York used by alewives (Bigelow and Welsh River, Virginia (Joseph and Davis 1925). Jones et al. (1978) cited 1965), and less than 10% in southern Loesch (1968, 1969) as stating that North Carolina (Tyus 1974). Blue- blueback herring do not ascend into back herring runs consisted of 65% freshwater as far as alewives on and 75% repeat spawners in the York spawning runs. However, Loesch River and Nova Scotian waters, (personal communication) said the respectively (Joseph and Davis 1965; statement pertained to the existing O'Neill 1980). literature at that time, and findings reported in Loesch and Lund (1977) Fecundity of Connecticut River indicated that upstream distribution blueback herring ranged from 45,800 was a function of finding appropriate eggs (238-mm female) to 349,700 eggs spawning habitats. In laboratory tests, adult ana- Blueback herring prefer spawning dromous alewives from Rhode Island sites with fast currents and associated waters were capable of distinguishing hard substrates (Loesch and Lund water of their natal pond from water 1977). Brackish water or standing collected in nearby ponds (Thunberg water habitats are rarely used. In 1971). Olfaction was shown to be the contrast, alewives select a wide vari- major sensory mechanism for homing ety of spawning sites, using standing behavior. Discriminate function analy- water and oxbows as well as mid-river sis, however, by Messieh (1977) on sites (Kissil 1974). Several studies St. Johns River, Florida, spawning have described alewife spawning in stocks indicated considerable straying ponds with an open connectiorl to f rom home streams, particularly the ocean (e.g., Havey 1973; Kissil between adjacent spawning areas/ 1974), but no observations of pond stocks. Messieh (1977) hypothesized spawning by blueback herring are that the majority of stock mixing documented. Apparently a consider- occurred during the prespawning able separation, both spatially and period (late winter, early spring) temporally, exists for spawning activ- rather than "impulsively" on the ity of anadromous alewives and blue- actual spawning runs. The majority back herring. of spawning alewives in Lake Matta- muskeet, North Carolina, used only Loesch and Lund (1977) one of four available canals for described spawning behavior of blue- spawning migrations (Tyus 1974). It back herring. A spawning group was hypothesized that since this canal composed of one female and several was the only one available historically males swam in circles for several min- (built in 1907), the alewives may be utes, and males occasionally nudged exhibiting homing behavior. Tyus the vent of the female. Swimming (1974) did not report, however, that speed increased gradually until a deep this canal was also the shortest and dive occurred with subsequent release most direct from bay to lake. of eggs and milt simultaneously, very near the substrate. Spawning activi- ties of both species occur diurnally and nocturnally, though the greatest activity apparently is nocturnal (Gra- Spawning periods along the ham 1956; Edsall 1964). Both males Atlantic coast 'range from late March and females migrate rapidly down- through July, occurring later in the stream after spawning, and total north. Within the mid-Atlantic region, spawning time for a single migratory nearly all alewife and blueback her- group is usually 5 days or less ring spawn from April through mid- (Cooper 1961; Loesch and Lund 1977). July (Hildebrand 1963; Kissil 1969; Loesch 1969; Smith 1971; Tyus 1974; Loesch and Lund 1977). In general, Eggs alewives begin to spawn 3 to 4 weeks before blueback herring in sympatric Until water- hardened, eggs of areas. Spawning peaks are 2 to 3 both species are demersal in still weeks apart (Jones et al. 1978). Ale- water and adhesive or pelagic in wives began spawning at minimum running water (Loesch and Lund 1977; water temperatures of 10.5OC (51 F) Jones et al. 1978). After water- (Cianci 1969) and blueback herring at hardening (less than 24 hr) , eggs lose 14OC (57OF) (Loesch and Lund 1977). their adhesive property and enter the Both species cease spawning when water column. Fertilized, water- hard- water temperature exceeds 27 " C, (81" ened eggs are green (alewife) to F) (Loesch 1969; Edsall 1970). amber (blueback herring) and contain scattered, unequal (alewife) or Alosa spp. larvae, primarily numerous, small (blueback herring) oil those of blueback herring and ale- droplets (Kuntz and Radcliffe 1917; wives, were present throughout upper Norden 1967). Egg diameter ranges Chesapeake Bay from hatching 1 from 0.80 to 1.27 mm for alewives and (approximately April 15) through June from 0.87 to 1.11 mm for blueback (Dovel 1971). Larvae exhibited slight herring (Mansueti 1962; Norden 19671. downstream movement from presumed Incubation time is approximately 80 to spawning areas in the bay, and were 94 hr at 20' to 21°C (68' to 70° F) collected only in areas with salinities and 55 to 58 h r at 22' to 24 C (72' less than 12 ppt. Alosa spp. larvae to 75' F) for blueback herring eggs in Nova Scotian rivers occurred in (Cianci 1969; Morgan and Prince areas that were relatively shallow (<2 1976). Comparative values for ale- m, c6.6 ft), sandy, and warm, and wives are approximately 360 - hr, at were collected in or near areas of 7.2OC (45OF) (Edsall 19701, 178 tir spawning adults (O'Neill 1980). at 12.7OC (55'F) (Kellogg 1982), 89 hr at 21.1 OC (70°F) (Edsall 1970), Juveniles 72 hr at 23.8OC (75OF) (Kellogg 1982), and 50 hr at 28.g°C (84OF) Transformation to the juvenile (Edsall 1970). An equation for pre- stage is gradual, but is completed at dicting incubation time for alewife approximately 20 mm TL. Scales first eggs from temperature (Edsall 1970) appear on juveniles between 25 and 29 is: mm TL, and are fully developed at 45 mm TL (Hildebrand 1963; Norden 1967). where T = time in days and t = incubation temperature in degrees F. Juvenile blueback herring in the James River, Virginia, exhibited a net Yol k-Sac Larvae upstream movement between June and October, presumably caused by con- Yolk-sac larvae range from 2.5 to tributions of juveniles from oxbows, 5.0 mm total length (TL) at hatching, side channels, and tributaries, which and average 5.1 mm TL at yolk-sac gradually moved down into the main absorption (Mansueti 1962; Norden river through the summer. Densities 1967). Duration of this stage is 2 to 5 of juveniles were significantly higher days for alewife and 2 to 3 days for near the surface than at 5-m (16.4-ft) blueback herring (Mansueti 1962; depth throughout their residence in Cianci 1969). the river (Burbidge 1974). Larvae Warinner et al. (1969) studied The larval stage lasts from the distribution of juvenile alewives yo1 k-sac absorption until transforma- and blueback herring in the Potomac tion to the juvenile stage. Larval River over the first 6 months of life blueback herring range from 4.0 to (Figure 4). Four important conclu- 15.9 mm SL and larval alewives from sions were evident. 4.3 to 19.9 mm SL (Jones et al. 1978). Jones et al. (1978) provided 1) Both species exhibited appar- detailed drawings of the developmental ent upstream movement, averag- stages of eggs, yolk-sac larvae, and ing 24 km (15 mi) over 4 months, larvae of both alewives and blueback until the inception of emigration herring. in October. 7s JUNE Significant die1 movements of juvenile alewives and blueback herring in Virginia rivers were found (Loesch 25 n et al. 1982a). Fish moved toward the bottom during the day and toward the JULY surface at night. Blueback herring I " were more sensitive to the sky-opacity index and exhibited more extensive. vertical movement patterns in relation to changing light intensity than alewives. This movement pattern was also noted for juvenile alosids in the 0 "T\- SEPTEMBER Potomac River (Warinner et al. 1969). 0 *,

In most Atlantic coast populations, juvenile alewives and blueback herring emigrate from freshwater/estuarine nursery areas between June and November of their first year of life (Burbidge 1974; Kissil 1974; Rich- kus 1975; O'Neill 1980). Juvenile river herring in upper Chesapeake Figure 4. Seasonal distribution of Bay did not emigrate until early ,juvenile river herring by river mile spring of their second year, and such i~the Potomac River, Maryland. No migrations were comparatively rapid data are shown for November because once they began (Dovel 1971). This fish were absent in the study area was the only report of nonmigratory (from Warinner et a1 . 1969). first-year juveniles, except for the dwarf, nonmigratory population of alewives described by Foerster and Goodbred (1978) from the Susque- 2) Both species were virtua'lly hanna River. absent in the study area by November.. Stimulatory variables influencing 3) Juvenile blueback herring out- the initiation of migratory "waves" numbered alewives 19: 1 overall. (Richkus 1975) of juvenile alewives from nursery habitats include heavy 4) Juvenile alewives were most rainfall (Cooper 1961 1, high water abundant in surface waters (Kissil 1974; Richkus 1975), and through September, and sharp declines in water temperature increased in abundance at 4.6 m (Richkus 1975). Richkus (1975) (15 ft) and on the bottom in observed that (1) such waves lasted 2 September and October, prior to to 3 days, regardless of length of emigration. In contrast, juvenile time of environmental change; (2) blueback herring maintained high migrations peaked in late afternoon; abundance in surface waters and (3) the magnitude of a migratory through October, increased in wave was not related to the magnitude abundance at 4.6 m in November, of environmental change. Most (60'6 to and were never collected in bot- 80%) juveniles emigrated on only a tom trawls throughout the study small percentage (7% to 8%) of the period. available days (Rich kus 1975). Significant numbers of juvenile abundant at depths between 56 and alewives and blueback herring were 110 m (184 and 361 ft), while blue- captured during winter in the Mullica back herring were most abundant $ River Estuary, New Jersey, indicating between 27 and 55 m (89 and 180 ft). the importance of this area for over- In summer and fall, catches of both wintering (Milstein 1981 ). Blueback species were confined to fhe sampling herring was third in percent repre- area north of 40" north latitude, in sentation and alewives seventh among three general areas: Nantucket 53 species collected. Both species Shoals, Georges Bank, and the perim- were captured out to 8 km (5 mi) off- eter of the Gulf of Maine. Winter shore, which is near the outer limit of catches were between 40" and 43O salinity/temperature influences from north latitude. Spring catches were the Mullica River Estuary. Overwin- distributed over the entire Continental tering fish chose temperatures Shelf in the study region (Neves between 4.5"and 6.5OC (40" ;?d 43.7" 1981). F) and salinities from 29 to 32 ppt. Densities of overwintering juveniles Adult alewives and blueback her- increased steadily from December to ring chose only a small portion of March, then declined in April. The Georges Bank, specifically the western alewife-to-blueback herring ratio in all slope at 414 29' north latitude and 68', samples combined was 1:5 (Milstein 34' west longitude, as an area of 1981). residence in July and October, 1964 (only months sampled) (Netzel and Adults Stanek 1966). Alewives outnumbered blueback herring in these samples. Little information is available All mature age classes were repre- concerning the life history or biology sented, but age O+, I+,and 2+ fish of alewife and blueback herring stocks were not captured. once the juveniles emigrate to the sea (( at age 0+ or 1'. A literature search Alewives and blueback herring, indicated that much research needs to like other clupeids, may exhibit sea- be conducted in stock identification, sonal movements in conjunction with offshore exploitation rates, foreign preferred isotherms (or preferred fishing operations, and general life isotherms of forage organisms) (Col- history, movement, migration pat- lins 1952; Leggett and Whitney 1972); terns, feeding behavior, and ecology however, direct evidence is lacking of these clupeids in offshore waters. (Rich kus 1974b). Feeding and vertical migration are probably controlled by Neves (1981) summarized 16 years light intensity patterns within thermal of catch data from National Marine preference zones (Richkus and Winn Fisheries Service trawl surveys con- 1979; Neves 1981). ducted along the Atlantic coast, between Cape Hatteras and Nova Sco- tia. Samples were taken out to depths of 200 m (656 ft). The majority of GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS the catch of alewives and blueback herring was taken at sampling stations

where water depth was less than 100 -Growth Rates m (328 ft). Alewives and blueback herring collected ranged from 60 to Growth rates (L in mm, wt in g) 350 mm fork length (FL), and alewives of young-of-the-year blueback herring outnumbered blueback herring in the James River, Virginia, are approximately 10: 1 for all samples given below. Blueback herring combined. Statistical analysis deter- achieved a mean fork length of 35.6 that alewives were most mm and weight of 3.68 g by 15 9 mined November of their first year (Bur- age were collected (Marcy 1969). Age bidge 1974). Growth rates of 2 alewives and blueback herring in young-of-the-year blueback herring in Albemarle Sound, North Carolina, the Cape Fear River, North Carolina, reached 153 mm FL and 148 mm FL, were similar to those for the James respectively, by the end of their River population (Davis and Cheek third summer (Kornegay 1978). On 1966). Georges Bank, age 2 fish of both species reached approximately 180 mm Change in L Change in wt TL by the end of their third summer Period per day (mm) per day (g) (Netzel and Stanek 1966). Mid-June to mid-July 0.29 0.03 Lengths at age for sexually Mid-July to mature alewives and blueback herring mid-Aug. 0.12 0.01 are given in Table 1. In general, Mid-Aug. to alewives are longer than blueback mi d-Sept. 0.15 0.01 herring of the same age. Within each Mid-Sept.to species males are smaller than females mid-Oct. 0.29 0.05 of the same age, and growth rates for Mid-Oct. to both species level off after reaching mid-Nov. 0.32 0.05 sexual maturity (compared to growth rates of immature fish). Mean weights of spawning alewives in Damariscotta Lake, Maine, ranged from 153 g (5.4 Young-of- the-year alewives . ap- oz) (males) and 164 g (5.8 oz) parently grow faster than blueback (females) at age 3, to 325 g (1 1.5 oz) herring. In the Northeast Cape Fear (males) and 356 g (12.6 oz) (females) River, North Carolina, young alewives at age 7. One 8-year-old female reached a mean fork length of 44.0 weighed 455 g (16.0 oz) (Walton mm and 47.8 mm in August of 1964 1979). and 1965, respectiyely (Davis and Cheek 1966). Certainly some of the apparently faster growth of young Otolith and scale-aging tech- alewives is due to an earlier spawning niques for alewives and blueback her- period and therefore a longer growing ring from Albemarle Sound, North season. Growth of young alewives Carolina, agreed nearly 100% for age between hatching and fall emigration classes 0, 1, and 2, but consistency from nursery areas averaged 102 mm between methods decreased progres- TL in lower Chesapeake Bay (Joseph sively as fish age exceeded 3 years and Davis 1965), and 113 mm TL in (Kornegay 1978). The scale-aging the Connecticut River (Marcy 1969). technique tended to underestimate the Average length of juvenile emigrants, proportion of age 4 and 5 individuals sampled daily over three seasons and overestimate the proportion of age (1970-72) in Hamilton Reservoir, 6 and 7 individuals for both species. Rhode Island, ranged from 25 mm SL Growth rates backcalculated from to 88 mm SL (30 mm TL to 105 mm scales tended to be higher than those TL) (Rich kus 1975). backcalculated f rom otoliths. Regres- sions for prediction of fork length Little information is available on from scale and otolith measurements growth rates of these clupeids are available in Kornegay (1978). between age 0+ and the time of first spawning. Age 1 alewives reached Messieh (1977) gave von Berta- 147 mm TL by the end of their second lanffy growth equations for alewives summer in the Connecticut River and blueback herring in the St. John Estuary; however, only males of that River, New Brunswick, as follows: Table 1. Length (mm FL) at age (yr) for selected Atlantic coast spawning populations of alewives and blueback herring.

Length (mm FL) at age (yr) Locationa species/sexb 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

= Albemarle Sound, North Carolina (Pate 1974); CB = Chesapeake Bay (Joseph and Davis 1965); CR = Connecticut River (Marcy 1969); GB = Georges Bank (Netzel and Stanek 1966); DL = Damariscotta Lake, Maine (Wal ton 1979). b~/~= alewife males; A/F = alewife females; A/MF = alewife males and females; B/M = blueback herring males; B/F = blueback herring females.

'values in mm TL. plankton populations, resulted in the observed deterioration in the condition factor (Burbidge 1974).

THE FISHERY

Commercial Fisheries where MA is for male alewives, FA is for female alewives, MB is for male U. S. commercial landings of blueback herring, FB is for female river herring (both species combined) blueback herring, L = fork length along the Atlantic coast were 4,948 mt (mm) at time t in years, and e is the in 1980 and 3,754 mt in 1981. These base of natural logarithms. landings were worth $779,000 and $671,000, respectively. The current Also given were von Bertalanffy 5-year running average of river her- growth equation parameters and modi- ring landings (1977-81) by U. S. fied Walford plots for four separate fisheries was 5,003 mt/yr. More than areas in the St. John River drainage, 90% of the U. S. commercial catch where different spawning stocks were occurred within 4.8 km (3 mi) of the suspected. The equations given above coast (National Marine Fisheries Ser- are for all study areas combined, vice, NMFS, 1982). They are commer- since differences in growth parameters cially fished during spawning runs. among areas were small (Messieh Pound nets are the most commonly 1977) . used gear (Joseph and Davis 1965; Pate 1974). The majority of U. S. Length -Weight Relationships landings was used for fish meal and fish oil to be added to fertilizer, pet Length-weight relationships for food, and domestic animal feed. A alewives and blueback herring of the minor portion was used for fishing St. John River, New Brunswick, were bait, and the remainder was sold given in Messieh (1977) as follows: salted or fresh for human consump- tion. Roe from these species is canned and is highly valued (Joseph Male alewives logW=3 -235logL-5.420 and Davis 1965; Street and Davis Female alewives logW=3.192logL-5.294 1976; Merriner 1978). Male b lueback logW=2.9041ogL-4.702 Female blueback logW=2.4721ogL-3.693 The total foreign catch of river L=Fork length in mm, WzWeight in g herring within the U. S. Fishery Conservation Zone (FCZ) was 24.6 mt in 1980 and 13.9 mt in 1981. Cuba Condition factors (K) for took greater than 90% of the 1980 for- young-of-the-year blueback herring of eign landings, and Poland captured the James River, Virginia, averaged approximately 75% of the 1981 foreign 1.60, 1.68, 1.57, 1.37, 1.22, and 1.18 catch. All of the 1980 and 1981 for- for the months of June, July, August, eign landings were taken from the September, October, and November, North Atlantic region (north of Cape respectively (Burbidge 1974). It was Hatteras) (NNIFS 1982). hypothesized that a massive flood in the study area between August and In domestic commercial fisheries September may have reduced zoo- in Albemarle Sound, North Carolina, plankton availability which, in addition surveyed in 1972, age 4 and 5 fish to normal seasonal declines in zoo- represented 60% or more of the inshore catch of alewives and blueback history, biology, and management of herring (Pate 1974). Significant con- Virginia and North Carolina stocks of tributions also occurred from age 3, anadromous alewives and blueback 6 and 7 fish (at least 30% of total herring were reviewed by Rulifson I) catch) . Ratio of alewives to blueback and Huish (1982). In addition, recom- herring in the 1972 catch was 2:3, mendations for development of a man- and sex ratios within species were agement plan are presented and dis- near 1: 1. First - time spawners ac- cussed. counted for 50% and 57%, respectively, of the landings of blueback Recreational Fisheries herring and alewives. Historically, the Chowan River has been the most Recreational fishing for alewives important inshore fishing grounds in atid blueback herring is significant Albemarle Sound. Peak landings usu- during spring spawning runs in areas ally occur in late April, coinciding such as Delaware Bay, Chesapeake with the spawning runs of the more Bay, and Albemarle Sound (Pate common blueback herring in North 1974). The disposition of the catch, Carolina (Pate 1974). In the Potomac however, is not well documented. River, Maryland, the 1974 commercial Apparently, most of the recreational catch was dominated by alewives in catch serves as bait for other sport- March and early April, while blueback fish (NMFS 1980). The numbers and herring landings peaked in late April weights of the recreational catch for and May. The total ratio of alewives each species are unknown, because to blueback herring in the 1974 catch published surveys lump these two was 1:4 (Merriner 1978). species with men hadens, shads, other herrings, and sardines. The NMFS Total landings and catch per unit estimated that 6,169,000 total "her- effort in North Carolina and Virginia rings" were captured by Atlantic coast waters have declined substantially recreational fishermen in 1979. over the last decade since peaking in 1969 at 35,302 n?t (Street and Davis Population Dynamics 1976; Merriner 1978). The decline was due to offshore trawl fisheries, Sex ratios/age structure. On which did not begin operating until spawning runs, total sex ratios of 1967 (McCoy 1975). These fisheries adults are nearly 1:l in most areas. were not and are not size selective, Percentage of male alewives in the and 65% of the 1975 offshore trawl spawning populations of Bride Lake, landings of river herring consisted of Connecticut, was 55.6% (Kissil 1974), immature fish (Street and Davis 1976). compared to 53.8% and 53.0% for ale- In contrast, all inshore commercial wives and blueback herring in the catches historically were captured Connecticut and Thames Rivers (Marcy from sexually mature populations, 1969), and 58.0% in a later study on where escapement rates can be con- Thames River blueback herring trolled to prevent overexploitation (Loesch and Lund 1977). It has been (McCoy 1975). suggested that the slight dominance of males in spawning populations is due The State of Maine has developed to their earlier sexual maturity com- an Alewife Management Plan for ana- pared to that of females (Kissil 1974). dromous stocks within their State Sex ratios (% males) by age for 1966 jurisdiction (Walton et al. 1976). His- and 1967 spawning populations of ale- torical landings and management are wives from the Connecticut and reviewed and management recommenda- Thames Rivers, Connecticut, (data tions presented for the alewife runs of combined) were 72.3%, 63.7%, 49.7%, each coastal county. Aspects of life 33.8%, and 0.0% for fish of age 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, respectively. Ratios for 67% over the 6-year study period blueback herring were 80.0%, 79.4%, {Havey 1961). Results from these two 64.5%, 36.9%, and 22.6% for fish of studies in Maine and the study by age 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, respectively Kissil (1974) in Connecticut indicated (Ma rcy 1969). that juvenile production and adult freshwater mortality may vary consid- Life stage abundance/reproductive erably among spawning areas and and mortality rates. In Bride Lake, among different years in the same. Connecticut, an estimated 184,1!jJ spawning area. adult alewives spawned 2.05 x 10 eggs in 1966. Subsequently, 257,000 Methods of determining true juveniles were counted as they emi- spawning population size of alewives, grated during the summer and fall. by subsampling at various times This generated a total freshwater on fishways on the Parker River, mortality rate from egg stage to emi- Massachusetts, were investigated by gration of 99.9987%, and indicated that Rideout et al. (1979). Visual counts 2.88 juveniles left the lake for each during one 10-min period each hour adult female that spawned. Combined produced estimates (by computer pro- with repeat spawning proportions, this gram) with less than 5% error. Visual level of juvenile production seemed counts during one 5-min period each adequate for sustaining the spawning hour or one 10-min period each 1.5 population in Bride Lake (Kissil 1974). hours were significantly higher in Total freshwater mortality rate of magnitude of potential error (Rideout spawning adults in Bride Lake was et al. 1979). reported at 57.4% and 48.6%, in 1966 and 1967, respectively. Stock identification. Although Thunberg (1971) found that alewives Havey (1973) investigated juve- were capable of homing behavior nile production and adult mortality of through olfaction, Messieh (1977) con- the alewife population in Love Lake, cluded that considerable mixing Maine. The number of emigrants between presumed spawning stocks ranged from 220 to 439,062 fish over occurred on the spawning runs. an 11-year study period. Juvenile Though a majority of the alewives emigrants produced per female per exhibited homing, a substantial num- year varied from 12 to 3,209, and ber (by meristic comparisons) from biomass production of emigrants each presumed stock did not home ranged from 0.09 to 21.50 kg (0.2 to (Messieh 1977). 47.4 Ib) per female per year. Signif- icant linear relationships between Evidence for a nonlandlocked, juvenile emigrant abundance and non migratory, self-sustaining dwarf spawning population size 4 years population of alewives residing in the later, and between the log of female mouth of the Susquehanna River was escapement and the log of juvenile presented by Foerster and Goodbred emigrant abundance were found. (1978). Total adult freshwater mortality averaged 90.7% and ranged from 66% to 100% over the 11 -year-study period ECOLOGICAL ROLE (Havey 1973). Total annual mortality rates for anadromous alewives in Long Pond, Maine, were 78.6% between age Food Habits 5 and 6, and 74.4% between age 6 and

7 (Havey 1961). ' Freshwater post- Alewives and blueback herring spawning mortality for all age groups are primarily zooplanktivores, though averaged 41% and ranged from 32% to fish eggs, crustacean eggs, insects and insect eggs, and small fishes may be important foods in some areas or not extensive .because of the broader for larger individuals (Bigelow and range of foods chosen by shad (Davis Sch roeder 1953). Larvae begin feeding and Cheek 1966). on zooplankton immediately upon formation of a functional mouth (about 6 Few direct studies have been mm TL), concentrating on the rela- devoted to food habits of anadromous tively small cladocerans and copepods, adult alewives and blueback herring. and adding larger species of these In general, they are zooplanktivores, groups to the diet as their mouths can with the size range and diversity of

, accommodate them (Norden 1968; Nigro available prey increasing as the fish and Ney 1982). grow and can accommodate larger items. Considerable piscivority may Stomachs from young-of-the-year develop in landlocked populations blueback herring collected in the (Kohler and Ney 1981). James River, Virginia, contained primarily (by volume) Bosmina spp., Feeding Behavior copepod nauplii, copepodites, and the ad'ult copepods ~urytbmoraaffinis and Alewives and blueback herring Cvclows vernalis. Dia~hanosoma bra- feed in schools of varying size, most chyurum and ~anthodam~tusrobert- extensively during daylight. At cokeri were also minor food items, but night, schools disperse, and feeding were not utilized during all seasons activity is negligible or casual, and (Bu rbidge 1974). Electivity (Ivlev probably by filter feeding (Bu rbidge 1961 ) was strongest for adult cope- 1974; Janssen 1978). Peak stomach pods; neutral for Bosmina spp., cope- fullness occurred at 6 PM and peak podites, and D. brachyurum; and stomach emptiness occurred at 7 AM in strongly negative f~~copepodnauplii. blueback herring from the James Daily ration for young-of -the-year River, Virginia (Burbidge 1974). In ranged from 438 9-cal per fish per addition, young-of-the-year blueback day in July and August to 215 9-cal herring fed more actively near the per fish per day in October and surface tnan at 5 m (16 ft) depth, November (Burbidge 1974). even though high densities were present at both depths (Burbidge 1974). Young-of-the-year alewives in Hamilton Reservoir, Rhode Island, In laboratory tests (Janssen consumed primarily chironomid midges 1976), alewives exhibited three feed- during July, switching to cladocerans ing modes: (1) particulate feeding on in August and September (Vigerstad individual prey, (2) filter feeding and Cobb 1978). Davis and Cheek with mouth agape and rapid swimming (1966) compared the food habits of bursts, and (3) gulping several prey young-of-the-year alewives and blue- at once but not swimming at the rapid back herring in the Cape Fear River, speed used in the filter-feeding mode. North Carolina. Blueback herring Size selectivity of prey items was selected copepods and dipteran larvae highest in mode (I), moderate in mode more frequently (by percent of stom- (3),and negligible in mode (2). Adult achs containing items) than did ale- Lake Michigan alewives and a major wives, while alewives consumed more food organism, Mysis relicta, exhibited ostracods, insect eggs, and insect coincidental, crepuscular vertical parts than did blueback herring. migrations, from daytime residence Crustacean eggs in the diets were near the bottom to just below the similarly common (>80°0 of stomachs) thermocline at night (Janssen and for both clupeids. Overlap of either Brandt 1980). Such a die1 vertical diet with that of young-of-the-year migration, though probably not in American shad Alosa sapidissima was relation to a thermocline, may occur in anadromous populations residing in Temperature estuaries or marine coastal habitats. The effects of incubation temper- Competitors ature on alewife eggs from Lake Mich- igan were studied by Edsall (1970). Little study has been devoted to At least some eggs hatched at test competitive interactions of anadromous temperatures between 7' and 29.5 ' C alewives or blueback herring. (44.6' and 85.1 OF). Optimum incuba- Because of general similarities in diet tion temperature for hatching was 18' and feeding behavior, some competi- C (64' F); 38% hatch was observed. tion for food likely occurs between the Egg mortality over the first 36 hr two species. Loesch et al. (1982a) ranged from 22% at temperatures described a spatial separation between between 3.5' and 6.0°C (38' and 43' young alewives and blueback herring F) to 66% at temperatures between in the same habitat, which may lead to 25.5' and 28.5OC (78' and 83OF). Egg reduced competition for food, at least mortality rate was directly correlated among juveniles. to incubation temperature (Edsall 1970) . An upper lethal temperature Predators of 29.7 ' C (85' F) was reported for alewife eggs from the Hudson River, Alewives and blueback herring New York (Kellogg 1982). Maximum are highly utilized forage species for percentage hatch occurred at 20.8'C many riverine, estuarine, and marine (69 " F), and at least some eggs piscivores, including airborne preda- hatched at test temperatu res between tors such as gulls and terns (Com- 12.7' and 26.7'C (55' and 80°F). monwealth of Massachusetts 19761.

Bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix).-, weak- Blueback herring eggs collected fish (Cynoscion regalis), and striped from the Washademoak River, New bass (Morone saxatilis) are predators Brunswick, Canada, were subjected to of these clupeids. Pelagic, schooling time-temperatu re regimes experienced predators such as these are more in a powerplant cooling system (Koo likely to use schooling clupeids for and Johnston 1978). Compared to forage compared to a solitary predator larval deformity rate, egg mortality (Cooper 1961 ; Tyus 1974). and hatchability were not good indica- tors of the effects of temperature change. Deformity rate of larvae, ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS acclimated at 19'C (66OF) and exposed to a 10°C (18'F) increase in temperature for 5 to 180 min, varied from Some research has been con- 0 to 25% (control 0-5%). Deformity ducted to delineate the specific envi- rate increased to 100% under the same ronmental requirements of anadromous conditions except with a 15'C (27'F) alewife and blueback herring. Much of temperature elevation. Deformities the available information was derived ranged from minor curvature of the from tests on landlocked populations spine to complete lack of normal larval (particularly Lake Michigan alewives). form or behavior. Deformities were Applicability of environmental require- permanent and would not have allowed ment data for landlocked populations such larvae to survive in natural to anadromous populations is environments (Koo and Johnston unknown. Since data from landlocked 1978) . populations are major sources of information on environmental require- Edsall (1970) reported two ments, they are presented but should aspects of temperature effects on be interpreted with caution. larval alewives from Lake Michigan. 0+ and 1') collected from the Delaware Survival time of unfed larvae was 3.8 River, New Jersey, ranged from 20' days at 10.5'C (51' F), 7.6 days at to 22OC (68" to 71' F) at salinities of 4 14.5' to 15OC (58' to 5g°F), and 2.4 to 6 ppt and acclimation temperatures b days at 26.5'to 28'C (80 ' to 82' F) . from 15' to 21°C (59" to 70°F) (Mel- A functional jaw did not develop in drim and Gift 1971). Davis and fish from eggs/larvae held at or below Cheek (1966) captured juvenile blue- 10°C (50°F), even though some eggs back herring in the Cape Fear River hatched at such temperatures. Kel- seasonally in areas where water tem- logg (1982) reported an upper temperatures ranged from 11.5' to 32'C perature tolerance of 31' C (88' F) for (53' to 89'F). Juvenile alewives in the alewife larvae from the Hudson River, same watershed were captured at tem- New York, acclimated to 14'C (57'F). peratures between 13.5 ' and 29'C (56O Average daily gain in larval weight and 84'F). was directly proportional to water temperature; higher growth occurred School formation patterns and at higher temperatures. A maximum daily rhythms of adult Lake Michigan larval growth rate of 0.084 g/day alewives were affected by changes in occurred at 29.1°C (84'F), while max- temperature in Iaboratory tanks imum net gain in biomass (a function (Colby 1971 ) . As water temperature of both survival and growth) occurred dropped below 6.7' C (44' F) , normal at 26.4'C (79.5'F) (Kellogg 1982). feeding behavior was disrupted and cruising speed of schooling fish Young-of-the-year alewives (19 to decreased. Below 4.5'C (40' F), nor- 31 mm TL) from the Hudson River, mal schooling behavior was signifi- New York, preferred a water tempera- cantly affected. At temperatures ture of 26.3'C (79'F) when given a between 2.0' and 2.8'C (35.5' and 37O choice in a controlled thermal gradient F) , alewives lost orientation, swam (Kellogg 1982). Young-of-the-year into the sides of the test chamber, alewives from Lake Michigan exhibited and ceased feeding and schooling. critical thermal maxima (CTM is the mean of temperatures at which experi- In cold shock tests with adult mental fish lose equilibrium) of 28.3'C alewives from Lake Michigan, transfers (83OF), 32.7'C (91 OF), and 34.4'C to test temperatures less than 3 ' C (94' F) at acclimation temperatures of (37.4 ' F) caused 100% mortality ll°C (52'F), 19'C (66'F), and 25OC regardless of original acclimation tem- (77 ' F), respectively (Otto et al. peratures (Otto et al. 1976). Magni- 1976). The equation for predicting tude of temperatu re-decrease tolerated CTM from acclimation telnperatu re was : increased gradually with increasing acclimation temperature. At least

C-TM = 21.9 + 0.5(TA) r2= 0.96 some alewives survived a temperatu re decrease of 10 C (18 O F), indepen- where TA = acclimation temperature in dently of acclimation temperature, as degrees Celsius. long as the total test temperature did not drop below 3OC (37.4OF) (Otto et Otto et al. (1976) also reported that al. 1976). C-TM values were 3' to 6'C (5.4'to 10.8OF) higher for young-of-the-year Stanley and Colby (1971) investi- alewives than for adults when tested gated electrolyte balance and osmoreg- at the same acclimation temperatures. ulation of Lake Michigan alewives in relation to temperature change. In Iaboratory tests, preferred Transfers of fish acclimated at warm (selected) temperatures of juvenile temperatures to cold temperatures alewives and blueback herring (ages caused levels of Na+, K+, and Ca++ in 1 blood and muscle to move towards an Young-of-the-year alewives and equilibrium with salinity of the accli- blueback herring from the Cape Fear mation environment (increased body River system, North Carolina, select- concentrations in salt water, ed areas where free carbon dioxide decreased body concentrations in ranged from 4 to 22 ppm, alkalinity freshwater). Apparently, the test fish from 5 to 32 pprn, dissolved oxygen temporarily lost the ability to os- from 2.4 to 10.0 pprn, and pH from moregulate upon exposure to cold, 5.2 to 6.8 (Davis and Cheek 1966). independently of the salinity of the test environment. In an experiment designed to test Salinity 'the effects of suspended sediments on hatching of alewife eggs (Schubel and Though little direct information Wang 1973), a naturally occurring exists, anadromous alewives and blue- fungus in the sediment infected all back are apparently highly tolerant of test eggs prior to hatching, and ter- salinity changes (Cooper 1961; Chit- minated the experiment. Although the tenden 1972). No mortality of adult extent of infection may have been blueback herring from either gradual enhanced by laboratory conditions, or abrupt changes in salinity, includ- the attempt indicated that high levels ing direct transfers from fresh to salt of suspended sediment during or after water and the reciprocal, was spawning may significantly increase observed by Chittenden (1972). infection rates of eggs from naturally Blood and muscle concentrations of the occurring fungi in sediments (Schubel electrolytes Na+, K+, and Ca++ were and Wang 1973). Auld and Schubel similar in fish held in sea water and (1978), however, found that sus- freshwater of the same temperature, pended sediments in concentrations of indicating that after a period of accli-- 100 pprn or less had no significant mation, alewives were efficient os- effect on hatchability of alewife or' moregulators in either environment blueback herring eggs. (Stanley and Colby 1971).

Other Environmental Factors The influence of certain environmental variables associated with pas- Location of appropriate spawning sage of migratory adult alewives sites and substrates is important not through (around) hydrological obsta- orlly to the perpetuation of each spe- cles has been investigated. Blood lac- cies but also for natural "reproductive tic acid concentrations, measured in segregation" between two otherwise alewives moving through a pool-and- very similar species. Blueback her- weir fishway, were representative of ring prefer spawning sites with strong moderate activity and energy expendi- currents and associated hard sub- ture (Dominy 1971, 1973). Mean lev- strates (Loesch and Lund 1977). els of blood lactic acid in alewives They are relatively specialized com- passing through the fishway were less pared to alewives, which use a wide than half the levels found for heavily variety of spawning sites, from stand- exercised fish in the laboratory. Rest ing river water, oxbows, coastal pools along the course of the fishway ponds, and tiny streams to fast- allowed blood lactic acid. levels to drop water, mid-river sites. Therefore, to levels comparable with those for changes in water currents or sub- alewives in a rested state in the labo- strates in spawning rivers used by ratory. blueback herring may affect that species more than the alewife, because of the more specific spawning site Upstream migratory patterns of requirements of blueback herring. adult alewives through a Rhode Island river fishway were harmonic with rine for blueback herring eggs ranged diurnal periodicity. Periodicity was from 0.20 to 0.32 ppm. Larvae from correlated with magnitude of incident eggs exposed to sublethal concentra- radiation (Saila et al. 1972). tions of total residual chlorine were all () E2:kus (1974a) corroborated this deformed (Morgan and Prince 1977). light-dependent migratory activity; he Concentrations of kepone greater than also observed that within activity pat- 0.3 ppm (termed the "action level" for terns determined by light intensity, possible closure of a fishery) were changes in water temperature strongly found in body tissues of young-of- influenced specific timing of alewife the-year alewives and blueback her- upstream movement. Juvenile down- ring collected from the James and stream emigration from Hamilton Res- Chickahominy Rivers, Virginia (John- ervoir, Rhode Island, during summer son et al. 1978; Loesch et al. and fall was inhibited by the bright 1982b). Kepone was also present in sunlight-bridge shade interface pres- young alewives and blueback herring ent at a road bridge on the lower end from the Mattaponi and Pamunkey Riv- of the reservoir. Higher emigration ers, Virginia (in concentrations less rates under this bridge were observed than 0.3 ppm), but was not present on cloudy days (Richkus 1974a). in detectable quantities in fish from the Rappahannock River, Virginia, Environmental Contaminants and the Potomac River, Maryland (Loesch et al. 1982b). The LC50 of total residual chlo- LITERATURE CI1-ED

Auld, A. H., and J. R. Schubel. Wildl. Serv. Fish. Bull. 73: 1978. Effects of suspended sedi- 373-396. ment on fish eggs and larvae: a laboratory assessment. Estuarine Commonwealth of Nlassachusetts. 1976. Coastal Mar. Sci. 6: 153-164. Anadromous fish of Massachu- setts. Mass. Dep. Fish., Berry, F. H. 1964. Review and emen- Wildl., and Recreational Vehicles, dation of family Clupeidae. Cop- Div. Mar. Fish. Proj. Rep. No. eia 1964: 720-730. AFCS-14-1, Public information pamphlet. 20 pp. Bigelow, H. B., and W. C. Schroe- der. 1953. Fishes of the Gulf of Cooper, R. A. 1961. Early life history Maine. U. S. Fish Wildl. Serv. and spawning migration of the Fish. Bull. No. 74. 577 pp. alewife. M. S. Thesis. Univer- sity of Rhode Island, Kingston. Bigelow, H. B., and W. W. Welsh. 58 PP. 1925. Fishes of the Gulf of Maine. U. S. Bur. Fish. Bull. Davis, J. R., and R. P. Cheek. 1966. No. 40. 567 pp. Distribution, food habits and growth of young clupeids, Cape Burbidge, R. G. 1974. Distribution, Fear River system, North Caro- growth, selective feeding and lina. Paper presented at Annu. energy transformations of Meet. South. Div. Am. Fish. young-of -the-year blueback her- Soc., Asheville, N. C., 1966. 20 ring in the James River, Vir- PP ginia. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 103: 297-311. Dominy, C. L. 1971. Changes in blood lactic acid concentrations in ale- Chambers, J. R., J. A. Musick, and wives during passage through a J. Davis. 1976. Methods of dis- pool-and-weir fishway. J. Fish. tinguishing larval alewife from Res. Board Can. 28: 1215-1217. larval 'blueback herring. Chesa- peake Sci. 17: 93-100. Dominy, C. L. 1973. Effect of entrance pool weir elevation and Chittenden, M. E. 1972. Salinity tol- fish density on passage of ale- erance of young blueback her- wives in a pool-and-weir fishway. ring. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 102: 101: 123-125. 398-404.

Cianci, J. M. 1969. Larval develop- Dovel, W. L. 1971. Fish eggs and lar- ment of the alewife and the glut vae of the upper Chesapeake herring. M. S. Thesis. Univer- Bay. Univ. Maryland, Nat. sity of Connecticut, Storrs. 62 Resour. Inst. Spec. Rep. No. 4. PP. 71 PP.

Colby, P. J. 1971. Alewife dieoffs: Edsall, T. A. 1964. Feeding by three why do they occur? Lirnnos 4(2) : species of fishes on the eggs of 18-27. spawning alewives. Copeia 1964: 226-227. Collins, G. B. 1952. Factors influencing the orientation of migrating Edsall, T. A. 1970. The effect of anadromous fishes. U. S. Fish temperature on the rate of development and survival of ale- Janssen, J., and S. B. Brandt. 1980. wife eggs and larvae. Trans. Feeding' ecology and vertical Am. Fish. Soc. 99: 376-380. migration of adult alewives in CI Lake Michigan. Can. J. Fish. Edsall, T. A., and M. I. Saxon. Aquat. Sci. 37: 177-184. 1968. Two hermaphroditic alewives from Lake Michigan. Copeia Johnson, H. B., D. W. Crocker, B. 1968: 406-407. F. Holland, Jr., J. W. Gilliken, D. W. Taylor, M. W. Street, J. Foerster, J. W., and S. L. Goodbred. G. Loesch, W. H. Kriete, Jr., 1978. Evidence for a resident and J. G. 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Family Clu- Sci. Spec. Sci. Rep. No. 51. peidae. Pages 257-385, 397-442, 23 PP. and 452-454 in Fishes of the western ~orth- Atlantic. Sears Kellogg, R. L. 1982. Temperature Found. Mar. Res. Mem. l(3). requirements for the survival and early development of the anadromous alewife. Prog. Fish-Cult. Hlavek, R. R., and C. R. Norden. 44: 63-73. 1977. Two hermaphroditic freshwater alewives from southern Kissil, G. W. 1969. Contribution to Lake Michigan. Prog. Fish-Cult. the life history of the alewife, 39(2) : 104-105. Alosa pseudoharengus, in Con- necticut. Ph. D. Thesis. Univer- Ivlev, V. S. 1961. Experimental ecol- sity of Connecticut, Noank. 11 ogy of the feeding of fishes. Yale PP. University Press, New Haven, Conn. 302 pp. Kissil, G. W. 1974. Spawning of the anadromous alewife in Bride Janssen, J. 1976. Feeding modes and Lake, Connecticut. Trans. Am. prey size selection in the alewife. Fish. Soc. 103: 312-317. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33: 1972-1975. Kohler, C. C., and J. J. Ney. 1981. Consequences of an alewife dieoff Janssen, J. 1978. Will alewives feed in to fish and zooplankton in a res- the dark? Environ. Biol. Fishes ervoir. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 3: 239-240. 110 : 360-369. Koo, T. S. Y., and M. L. Johnston. Loesch, J. G., W. H. Kriete, Jr., 1978. Larval deformity in striped and E. J. Foell. 1982a. Effects of bass and blueback herring due to light intensity on the catchabilit) heat shock treatment of develop- of juvenile Alosa species. Trans. ing eggs. Environ. Pollut. 16: Am. Fish. Soc. 111: 41-44. 137-149. Loesch, J. G., R. J. Hugget, and E. Kornegay, J. W. 1978. Comparison of J. Foell. 1982b. Kepone concen- aging methods for alewife and tration in juvenile anad romous blueback herring. N. C. Dep. fishes. Estuaries 5(3): 175-181. Nat. Resour., Div. Mar. Fish. Spec. Sci. Rep. No. 30. 51 pp. MacLellan, P., G. E. Newsome, and P. A. Dill. 1981. Discrimination Kuntz, A., and L. Radcliffe. 1917. by external features between ale- Notes on the embryology and lar- wife and blueback herring. Can. val development of twelve teleos- J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 38: tean fishes. U. S. Bur. Fish. 544- 546. Bull. No. 35. 134 pp. Mansueti, R. J. 1956. Alewife herring Leggett, W. C. G., and R. R. Whit- eggs and larvae reared success- ney. 1972. Water temperature and fully in lab. Nlaryland Tidewa- the migrations of the American ter News 13(1): 2-3. shad. U. S. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv. Fish. Bull. No. 70. 670 Mansueti, R. J. 1962. Eggs, larvae PP. and young of the hickory shad, with comments on its ecology in Leim, A. H., and W. B. Scott. 1966. the estuary. Chesapeake Sci. 3: Fishes of the Atlantic coast of 173-205. Canada. Fish. Res. Board Can. Bull. No. 155. 485 pp. Marcy, B. C., Jr. 1969. Age determination from scales of --Alosa pseu- Loesch, J. G. 1968. A contribution to doharengus and Alosa aestivalis the life history of --Alosa aesti- in Connecticut waters. Trans. valis. M. S. Thesis. University Am. Fish. Soc. 98: 621-630. of Connecticut, Storrs. 31 pp. McCoy, E. G. 1975. Statement of Loesch, J. G. 1969. A study of the North Carolina Division of Marine blueback herring in Connecticut Fisheries concerning river her- waters. Ph.D. Thesis. University ring. Rep. N. C. Dep. Nat. of ~onnecticut, Storrs. 78 pp. Econ. Resour. 5 pp.

Loesch, J. G. 1981. Weight relation McKenzie, J. A. 1973. Comparative between paired ovaries of blue- electrophoresis of tissues from back herring. Prog. Fish-Cult. blueback herring and gaspareau. 43(2): 77-79. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 448: 65-68. Loesch, J. G., and W. A. Lund. 1977. A contribution to the life McKenzie, J. A. 1975. Retina-specific history of the blueback herring. LDH isozyme in blueback herring Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 106: and alewife. Anim. Blood Groups 583 - 589 . Biochem. Genet. 6: 245-247. Meldrim, J. W., and J. J. Gift. 1971. back and. alewife from Georges Temperature preference, avoid- Bank, July and October, 1964. ance and shock experiments with ICNAF Res. Bull. No. 3, 1966. I( estuarine fishes. Ichthyol. Assoc. 5 PP. Bull. No. 7. 75 pp. Neves, R. J. 1981. Offshore distribu- Merriner, J. V. 1978. Anadromous tion of alewife and blueback her- fishes of the Potomac Estuary. ring along the Atlantic coast. U.S. Va. Inst. Mar. Sci. Contrib. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv. Fish. No. 696, Gloucester Point. 4 pp. Bull. 79: 473-485.

Messieh, S. N. 1977. Population Nigro, A. A., and J. J. Ney. 1982. Reproduction and early-life structure and biology of alewives and blueback herring in the Saint accommodations of landlocked alewives to a southern range exten- John River, New Brunswick. sion. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. Environ. Biol. Fishes 2(3): 195-210. 111: 559-569.

Milstein, C. B. 1981. Abundance and Norden, C. R. 1967. Development and identification of the larval alewife distribution of juvenile Alosa in Lake Michigan. Proc. 10th species off southern New Jersey. Conf Great Lakes Res. : 70-78. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 110: . 306-309. Norden, C. R. 1968. Morphology and food habits of the larval alewife Morgan, R. P., 11, and R. D. Prince. in Lake Michigan. Proc. 11th 1976. Chlorine toxicity to estua- Conf. Great Lakes Res.: 103-110. rine fish eggs and larvae. Ches- apeake Biol. Lab. Univ. Maryland O'Neill, J. T. 1980. Aspects of the Cent. Environ. Estuarine Stud. life histories of anadromous ale- Ref. No. 76-116 CBL. 122 pp. wife and the blueback herring, Margaree River and Lake Ainsle, Morgan, R. P., 11, and R. D. Prince. Nova Scotia, 1978-1979. M. S. 1977. Chlorine toxicity to eggs Thesis. Acadia University, Wolf- and larvae of five Chesapeake ville, Nova Scotia, Canada. 306 Bay fishes. Trans. Am. Fish. PP SOC. 106: 380-385. Otto, R. G., M. A. ~itchcel, and J. National Marine Fisheries Service 0. Rice. 1976. Lethal and pre- (NMFS) . 1980. Marine recreational ferred temperatures of the alewife fishery statistics survey, Atlantic in Lake Michigan. Trans. Am. and gulf coasts, 1979. U. S. Fish. Soc. 105: 96-106. Dep. Comm. Current Fisheries Statistics No. 8063. 139 pp. Pate, P. P. 1974. Age and size com- position of commercial catches of National Marine Fisheries Service blueback herring in Albemarle (NMFS). 1982. Fisheries of the Sound, North Carolina, and its United States, 1981. U. S. Dep. tributaries. Rep. N. C. De~l. Comm. Current Fisheries Statis- Nat. Econ. Resour., Div. Com- tics No. 8200. 131 pp. mercial Sport Fish. 10 pp.

Netzel, J., and E. Stanek. 1966. Some Price, W. S. 1978. Otolith comparison biological characteristics of blue- of -Alosa pseudoharengus and Alosa aestivalis. Can. J. Zool. Schubel, J. R., and J. C. S. Wang. 56: 1216-1218. 1973. The effects of suspended sediments on the hatching suc- Raney, E. C., and W. H. Massmann. cess of yellow perch, white 1953. The fishes of the tidewater perch, striped bass and alewife section of the Pamunkey River, eggs. lchthyol. Assoc. Spec. Virginia. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. Rep. No. 30, Ref. 73-3. 77 pp. 43(12): 424-432. Scott, W. B., and E. J. Cr-ossman. Richkus, W. A. 1974a. Factors influ- 1973. Freshwater fishes of Can- encing the seasonal and daily ada. Fish. Res. Board Can. patterns of alewife migration in a Bull. No. 184. 966 pp. Rhode Island River. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 31: 1485-1497. Smith, B. A. 1971. The fishes of four low salinity tidal tributaries of Richkus, W. A. 1974b. Influence of the Delaware River Estuary. M.S. environmental variables on the Thesis. Cornell University, migratory behavior of adult and Ithaca, N. Y. 304 pp. juvenile alewives. Ph. D. Thesis. University of Rhode Island, Stanley, J. G., and P. J. Colby. Kingston. 225 pp. 1971. Effects of temperature on electrolyte balance and osmoregu- Richkus, W. A. 1975. Migratory lation in the alewife in fresh and behavior and growth of juvenile sea water. Trans. Am. Fish. anadromous alewives in a Rhode SOC. 100: 624-638. Island drainage. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 104: 483-493. Street, M. W. 1969. Fecundity of the blueback herring in Georgia. Ga. Richkus, W. A., and H. E. Winn. Game Fish Comm. Mar. Fish. 1979. Activity cycles of adult and Div., Contrib. Ser. 17. 15 pp. juvenile alewives, recorded by two methods. Trans. Am. Fish. Street, M. W., and J. Davis. 1976. SOC. 108: 358-365. Notes on the river herring fishery of SA6. ICNAF Res. Doc. Rideout, S. G., J. E. Johnson, and 76/V1/61. 7 pp. C. F. Cole. 1979. Periodic counts for estimating the size of the Thunberg, B. E. 1971. Olfaction in spawning population of alewives. parent stream selection by the Estuaries 2: 119- 123. alewife. Anim. Behav. 19: 217-225. Rulifson, R. A., and NI. T. Huish. 1982. Anadromous fish in the Tyus, H. M. 1971. Population size, Southeastern United States and harvest and movements of ale- recommendations for development wives during spawning migrations of a management plan. U. S. to Lake Mattamuskeet, North Fish Wildl. Serv., Region 4, Carolina. Ph. D. Thesis. North Atlanta, Ga. 525 pp. Carolina State University, Raleigh . aila, S. B., T. T. Polgar, D. J. Sheehy, and J. M. Flowers. Tyus, H. M. 1974. Movements and 1972. Correlations between alewife spawning of anadromous alewives activity and environmental vari- at Lake Mattamus keet, North ables at a fishway. Trans. Am. Carolina. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. Fish. Soc. 101: 583-594. 103: 392-396. Vigerstad, T. J., and J. S. Cobb. Res. Job Compl. Rep. No. 1978. Effects of predation by AFSC-13/FWAC-2. 37 pp. sea-run juvenile alewives on the I) zooplankton community at Hamil- Warinner, J. E., J. P. Miller, and J. ton Reservoir, Rhode Island. Davis. 1969. Distribution of juve- Estuaries l(1) : 36-45. nile river herring in the Potomac River. Proc. Annu. Conf. South- Walton, C. J. 1979. Growth of Alosa east. Assoc. Game Fish Comm. pseudoharengus from two Maine 23: 384-388. watersheds. Maine Dep. Mar. Resour. Res. Ref. Doc. No. Winters, G. H., J. A. Moores, and R. 79/23. 75 pp. Chaul k. 1973. Northern range extension and probable spawning Walton, C. J., M. E. Smith, and D. of gaspareau in the Newfoundland B. Sampson. 1976. Alewife man- area. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. agement plan. Maine Dep. IWar. 30: 860-861. 50272 -101 13. Recipient's Accession No. [ REPORT DOCUMENTATION i 1. REPORT NO. 1 2. PAGE i FWS/OI?S-82/11.p I --- I 4. Tflle and Subt~tle I 5. Report Date Species Profiles: Life Histories and Enviror~mentalRequirements ot October 1983 Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (Mid-Atlantic) -- Alewife/Blue- &- ba~kHerring - ___ 7. Author(s) 18. Performing Organlzat~onRept. No. /-chard J. Never, and Garland B. Pardue I). Performing Organization Name and Address 1 10. Pr0lectlTask:Work Unit No.-4 Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 11. Contract(C) or GrantCG) No. Blacksburg, VA 24061

C - --- 12. Sponsorng Drganizaton ame and Addre. 13. Type of Report 8. Period Covevd ~at~onai~oastai 'fcosystemsS~eam U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station 1I I U.S. Department of the Interior P.O. BOX 631. DC 20240 Vicksburg, MS 39180

15. Supplementary Notes * U.S. Army Corps of Engineers report No. TR EL-82-4. I 16. Abstract (Llmlt 200 words) Species profiles are Ii teratUG~~s~FeTaXonOmyTmorpho I ogy, range, life history, and environmental requirements of coastal aquatic species. They are prepared to assist in impact assessment. The alewife and blueback herring, Alosa pseudoharengus and Alosa aestivalis, are important species in estuarine and marine ecosystems as 1 inks between the zooplankton they consume and top piscivores. Both anadromous and landlocked populations exist. Some individuals mature by age 3, and all mature by age 5. Repea spawning is common. Spawning environments range from streams only a few centimeters deep to large rivers. Alewives will also spawn in ponds with an open connection to the sea. Blue- back herring prefer spawning sites with fast currents and associated hard substrates, while alewives select a wider variety of sites, from standing water and oxbows to mid-river areas. Spawning occurs from April to July in the mid-Atlantic region; the onset and peak of alewife spawning precede those of blueback herrinq by 2 to 3 weeks. Larvae and juveniles remain in or near areas spawned before emigrating (as juveniies) to coastal areas between June and November of their first year. Emigration is apparently triggered by heavy runoff from rain and/or sharp decreases in water temperature. Adults overwinter offshore to depths of at least 110 m. Nantucket Shoals, Georges Bank, and the Gulf of Maine are important overwinter ing grounds. Commercial and 1imited recreational fisheries for these species occur; total U.S. landings in 1981 were 3,754 mt, while foreign landings were 13.9 mt. Some eggs can hatch at water temperatures between 7" and 29.5"C, but temperatures above 29.7"C are lethal. Larvae need temperatures greater than 10°C for proper development ; upper 1ethal temperature ------17. Document Analysrs a Descrnptors 1 S~TT~- Rivevs Growth Anadromous Feeding Estuaries 1 Fish

b. IdentillerslOpen-Ended Terms 1 Alewife Temperature requi remen t A1 osa pseudoharengus Salinity requirements I-Bl ueback herrinq Spawning Alosa aestival i< c. COSATL FieldlGroup

- -. -__j_._ ~ ~ - p~ 13 iwailabllity Statement 1 19. Security Class (This Report) 21. No. of Pages

1 -----Unclassified -4 ' 25 - -- Unl imited I 20. Securnty Class (This Page) 22. Prlce Unclassified I (See ANSI-239.18) OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-77) (Formerly NTIS-35) Department of Commerce REGION 1 REGION 2 REGION 3 Regional Director Regional Director Regional Director U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Lloyd Five Hundred Building, Suite 1692 P.O. Box 1306 Federal Building, Fort Snelling 500 N.E. Multnornah Street Albuquerque, New Mexico 87 103 Twin Cities, Minnesota 55 1 1 1 Portland, Oregon 97232

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