INFORMATION PROCESSING 86, H.·J. KueI,,(ed.) Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (North.Holland) C> IFIP, 1986 Reprinted with permission from the author
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT AS A SOCIAL ACTlVlTY
Kristen NYGAARD Institute of Infonnatics, University of Oslo P.O. Box 1080 Blindern, N·0316 Oslo 3, Norway
The paper discusses social aspect,s o~ large scale prog-:am and sys~em,~evclop~ent, with main emphasis on "social" i~ the meaning "societal". Informatics IS defined as,a science studymg m~onnauo~ processes ,and, relat7d pheno!1'ena . information processes being e.g. program executionS by computers and mfonnatlon processmg In offices, c~lT1ed out jointly by people and computers. "Related phenomena" are program and sy~te~ development. the tools available and restrictions imposed upon program development. the knowledge-bulldmg processes etc. The concepts of "process","structure" and "system" ~ discussed. and used in this context. The notion of "perspective" is in~oc:tuced and used to characterize programmmg styles, atlltudes towards program development and levels of emphasIs In the study of program develoPn:'ent. Ag"7mencs and laws regulating system development in NOlWay are described, and the participation of employees IS treated m thIS context. Discussions of tenninoiogy often are idle, but they may 1. INTRODUCTION some times reflect basic differences of opinion or at least emphasis. Today it is unfortunate that the term This paper will argue on two fronts: The fu:st front ~ill "computer science" is used. The term tends to implant a be against those who want to make mformatlcs too narrow way of thinking about information systems, exclusively a formal science, as mathematics - and who that now are networks of people, information maintain that the study of the social implications of processing equipment and other machinery, interacting information technology is outside informatics, through direct inter-human and (an increasing belonging to the social sciences. The second front will proportion of) electronically supported communication be against those social scientists who believe that they links. are capable of understanding the impacts of information technology "from outside", without bothering to learn The definition of the term "informatics" adopted in this informatics or working closely with researchers in paper is [rephrasedfrom [Nygaard, K.and Hdndlykken infonnatics 1981)): The paper will not be laid out as a series of attacks, but Defmition: Informatic$ is the science that has as its domain rather as a presentation of points of view, arguments. information processes and related phenomena in artifacts, and lines of reasoning that are in in contrast with the society and nature. two attitudes described above. In this definition, the term "information processes" is In recent years a comprehensive litterature has used. "Information processes" are discussed later in this addressed the technical and organizational problems and paper.The definition includes the term "information", tasks in large scale program and system development. and that term raises another debate. Many attempts have [The list of rele.vant litterature. ;s far too long to be been made at giving a definition of "information". An included in the Reference List, see e.g. [Boehm, B.W., approach using the perspective and information process 1981), and Olle, T.W., Sol, H.G., and Verrijn·Stuarr, concepts is presented in [Nygaard, K., 1986), another A.A., 1982).) The paper will use that litterature as a is given in [Kaas~ll, J., 1985). background, but will focus upon the interaction between technical and social issues in these activities. The paper A phenomenon is will, however, to a large extent draw upon points of view presented in papers by researchers (including the " any facti circumstance, or experience that is author) belonging to the Scandinavian trade union and apparent to the senses and that can be scientifically user participation oriented school in S y s te m described or appraised." [Webster 1960) Development Important examples of phenomena are : living "It should also be pointed out that the term "social" in the organisms, inanimate objects (including artifacts, like title of the paper will mainly be used in its meaning of e.g. machines), events, and processes (e.g. computer "societal", that is, relating to the society. This implies program executions). We may also speak of cognitive that the social setting of the programmers' work wil be phenomena, occuring within the minds of people. as discussed, but not the internal relationship and opposed to manifest phenomena, occuring outside cooperation in project groups of specialists in minds. informatics. The above definition describes informatics as a science 2. THE DEFINITION OF THE TERM relating to a class of phenomena (and certain selected aspects of these phenomena - see the definition of "INFORMATICS" information process below). It is incompatible with definitions that aim at defining informatics as a formal The term "computer science" should be replaced by "informatics" . Some years ago the choice between the discipline, akin to mathematics. (Formal sub·disciplines two terms seemed perhaps to be of little consequence. may, however, be parts of informatics - as e.g. program proving.) The definition is similar to those we must give 4 K. NygOllrd of sciences like botany, physics, sociology etc., which whereas more explicit multiperspective reflection started all relate to selected aspects of specified classes of to appear in the 70s, in particular through the phenomena. Scandinavian trade union projects. As for phenomenology, valuable efforts have been made, but too few. and also many made in order to prove that The choice of definition of the term "informatics" is in some proposed method works successfully. Informatics no way trivial. When it is argued that informatics is a need in a number of important areas a proper and wider formal discipline only, then empirical platform..
"according to such a definition, the impact of an It seems obvious that construction always will be a information system upon the social structure of central, or !he. central aspect of informatics. Without which it is a pan, is outside (the field of study of) construction the purpose and content of the other informatics. Also case studies of how data aspects become empty. Information systems are, processing actually is carried out in specific however, typically introduced and operated for organizations fall outside informatics in this narrow ~co:nomic reas~ns, desil?ned and implemented using sense." {Nygaard, K., and Handlykken, P., 1981/ Insl~hts from InformatiCS, and result in a changed environment for people. Modifications of the Tenns used incorrectly may also cause confusion. It has informatical properties of the organization may have been maintained fA. Parkin 1980} that "informatics" is a desirable economic, but undesirable social substitute term for "data processing". "Data processing" consequences, or vice versa. is, however, a term denoting a ~ or a function, whereas "informatics" is the name of a ~ that has 4. PERSPECTIVES data processing as a subject of study. The "perspective" concept is used in the previous 3, ASPECTS OF SCIENCES section. It is a key concept in the discussions presented in this paper, and it will now be examined more closely, Sciences defined the way informatics is defined above, following{Nygaard, K., and S0rgaard,P., 1985/. The have four aspects {The materiaL in this section uses perspective concept IS also discussed in fBratteteig. T., material from {Nygaard, K. and S¢rgaard, P., 1985/, 1983/. developed from {Nygaard, K and H4ndlykken, P., 1981// : As our first illustration we will refer to a very typical situation:A system analyst is working in team with Ms. 1. Phenomenology: The empirical study of phenomena Brown and Mr. Smith (representing "the users"). Their - their identification, observed behaviour, and task is to develop some kind of new "information properties. (Tycho Brahe in astronomy, Linn6 in system" in the organization where Ms. Brown and Mr. botany.) Smith are employed.
2. Analysis: Comprehension and explanation of To most system analysts it is a matter of course that the phenomena in terms of an underlying theory. organization should be interpreted as consisting of "data Identification of important properties and concepts, flows", "transactions", "records", "relations", relations between properties and concepts, "objects", etc. This is their perspective upon the description and anticipation of behaviour. (Newton organization. Rather few are capable of realizing that to in astronomy, Darwin in biology.) Ms. Brown, Mr. Smith is not a system component. Ms Brown ~as a very different perspective: To Ms. Brown, 3. Synthesis, construction, technology: Knowledge Mr. Snuth may be a colleague who should be treated organized for the purpose of interfering with, rather carefully before 10 am., who is very constructing, or generating phenomena.(TeHer in knowledgeable and helpful with some of the tasks that nuclear physics.) Ms. Brown find difficult, who needs Ms. Brown's help with some other important tasks, and is an altogether 4. Multiperspective reflection: The consideration and pleasant chap, making up a good problem-solving team examination of concepts and phenomena at the same with Ms. Brown. The system analyst should realize that time - or altematingly - from the perspectives of this way of looking at the organization may be just as more than one science, or from more than one relevant as a "system view", and should make an perspective within the same science. The study of attempt to adopt both views. how changes introduced according to one viewpoint affect properties of the phenomena when regarded To Ms. Brown, her workplace is not "a system", from another viewpoint whereas the system analyst regards the purpose of the work she/he is engaged in exactly as: to develop "a Most natural sciences now have long phenomenological system". The implications of adopting a system traditions. Many, Hke physics and chemistry, have perspective are far reaching if alternative perspectives developed technological disciplines built upon solid are neglected or outright suppressed. The Norwegian platforms of analysis, which in tum are derived from sociologist Stein Briten has introduced the norion of very extensive platforms of empirical knowledge. "model power" [{Broten, S., 1973/ and {Brate., S., (Some, like chemistry, started however with rather 1983 JJ which in our terminology should be described as unsuccessful attempts at construction.) "perspective power". The system analyst exercises perspective power and establishes a perspective Informatics developed as the result of the invention of monopoly by insisting upon, and succeeding in the an extremely powerful tool for construction: The exclusive use (in the development process) of facls, programmable computer.The very mixed crowd of experience, concepts, techniques, and tools that are people gathering around the computers were regarded meaningful within the framework of a system by scientists (and often by themselves alike) as perspective. According to BrAten the acceptance of "machinists" or "technicians". During the 50s the first another actor's model (perspective) implies that one is generally valid insight related to construction was completely dominated- established. Analysis was fIrmly established in the 60s, 5 Program Development as a Social Activity
concept. This approach does not make it impossible to In philosophy concepts similar to "perspec!ive" ha~e use "perspective" to denote attitudes shared by many been discussed by many researchers and are in focus in {Nygaard, K. and S¢rgaard, P., 1985{. the theory of knowledge. The discussion here is oriented towards issues within the science of Perspectives may be communicated by perspective informatics. description or by people being exposed to specific situations from which they learn. When it is said that a Using the concepts in the previous section, a definition system development method "has a harmony of the teno "perspective" ~i1l be giv.en. It is nec~s~ry perspective" (see next section), it implies that a person to make some assumptions relatmg to cognitive A making this statement is of the opinion that anyone processes (human thought processes). It has been using this method will structure her or his cognitive attempted to make them as few and uncontroversial as processes during the system development process by a possible. perspective that person A regards a being a "harmony perspective" . Many of the concepts we find Deflllition: A cognitive universe is the collection of all indispensable in human communication. also in the cognitions of a person. social sciences, are of this nature. And informatics has aspects belonging both to the natural sciences and the The tenn cognition may denote either th.e process of social sciences. This does not preclude precise cognition or any product of that process, 10 some way definitions of concepts like perspective and their use in stored (or "remembered") in a person's cognitive describing e.g. group attitudes. universe. We do not make detailed assumptions about these products, only that we will regard ~oth values. Some perspectives are highly individual: attitudes beliefs, experiences etc: •. and rules rel.almg to these towards family and friends. towards various forms of categories as being cognitions. We particularly do not art etc. assume that cognitions may be regarded as "disjoint elements", or that any part of a cognitive universe ~a~ a Other perspectives are shared by many: All over the sharply defined bou~dary to other ~arts of a cogmuve Western World managers hold similar values relating to universe. Whether tillS IS true or not IS outside the scope the way business is conducted. and these values are of our discussion. usually regarded as obvious to the extent that they are seldom discussed. Alternative values are often Definition: The active cognitjons of a person in a given considered as "ideological". "political" or "extreme", as situation are those parts of the cognitive universe that opposed to one's own values which are considered are participating in the person's cognitive process. "objective" or "mainstream".
We may now state: Similarly, workers tend to have the same way of looking at events within their factory. The common Definition: A peQon's pc:cspecrive is a part of th~ parts of their perspectives are probably only to a limited cognitive universe that may structure her or hIs extent communicated. and to a larger extent determined cognitive process when relating to situations within by common experience. some domain. By the verb "structure" we in this context imply 6. PROCESS AND STRUCTURE "contribute to the structuring of'l since the complete strUcture in operation in a given situation is impossible This and the two subsequent section introduces to know. concepts relating to programming and system description. IThe material in this section is building Definition: A perspective structures a person's cognitive upon work related to the DELTA and BETA languages, process by: see.the References] - the selc;:ction of those properties of the situation that are being considered (and, by implication, of those Defmition: A ~ is a development of a part of the that are ignored). In this way the perspective world through transfonnations during a time interval. influences the active cognitions. Structure of a process is Limitations of its set of - concepts and other cognitions that are ~eing used in possible states (and thus of its sequences of possible the jntemretatjon of the selected properties. states).
If the use of the perspective is regarded by the person as "The economic development of Norway in the 16th "successful", cognitions reinforcing the belief of its century" is an example of a process. It should be noted usefulness is produced. If the perspective leads to a that "Norway", the substance developing, is not a "poor" interpretation, new cognitive processes arc process. The tenn "process" comprises the sequence of initiated in order to modify or even substitute the changing states. (Consequently, the use in e.g. the perspective. SIMULA language of the term "process" as a subcategory of "object" is unfortunate.) The most The capability of multiperspective reflection is essential important information processes are, in our present for every computer professional. and the perspective context, program executions and data processing concept will be used extensively in this lecture. performed jointly by people and computers. 5. INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE In most programming languages the transfonnations are prescribed by imperatives (and thought of as actions) in PERSPECTIVES structure descriptioDs called pro¥rams. The computer imposes structure upon the program execution using the The notion of perspective has been defined by structure description (program) as structure characterizing a person's perspective. and this may be prescription. the best way to start a discussion of the perspective 6 K . Nygallrd
Deftnition: A ~ is ~.garded ~s an information Dahl, O.·J., Myhrhaug, B., and Nygaard, K., 1968 ~ when the qualibC?S considered 8I7: lJ· SmaJJtaIk is an important later example _ its substance. the phYSical matter that It transfonns, {Goldberg, A., and Robson, D., 1983]. Facilities _ measurable properties of its substance, represented for object·oriented programming have been by introduced in Lisp (Flavo" in Zetalisp, Loops in Interlisp), in Pascal, C and other languages. _ ulw,transformatjons 0 f'Its substance an dth us Its. measurable properties. - Constraint-Qriented programming: The computing process is viewed as a deduction process, 7. SYSTEM DEFINITION developing from an initial state, the process being restricted by sets of constraints and inputs from the Another term that needs consideration is "system". environment, the information about the states being Some definitions are too general and imply that deduced by an inferencing algorithm. Prolog {see everything is a system. The definition given here e.g. {Clocksin, W.F., and Mellish, C.S., 1981lJ is introduces explicitly the perspective implied and makes an example of a constraint-oriented language: an immediate link possible to the concept "infonnation constraints may be fonnulated in first order predicate process" and thus to concepts in programming logic (as Horn-clauses), and inferencing is made by languages { Kristensen, B. B., Madsen, O. L., Mpller the usc of Robinson's resolution mechanism. An Pedersen, B. and Nygaard,K. 1983a, 1983b, 19851. example of alternative infercncing algorithms is found in {Nossum, R., 1984]. More examples will Definition :A mwn is a part of the world that a pe"on no doubt be worked out in the years to come. (or group of persons, during some time interval and for some reason) All these three perspectives should be supported within any general system description and programming ~ to regard as a whole consisting of language in the future: no perspective will "win" as components some people seem to believe. (For this reason the term "paradigm" should be avoided, since the meaning each component characterized by properties that are established by Thomas Kuhn for the term is that of a selected as being relevant and basic perspective within a science, irreconcilable with alternative paradigms.{Kuhn, T., 19701) by ~ relating to these properties and those of other components. Object-orientation should be available in a system description and programming language because of its {Holbtzk-Hanssen,E., Hdndlykken, P. and capability of system modelling and linking with the Nygaard, K., 19751 systems' environment, and also for its relevance to knowledge representation. Powerful functional modes According to this definition, no part of the world is a of expression should also be available, as well as Lisp's system as an inherent property. It is a system if we incremental execution mode and operations upon its choose a system perspective. It may be regarded as own program. Finally, a language should allow the being a system by us, if we at the time choose to do so. introduction of new kinds of constraints and easy lt may, however be useful Il\lt to regard that part of the collection - during the computing process - of world as a system. It may also be regarded as a system infonnation to be used in inferencing by a wide range in many different ways, as we specialize our system of alternative algorithms. perspective by the choice we make in the selection of properties to be considered. These three perspectives are not only of interest to programmers. If programs and systems are developed 8. THREE BASIC PERSPECTIVES ON in multidisciplinary teams, with participation of later PROGRAMMING users, then it is important to have available system description languages that allow for a wider range of Within informatics there are many important but description modes. different perspectives. which mayor may not be mutually conflicting. In programming. three major and 9. THE PROCESS/STRUCTURE different pe"pectives are : HIERARCHY - Funcdon-orjented programming: The computing In the infannatics definition above it is referred to process is viewed as a sequence of applications of "infonnation processes and related phenomena". Let us functions to an input, producing an output, which in examine the "related phenomena" that span out a wider its turn may be the input to another function etc. The canvas of informatics. programming language Lisp reflects this pernpective {papers by McCarthy, definition in { Marty, J .B., et Applying Lars Mathiassen's notions of process al. 1978 lJ. Other languages usually also contain structure relationships {Mathiassen, L., 19811 to the constructs for expressing the applications of phenomena studied within infonnatics, we may identify functions. the following process/structure~:
- Object-oriented programming: The computing (I) fIllI;w: The information process (e.g. program process is viewed as the development of a system, executions, data processing by people and consisting of objects (components), through machinery in offices). sequences of changing states. The Simula languages were the first to present this pe"pective [Simula I { (2) Structure (of process at level I): The limitations Dahl, O.-J., and Nygaard, K., 1965 I, Simula 67 { imposed upon this process by computer programs, machine hardware properties, written and unwritten rules of human behaviour etc.
7 Progfam Development as a Social Activity
(3) fms (5) fms We may develop concepts for describing what system In system development it is common to refer to those development consists of and make it possible to affected by infonnation systems as "users". In most describe system development iodepeodently of concepts discussions about the system development process this related to particular methods being used. This is term is far too vague and general. Statements necessary in order to be able to evaluate specific concerning "user participation" and "user satisfaction" development processes and compare methods. may have no precise meaning without a specification of which group within the organization these users belong Mathiassen proposes the use of five functjons to to. {The discussion of the user concept in this section characterize system development processes follows [Nygaard, K.and Hdndlyldcen, P. /98/". The {Mathiassen, L. /98/J: groups of users may be categorized according to many criteria: inquiry, Kinds of work tasks carried out. construction. Position within the decision system. change, Position within the power system. decision, and Two useful perspectives are those of functjonal roles communication. and of interest groups. respectively {see points made by P. Naur in [Fjellheim, R., Hdndlykken, P. and Nygaard, K., /974J, and also {Nygaard, K., /975{ and {Nygaard, K., and Fjalestad, J.; /98/J.J 8 K. Nygaard The second perspective is that of interest groups. People We et the f.tnt perspective by C?nside~ng the fuocljODS with the same relationship to the production processes b~ carried out by people JO a glven system by will usually develop an understanding of common to f' I I s describing their Jlocqona ro e . ~. group interests. They will organize themselves in "interest organizations" acting as "interested parties" A ~ is then defined by a s~i~ied ~sk or gr?up of to decision-making in the society. Associated with an closely interrelated wn (constituting a Job). carned out "interest point of view" is often also a more com by people in the deyelop~ent andlor operation of a prehensive pe~pective. in the form of an "ideology" or system. A person may act 10 more than one role at a "picture of the world" that influences the group ti.mti.This role concept differs from that commonly members' attitudes to what are important properties of a used in social psychology where a role is described by system and guides their behaviour in a development the expectations that a person will adapt to in a given process. position in an organization.) A group's interests in systems in an ent~rprise or a This list contains some important role categories in public institution may relate to a number of Issues: relation to development and use of programs and systems: What economic benefit will we (the group) get from the system? (As employees. middle or top .R..u.!m: control,completely or partially. the resources management. as employers.) used in the system (and its development) and the selection of the basic objectives it is intended to To what extent may we exercise control (power) fulfill. over the system? Managers: survey and direct the development andlor How will the system influence the physical and operation of the system. Local representatives of psychological working environment? rulers. Will the social network in the enterprise be changed - QperaroC;: work in the system and are necessary for to our advantage or disadvantage? its proper operation. An operator may often serve as a manager for a subsystem of the total system. What is the relationship between the objectives of the system and the objectives we feel should direct our Customea: interact with the system from necessity society? or by choice. In direct contact with the system only in shorter periods of time. Data shop stewards are elected to represent group interests. and an points listed above may be raised in ByStanctea: may be influenced indirectly by the negotiation within the framework of the daWtechnology system. by its consumption of scarce resources or agreements presented later in this paper. by other social effects. 12. HARMONY AND CONFLICT Desjgners: design and describe the system's structure (usually) in cooperation with management. System development in public and private enterprises are part of the development of the production forces in Programmers: work out in detail the prescriptions the society. Organizational changes are often associated (programs and work procedures) used in the with shifts in power between capital and labour. and are system. Participate in the implementation. in fact often introduced with this as a main purpose. - Teachers: teach operators and others how to use the Every method for large scale program and system system. development embeds a perspective on the nature of the relationship between capital and labour. Any person It should be stressed that the roles specify functions and studying system development must be aware of these not perwns. A person within the system will !!fim enact aspects of the situation in order to hold realistic more than one role, at the same or at different times. (A opinions. programmer may. and in the opinion of many also should act as designer.) Different political theories present different perspectives. Up to 1967, when the Norwe~ian trade When the management of an enterprise decides it wants unions started takmg an mterest In the apphcatlOn of "user participation", it usually means that some of the infonnation technology, system development methods functional roles become represented in some of the in Scandinavia were always presented without any bodies within the development organization. This user reference to possible conflicts between capital and perspective is important also to interest groups (see labour. They were regarded as "objective", "neutral", below), if and when a consensus or compromise about "professional", "apolitical". tbe system's objectives and development is arrived at. In the text book developed in the first trade union The role concept is useful because it emphasizes the project {Nygaard. K .• and Bergo. O. T .• 1973 J it is various kinds of experience needed and the demand for stated. however. that: " ..... in our opinion language, different kinds of system descriptions in the concepts. models and theories for organiz.ation, job development process. An employee needs one system content and society are reflecting the interests and description when she or he as operator shall learn how ideologies of those who created these languages. to use a terminal, another when she or he as shop concepts. models and theories" (p. 27). And: "We are steward (interest group representative) wants to instead building upon ways of thinking (models) in understand how the terminals influence the social which one may include both common interests and contact network and the control of the production. unresolved conflicts of interests. In our opinion this is 9 Program Development as a Social Activity necessary, since the objective of actions from the trade unions is a change in the power relations in companies 2. the "General Agreement on Technological and in their organization." (p. 28). Development and Computer-Based Systems" between the Norwegian Employers' Federation A researcher who has treated this subject carefully is (NAF) and the Norwegian Federation of Trade Ake Sandberg {in own papers, e.g. {Sandberg, Unions (1975, with later revisions). A.,1975J ,and in ajoim paper with Pelle Ehn {Ehn, P., and Sandberg, A.,1976]J : 3. the "Act Relating to Worker Protection and Working Environment" (1977). A main distinction is made between: 4. the legislation protecting the privacy of information - the harmony perspective, and about "legal persons", both individuals and enterprises Effective from 1980). - the conflict perspective. The first demand for a "Data Agreement" came from a The harmony perspective expresses the fundamental local union (Askim Chemical Workers' Union) in 1973 view that the relation between different groups and as a result ofthe "Iron and Metal Workers Project", a individuals is characterized by harmony and the absence research project on "Planning. Control and Data of basic conflicts. Conflicts are interpreted as Processing, Evaluated from the Point of View of the "disagreement" and "misunderstanding" and may be Trade Unions" (1971-73) {see {Nygaard, K., and resolved by information and conversation. Bergo, O.T., 1973 and 1975J and {Nygaard, K., 197711. After long and difficult negotiations, an In the conflict perspective .the relation between the agreement was signed early 1974 between the union and groups essentially is characterized as an "unresolvable its employer counterpart. conflict" of "basic interests". This conflict must be handled by confrontation, negotiation and compromise, In 1975 a corresponding agreement was signed at the resulting in the postponement of the next confrontation. national level between The Norwegian Employers' Federation (NAF) and The Norwegian Federation of Trade Unions (LO), and later between the trade unions and the government as well as the municipalities in Conflict Harmony Norway. The agreements probably cover system oersoective perspective development at more than 90 per cent of workplaces Observed Manifest Apparent employing blue and white collar workers (and conflict conflict conflict unionization is very high in Norway). Observed Apparent Manifest harmony harmony harmony The agreement gives the unions the right to elect special "data shop stewards" that are trained to take care of their interests in relation to computer-based systems. Fig. 12.1 According to the LO, there are (1986) ca. 1500 data shop stewards in Norway (population 4 millions). Adherents of the two perspectives will interpret the same observed reality in different ways, schematically Some excerpts will illustrate how these agreements illustrated in Fig. 12.1. strongly impact upon the social aspects of program and system development Usually the supporters of the conflict perspective are more explicit than the harmony supporters. Ake "The Norwegian Employers' Federation (N AF) Sandberg has stated this as : and the Norwegian Federation of Trade Unions (LO) agree that this general agreement shall form "Not to choose is to choose the harmony the basis for the planning, introduction and use of perspective. " technology and computer-based systems ...... " Examples of other perspectives of interest are the The agreement comprises technology and systems "transaction cost" perspective (on organizations) that are used in planning and accomplishing the {Ciborra, C., 1981J, the "application perspective" (on work. as well as systems for the storage and use of the use of computers in organizations) [Bjerknes, G., personal data. Personal data refer to all data that and Bratteteig, T., 1984J, and the "tool perspective" (on can be traced back to specific persons employed at computers) {Ehn, P., and Kyng, M., 1985J. A the individual enterprises by means of a name or collection of articles written from a non-managerial other identification code. perspective is found in {Fossum, E., 1983J. "The use of technological possibilities in the form of equipment and systems may be decisive for the 13. PARTICIPATION AND development and existence of the enterprise. New REGULATION solutions and systems may influence the employees' workplace and working conditions. In some countries there are laws and negotiated agreements between the main organizations of Labor When this is the case, it is important that the new and Employers, regulating the program and system technology is not just evaluated on the basis of development process. In Norway, where this started, technological and financial factors, but also based one has to take into account: on social considerations. This overall consideration forms the basis for the design, introduction and use 1. the legislation on co-determination in enterprises of systems and new technology. e.g. through (1972). consequence analyses. 10 K. Nygl1JlTd "The enterprise shall keep their employees agreement in countries with fewer inhabitants than the informed through their shop stewards about main cities in many larger countries. conditions which are within the scope of the agreement so that the shop stewards may express 14. Program Development and their views as early as possible and before the Proressions decisions of the enterprise are implemented, ... " In an increasing number of professions people are using "The information shall be provided in a clear form their most advanced competence in interaction with and in language that can be understood by people computerized information systems. The attempts at without special knowledge of the field." creating useful knowledge-based systems will enhance this development. "The main organizations recommend that, in addition to the shop stewards' representatives, the This implies that the mastery of these systems becomes employees who will be directly influenced by the an integral part of the professionals' competence. If the projects within the scope of the agreement should development of professions shall be influenced by its be involved wherever practically possible in the members, they must be able to comprehend the project work." systems, participate in their development and be able to modify them as a part of the day-to-day adaptation of "If the employees at the individual enterprise wish, their tools to the changing and developing nature of their they may select a special representative, preferably work. from among the existing shop stewards, to look after their interests and to cooperate with the It will not be possible to keep local system development enterprise within the scope of this agreement." specialists' groups capable of handling such tasks. "Programming" in the sense of making system "The representative(s) shall have access to all extensions and modifications should be made by the documents about equipment and programs within professionals themselves, whereas the basic design and the scope of this agreement." the keeping of database security and communications standards must be the responsibility of specialists in "Examples of such training (of data shop stewanls) informatics or of multi-disciplinary teams. are courses in systems work and project administration, sufficient to develop the The new situation makes it necessary to extend the competence needed to participate actively in competence, and thus the "professional language", in systems design." many professions by well considered and integrated concepts from infonnatics. From the point of view of "Collection, storage, processing and use of programmers these are good news, since challenging personal data shall not occur without due cause and interesting cooperative tasks are ahead. based on consideration for the operation of the enterprise. The individual enterprise shall clarify [Recent work relating to "profession-oriented the type of personal data which the computer languages" are found in {Bjerknes. G .• et al. 1985}. equipment shall collect, store, process and use." {Kaasbpll. J., 1986}. {Nygaard, K .. 1984}. {Sannes. f .• 1985} and {Sinding·LArsen. H .• f986} .} The above (and corresponding) agreement(s) are the main instruments when the social aspects of program and system development are negotiated in Norway. The REFERENCES "Working Environment Act" backs these provisions by general rules of law, but the agreements are more Andersson, J., 1974: "[ndustrif0rttagets produktjons. flexible for everyday use. 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