01 01 2019 128 seconda serie ri-vista Environmental protection, Rights of Nature, SalardeAtacama,Environmental protection, Extractivism. RightsofNature, Keywords tra humanlivingbeingsunited inlife aroundtheSalardeAtacama. crossspecieskinshipandex is inclusiveofwayslivingtheindigenouspopulation,expanded which space andaseriesofprotocols thatallowtheshiftfromprotection to environmental care, pocentric models of environmental protection born in the Western world. It designs the political The studyproposesto define amodelof ‘protection’ region thattranscendfor this theanthro practices oftheextractive ontheland. presence andtool thescaleand to to resize becomeanopportunity protection cangobeyondconservation howenvironmental Through thecasestudyofSalardeAtacama, thisworkexplores Chile, Abstract A case for the Rights of Nature The salt flat that protects itself. DOI: 10.13128/rv-7018 -www.fupress.net/index.php/ri-vista/ under theterms oftheCC-BY-4.0 Licence Press. University for andpublishedbyFirenze metadata: CC0 1.0 |©2019 /Accepted:Received: July2019 May2019 Author(s). OpenAccess issue/article(s) edited byQULSO, distributed Environmental 2017|2019, Architecture Royal College UK ofArt, Vanessa Lastrucci [email protected] - - Lastrucci 129 - - has re 2 : the rep- 3 . 1 vealed similar problems of uncontrolled urbanisa- of uncontrolled similar problems vealed services of necessity tion, commodification and the of naturereproducing and culture; effectively of exploitation Despite of extraction. same forms communi- the to brings it benefits that many the ties, it adds further pressure on the social and natu- 1). (fig. particularly water eco-systems, ral areMining and tourism entities of global scale, that relationterritorya the to form the occupies that driv- the needs of the industry, land and shapes it to the dominant in- towards ing the transformations of development. current the of pace dustrial idea At exploitation, these industries are sus not able to are and unsuitable land the on presence their tain form- and potential fit within the land to resilience ative cycles. humans with plants, animals, waters, Moreover, beings more-than-human other and mountains specific to relationships that describe how weave 2), the up- volcanos (fig. the Ancestors approach perworld future and the underworld past In the last 20 years the increase of tourism the increase years In the last 20 resentation of society is in the territory. Copper and Lithium mining are and - substan the most Copper depletion related to tial cause of environmental it is the cause scarcity; and water also, mining waste and services town of workforces from of migration mining camps to small villages to ------
This work is an excerpt- un an work is This of the individual research of years of 4 of the first the conclusion as dertaken - with Environ research and individual both collective of Art,on College Architecturemental at the Royal prin- The de Atacama. the case study of the Salar address to aim the practice ciples of the research re an environment question on what constitutes Introduction defining the understanding of landscape through of landscape through defining the understanding under and multi-perspectivism multi-scalarism, represented world-views. The methodology- com in relation analysis of the tensions bines proxy data Desert on glob in the Atacama lithium extraction to - as well as materi scales, and local (micro) al (macro) in the field. collected al evidence of peculiar climat is an area de Atacama The Salar and extremeic conditions of eco-systems, fragility forc by driven exploitation mining where lithium collides at global scales of abstraction es operating under land claims and with an with indigenous more a broader, which considers of place standing - on living beings. In this com inclusive perspective forc plex of human and extra-human constellation ter classic its in environment such categorising es, minology and ‘ecology’ recalling ‘nature’ would be reductive.fundamentally 01 01 2019 130 seconda serie ri-vista In this complex landscapeofreciprocity In thiscomplex acama through the disputes that are pressing with acama through with pressing thedisputes thatare embodied in the environments of the Salar de At clusions, perpetrating the same forms of violence duction of yet another layer of restrictions and ex formscurrent itsignifiesthe intro isproblematic: - However applyingenvironmental protection in its transformations ontheenvironments oftheSalar. theircontrolvert overtheirplanned or unpredicted of operation practices, oftheexploitative andsub ofpower fine thestructures generated bythemodes toof ecologies: rede itisatool andanopportunity Environmental protection canreach alsoothertypes vival ofalltheentitieslivingaround thesaltpan. determines thesur microbial. Theirconservation ordisappearance, human,plant, whetherthey are them sospecialised(endemic species) andatriskof sun,heath,treme aridity, manyof cold andsalinity; Such eco-systems haveadapted to life in the ex the eco-systems oftheSalar deAtacama. discussed initsspatialimplicationsandeffects on ofthecontrastingresentation epistemologies is the waters andthelands(fig. 3). rep- Such political ofthelongstandingand regulator struggles around nous territories and protected areas the are trigger and water rights,extraction concessions, indige of jurisdictions: overlappingandconflicting land ofthisworkisaroundtre thespatialembodiment 4 , thecen------Copper uneven distributionofwater rights. highdemand ofwatertremely andthe extremely ing affects theecologiesex ofthe Salar due to its (fig.4). Lithiummining, alongside copper min- gy’ ener massswitchto ‘green vices andthenecessary de powered due to ourdemandfor lithiumbattery started in the mid 1980’s and it is now expanding the mineral inAtacama richbrines.Itsexploitation initsunderbelly thesaltpanwhichstores of site: specifictype avery oflithium requires Extraction Ecologies ofthe Salarde Atacama asone. andsociety oftheterritory care al forces, tackle extraction, climate change andtake fend themselvesfrom theaggressiveness ofglob oftheSalar to de low theentitiesinterritory through the design of a series of protocols that al propose anewform for ofcare theenvironment passing the idea ofenvironmental protection, to This workproposes to deal withsuchdisputes sur land andthewaters. the aggressive actsindiscriminately onthepeople, rights to brine extraction potential oftheaquifer itself, withoutincludingthe the saltflatcrust;such rates overtakerecharge the of rights to water extraction from the aquifer below dida, Zaldivar, SQM)holdthemajority Albemarle, 5 andlithiumcorporations (Minera Escon- 6 . ------Lastrucci 131 - as indige 10 . Each village has a ‘field of action’: has a ‘field of action’: village . Each . 9 11 nous lands in the ’90’s, rendering the official forms rendering the official nous lands in the ’90’s, ineffective. in practice of recognition and protection of preservationIn terms - of diversity and environ ment tenure, indigenous of land to the recognition et (Tauli-Corpuz protection to people can be likened in a powerful becomes autonomy factor al., 2018): of redefiningconservation. the process the salt pan accommodate around The mountains and in practices homogeneous 18 communities, modes of living the lands where the village activities materialise.the lands where the village It as such uses, ancestral to recognisedaccording is now clashing with mining agriculture and grazing, concessions. demarcations partly today registeredThe ancestral with the agreement and collaboration are traced draw a boundary to however of the elders; here is not suited mentalitya stretch in a space of colonial boundaries. accommodating for ership or other forms of regulation on surface land. of regulation on surface or other forms ership of property rights and use are Overlaps of different - con coherent; also in the case of evidently perfectly over flicting overlaps of exploitation concession areas protected Within this framework, the communities witness witness the communities Within this framework, but al- not only the depletion of their eco-system, - of rights over the part of the territo so the erosion ries which had been officially recognised - - - - ; from the national boundary; from recog to 8 barely sufficient for their survival. wa- barely sufficient Their 7 The established Atacameños communities cir communities Atacameños The established nised indigenous lands; from mining concessions to concessions mining from lands; indigenous nised underground from eco-systems, of protected areas 3). skies (fig. astronomical to aquifers re state the Chilean this division, In maintaining the over exclusive right and inalienable the tains the own- regardless of mining concessions, lease ter does not come from stable sources: small rivers sources: stable from does not come ter snowmelt. by fed seasonally and streams causes the reduction pumping steadily The incessant la- of the salty and fresh mirror water of the water on the salt pan. The lagoons edge eastern on the goons 2010 to betweenreceded 1970 50% and 30% from direct conversation). Castro, 5) (Jorge (fig. Vergara that are drawn whereThe lagoons brine emerges represent a critical source of the underground from and fauna of aquatic birds, the communities for life the under people. Salar, The lagoons, Atacameños ground aquifer and brine reserves, and brine aquifer ground and the Andean are all part of the same single complexstreams hy- 6). (fig. system drological in the matter rights is mirrored The issue of water between below distinct and above rights, land of of the land and levels on different operating ground, scales across cumscribing the Salar have no rights over the aq- have no rights cumscribing the Salar water surface of amount an instead hold and uifer, rights
opposite page opposite de Salar of the image colour 1 — False Fig. study analysis to environmental for Atacama Landsat — in magenta. the presenceof water Author. 2018. Detail. in GIS. processed next pages with the Salar, from ayllu of Camar 2 — The Fig. 2018. in the background. mountain its tutelar Architecture Archives 2017|2018. Environmental 01 01 2019 132 seconda serie ri-vista Lastrucci 133 01 01 2019 134 seconda serie ri-vista Detail. 2018. Author. and airspace rights.Surface water inmagenta. Fig. 3 —Visualisationofstratified land, water ritory oftheayllu ritory dean peaks ter Itistheexpanded to theSalar core. whichgoes formdisperse ofterritory theAn- portion The Atacameños theirtraditional revolve livesina ity and occupation (fig. 7). 7). andoccupation(fig.ity varies accordingdependency to elevation, seasonal- es-beings. and inter ofcommonality Thethreshold oftheresourc communities intheexploitation of commonality, sharing and collaboration between Theengagementel ofthelandscape. isin thelevel the ‘resources’ available corresponds to each lev- ofengagementA diverse type withtherichnessof 12 — the community andtheoasis. —thecommunity - - - the environment andwithother communities. the spiritualforces. Interdependency is bothwith intheland, peopleand tricable representation It is an open and indivisible field that finds its inex tens ofkilometres. movementover availablesources mightrequire the seasons andthe years. To make use ofthere features aboveandbelowground shiftingthrough and spaces of shrublands, grazing fields and water other beings and other withtheancestors,relation thecollaboration with includesthe fieldofthe community The expanded ayllus , the navigating traces - - Lastrucci 135
- - - - - 13 the territories (Tauli-Corpuz et al., 2018). al., et (Tauli-Corpuz territories the 14 In a mentality that perpetuates the idea that hu- In a mentality the idea that perpetuates nature, from peo- indigenous mans are separated ple are the conservation excluded from of it. The ex the exclusion as ‘nature’, we read what clusion from - to is a violent separation area, the protected from who identify peoples physically and socially ward with the territory. and dwelt in America has been inhabited South actionshuman ancestral and times; ancestral from in and left effects, transformations accomplished p. 125), how- 2017, (Tavarez, marks some cases clear with veryever and modes epistemologies different the European. from the case of for Landscape of Cultural The concept - worth undoubtedly is con de Atacama the Salar Herit (World the formulation However sideration. where they have been directly evicted and forced to where have been directly and forced they evicted reservations; of the or been moved at the margins have National Parks of towns. park or at the margins funding international attracts to been used as tool conservation very to for remote and little known re gions of the world, and such funding helped to nor to gions of the world, and such funding helped malise enous people have been more or less forcibly dis moreenous people have been or less forcibly placed from their territories, where they fell under under fell where they territories, their from placed the new planned conservation. Many are the cases - - - - - Both
Exclusive Anthropocentric. and to existingA critique protection of models - pro existing models of environmental Of the varied Landscape Cultural the and Park National the tection, - the complexitiesare to of the wa the most adaptable and partlyalready Atacama, de Salar the of tershed utilised (Reserva Flamencos). Nacional de Los - of eco models, whether centred on the maintenance - main the on relations, centred logical or whether the relations of betweentenance the environment limitationssome perpetuate beings, human its and that, the region de Atacama, if applied to of the Salar the re-productionwould distort of land and society. of reduced aspects bears concept The National Park dis agency restricted and movements freedom of criminatory in the sur of the populations living on the resources or living of the park, roundings in Conservation of the park protection. within reach is exclusivelythese terms centred on the protection human whichever biodiversity from of ecological It is particularly discrim- beings and their practices. inatory people, indigenous to whose lands largely areas. of the protected under the limitations fall the America in Latin and 1980’s Between 1960’s and ex enforced conservation’ approach ‘fortress - tremised the restrictions biological pro related to legit what was balance a retaliationas to tection, Indig (extraction). areas adjacent in often imated 01 01 2019 136 seconda serie ri-vista rect wayrect to frame itslandscape. ifnotincor onlyapartial, wouldrender this region centric foundation; andapplyingsuchfoundation to ple shapethelands.Such concept hasananthropo- and is acultural modification of ‘nature’: the peo- benefits itcanoffer. ‘Landscape’artificial ispurely ble for their of needs. Its value in the types resides forming and constructing ‘nature’ to make it suita Itishumanbeingswhodoso,fied transto tame it. step-mother, andassuchitcanmustbemodi- structures of thoughts: Nature is a threatening sits at the base of the principalture-culture In European conception, the the dichotomy na an andWestern culture. flects a approachcertain from whichdraws Europe age Committee, 1992-1993) ofcultural landscapere 2004 2017|2018. Environmental and2016.Archives Architecture Image:Landsat. ofthewaterFig. 5 —Visualanalysisofthereduction mirror inthelagoons oftheSouth-Eastern edge oftheSalar. opposite page Fig. 4 —Lithiumminingoperations intheSalar deAtacama. 2018. 2017|2018. Environmental Archives Architecture ------a direct causality: indigenous lands are the richest in indigenous therichestin landsare causality: a direct consistent andrelevant number thatproblematises this ratio Althoughonly an estimate, is adispute. al., 2018), ultimately creating astate ofconstant 50%toed ranging 80%(Tauli-Corpuz between et communities’ landsandprotected areas isestimat indigenous theoverlapbetween On theglobalscale, ed areas. stake when indigenous lands overlap with protect not aconsumptive landpractice,isalotat yet there or top downprotection Protection restrictions. is limitedextractive bytheinfluenceare of practices ADI, buteffectively theirpowerandfieldofaction formallyenous peopleare through recognised the In theSalar deAtacama therightsandrole ofindig Diversity, biological and cultural - - - Lastrucci 137 - services’ or the extra human resources proper to to proper resources human extra services’ the or with its so intermingled It is a produce ecology. each context, that its signs of civilisation might be diffi- perspective. Western into accommodate cult to In the territory such ter de Atacama, of the Salar structuresritorial are expressed an wholly through ca- water managed extended of collectively system complexfor a set which is the thread 8), nals (fig. - - ecological diversity and best preservedecological the varie for ty of animals and plant species. of in- extent the produce a great is to This condition on agriculture, and for practices grazing digenous land tenure,of systems cyclesaging, rituality and structures, trees, of irrigation in the maintenance and more, all of which fertilisation variation, crops participate in the re-production of the ‘eco-system 01 01 2019 138 seconda serie ri-vista iments intheperformance ofthewater rituals ter, andallitsembod- allitstimescalesandcycles, thatencompasses allthevaluesof relations ofwa - as poachingorlogging ormining. nature and in the rejection of illegal activities such proven to behighly effective of in the conservation Indigenous andoflivinghave modesoflandtenure (Tauli-Corpuzal andanimalbiodiversity etal.,2018). butalsointheintensification ofvegetationnance, - The practices collaborate notonlyinthemainte Culture andknowledge embodiedintheland. are is constructedture inandthrough thelandscape. Onthecontrary,is nooppositionwithculture. cul- ture’ thatisrather distant from theEuropean: there society, thespatialisationofaconception are of‘na- of which also model the The structures structures, flat watershed. ofthesalt canbescaledupto theextent relation Such system of spiritual, social and ecological inter 15 - - . digenous protected lands,whetherthey are ornot The discourse isproven to bevalid inrecognised in- that the territory of the Salar oftheSalar that theterritory inthefact theshiftofperspective resides scape, Compared to theEuropean to theland- relation tural interdependent are diversity oneach other. andcul- Biologicaldiversity tion oflandandculture. ate with their practices for the reciprocal re-produc recognised andpeoplecontinuerights are to oper effective inguarding theeco-system, ifancestral digenous modesoflandmanagement most are thecommunities’where In- notsecured. landsare on thecontrary, thepowerofsuchactionsweakens interdependent. social diversity, structurally are andculture, nature destruction ofthelatter, inasmuchasbiologicaland oftheformerThe extermination isconducive to the tained by—and themselvessustain —thelife. is theproduct ofspatialarrangements sus thatare (Tavarez, 2017, p.147) 16 - - - ; Lastrucci 139 ------. 17
It is part of what it means to be indigenous today today indigenous be to means it what of part is It occasions on which indigenous the few and create the incursions themselves from peoples can protect - and business interests within terri of nation-states are on which they recognisedtories as ‘occurring or et (Geslin ‘native’. introduced’, ‘not naturally’, living p. 571)al., 2005, — A protected lagoon on the North- lagoon — A protected — Typical elevation of the community of the elevation 7 — Typical Fig. the hand side On the left of action’. ‘field levels, of the landscape categorisation cosmology of indigenous with basics confronted Author. side.on the right hand 2018. opposite pageopposite Fig. 6 Environmental 2018. of the Salar. edge Eastern Architecture Archives 2017|2018. Its recognition as a right-bearing entity responds entity responds right-bearing a Its recognitionas sovereignty over for struggles the longstanding to people united lands of the indigenous ancestral - the com It gives to de Atacama. the Salar around munities the capacity of independent decision mak occurring in the the transformation ing regarding recog the official basin. It affirms and empowers the acknowledging lands, indigenous the of nition pres ancestral their and Atacameños of position in the space, of their prac ence and the centrality tack and most essential actions to as organic tices and the chang le the depletion of the environment climate.ing existtheir and presence their calls It an ample, to ence global audience: the recognition as an entitywatershed is the organ of the salt flat or with the tentacular compete and the occasion to propor lighter in and corporations, mining of gans tion tourism. approach to and between to natureapproach and human beings world views. In the which is built upon indigenous manifestation specificityterritorial Salar the of the basin is its water of such space - - The watershed as autonomous entity autonomous as The watershed to in allowing is relevant autonomy of question The that reconcile the dis a space for set the foundation ed area: where in embodied culture and knowledge ed area: within from must come the land, their protection the land. of epistemologies betweentance the contrasting demands an this distance on the land. Reconciling The consideration on the work of indigenous people on the work of indigenous The consideration services’ with the ‘eco-system are in collaborating protect of a proposal the in importance greater of 01 01 2019 140 seconda serie ri-vista entities. which is the scale of operationglobal scale, of such onthe is alocalisedactionwithpossible resonance tion atlarge andmining tourism inparticular. It of extracto thepressure ultimately redistributing through indigenous re-written land are practices, nous autonomy, protocols where for managingthe The watershed ofindige isanexperiment entity andinterdependency.versity of reciprocity, resiliency, ecological andcultural di- to operatesin-entity withintheAndean principles Recognising theRightsofNature vantage pointthatcorporations haveinthisregard. lows for leverage the ofthesituationandoverturn isthe constitution ofthespacefied entity thatal- The constitution ofthebasinasaright-bearing uni- ma Salt Flatwatershed (fig. 9). aroundcycles of waters theflowsand ofthe Ataca- nities, physicalandspiritualelementsunited inlife comprised ofhumanandextra-human commutity - aquifer.the underworld Itisasingularindivisibleen- thatgoesentity from theupperworldairspace to It isacknowledgingthebasinasastratified vertical 18 affords theba- - - etational and animal. Scaling across spatial frames aggregation, andequallyspecific forms oflife, veg vironments comprising ofdistinctiveforms ofland eco-system, richandvaried onitsexceptionally en- Protocols ofthe based onthecapacity thatare of aseriesprotocols ofengagement withtheland. The coreofthemodelisbasedonperforming for resource thismodel. primary transformation around ofexploitation theSalar isa in modelling,ple, proposing, halting and driving the ment itself. Thespace of actionofAtacameños peo- tablish acompatible engagement withtheenviron- iscrucialonlywhenitabletoHuman presence es ally rewarding. of collaboration andinterdependency thatismutu- dependant from human beings, weaves arelation The environment rather thanbeingmaintained and from theland. whereas ‘protection’ isaprocess thatmustcome ing systems endangered asfragile, possessions; apatronisingbe surpassed,asitretains viewofliv- protectionIn thisframe, isaconcept thatneedsto Outlines of newmodel conservation. Beyond
- - Lastrucci 141 ------The collec The
(Puig de la Bellacasa, 2010, p. 98) (Puig de la Bellacasa, 2010, Water, as much as the others, is an the others, as much as Water, Taking responsibility for what and whom we care and whom we care what responsibility for Taking care re Adequate doesn’t being in charge. mean for the needs and curiosityquires regarding knowledge ‘other’ an of become these — and not or — human refusing objec through relating, through possible the transforms inevitably process a Such tification. beings. entangled - understand the on based is model proposed The the environment,ing of the elements that compose are human, animal or human, whether they extra their regeneration. and it studies action for - de Ataca element of the Salar The constitutive and signifi- states in all its different ma is water, 10). (fig. cances condi- by morphing and changing element affected of other and the influence tions of climate, seasons living systems. re be defined, to in order actions, Regenerative take quireto specific and how recurrent research: care is both an open and of a living dynamic system the ex building upon However, question. situated of the one practices, of the water isting tradition col- is the acts that the basin-entityfirst activates water. arrestand lection surface of corollarya is runoff action water of arrest and tion the expansion of exploitative prac that contrasts it becomes is underground, when the water tices: the domain of mining rights, but as long as it stays Environmental Care: methodology Care: Environmental - - Thus, in the spaces that describe that describe in the spaces 19 and time frames, such protocols engage on the land engage such protocols and time frames, care. of taking with the intention care environmental In the specificity of the Salar, of exploitation a system avoid feeding to means to order in extractivisms, favour that resources of conse slow down the expansion and catastrophic quences of its processes of industrialisation. of its processes quences careprescriptivebe must towards environmental land. Mining and on the the exploitative practices as temporary aretourism now conceived visitors: offer they habit of guests best as in the and guests, something back. This might sound simplistic, a shift but it entails and mentality subvert to the current of paradigm is not a much need- extraction structures of power: development, to ed incentive a realityun- but rather anywhere of its else in the absence operate able to lithium resources. much needed strategic model must be ad- On the other hand, the proposed At of the the practices and flexibleaptable towards arethat acameños representativehuman the theof territory and physi- the cultural to and contribute re-productioncal existing building upon the it: of ba- the commons, the of interdependency of grades - communi a nested through sin-entity is organised - ty with the priority enable environ management to caremental practices opposite pageopposite example extended of the water 8 —An Fig. canal network (Peine). of the communities Still Architecture Archives film. Environmental from 2017|2018 . the territory between two or more communities. 01 01 2019 142 seconda serie ri-vista able to engage with itintheleast destructiveway. theones themselves,they are oftheecology as part life. Locals ofsuchecologies: the representative are Itisgrounded to thelandanditsformsresilience. of to transform and regenerate of withinitscapacity the territory, allowingtheirinterconnected contexts and maintaining themainelementsthatcompose Environmental isaboutcontinuous repairing care tion to theland,keeping bondswithallitsentities. attentions; it emphasisestheprocess ofidentifica- actionsand achieved through continuous every-day In environmental ecological is reciprocity care on theground responsibility. itisthecommunity forhistorically resources theirtradesSurface coming from were thesaltflat. water inmagenta. 2018. Author. Atacameños knowquite wellthattheSalar ofthelandscape: notonlyfor isatthecentre amatter ofgeometry Fig. 9 —Space andtimeorientation. Thetutelar to mountains thevillages inrelation andthebasin: in thecommunity. and transformation, bothpersonal and embedded heritage asmuchaprocess thatentails exchange ecologies ofthewater basin.Itis atradition anda through thedifferent timescalesofthemultiple watershed inorder to beperformed and prolonged needs thehandsandmindsofallentities procedures; itincludes nativesandtheir ordinary environmental isapractice care conservation, that onandcontrol. Contrary to ableto carry are perts as somethingthatonlyex ofconservation sivity Environmental from- movesaway theexclu care - Lastrucci 143 - - with rights that entities with rights-bearing - both as community territo and oasis. It is a translates Ayllu The process of territorial and social control that denies or that denies or and social control of territorial The process The ADI (Area Desarollo Indigena) comprises of all the com the all of comprises Indigena) Desarollo (Area ADI The Rights of Nature: acknowledging the rights of nature Laws : the ritual maintenance of the water canals canals water of the : the ritual maintenance The Talatur Indigenous Lands ‘perform better’ ‘perform Lands Indigenous in areas than protected The practices suitable for the watershed of the Salar de At de Salar the of watershed the for suitable practices The To cite one: cite Nacional del Manu in Madre Parque de Dios, Peru. To
This is thoroughly discussed in the complete work. Please Please work. complete in the discussed This is thoroughly - followed by tradi form of income, mining is the first Today To cite as an example, the SQM site over the Los Pantanos Pantanos Los the example, over an as site cite SQM the To acama are discussed in this complete work. It also designs work. It also designs acama are discussed in this complete are and scientific tourism research in which mining, the space is basin-entitywhat the and within practices their set to able of ‘giving back’ are it. bytheir form to limited practices Such the principles of foundation. change the status of natural communities and ecosystems and ecosystems communities of natural the status change being recognised as to by people, and communities. governments, can be enforced erases indigenous people’s modes of living. people’s indigenous erases for see