McNair Scholars Journal

Volume 11 | Issue 1 Article 7

2007 Between Black and White: An Exploratory Investigation of Biracialism in the United States and South Africa Whitney Laster Grand Valley State University

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Recommended Citation Laster, Whitney (2007) "Between Black and White: An Exploratory Investigation of Biracialism in the United States and South Africa," McNair Scholars Journal: Vol. 11: Iss. 1, Article 7. Available at: http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/mcnair/vol11/iss1/7

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Abstract Introduction The United States and South Africa In recent years biracialism has received a both endured periods of intense significant increase in scholarly investi- produced from rigid social hierarchies. gation. Mixed race people of black and While European populations controlled white ancestry--people who constitute these institutions, black populations a biracial identity--currently account remained marginalized. Critical race for 2.9% of the US population (U.S. theory proposes that race is socially Bureau of the Census 2000) and 8.9% constructed as opposed to inherently of the South African population (Statis- biological. Although social construction tics South Africa 1996). Experts predict of the white and black ethnicities formed that these numbers will continue to rise. similarly, the development of the mixing Unfortunately, many researchers do not of white and black into biracial peoples understand the scope and significance developed uniquely in each country. This these mixed-parentage people have in study will apply concepts from critical our societies. This research focuses on race theory to analyze similarities and the social constructions in the United differences within the constructions, States and South Africa that lead to the highlighting the elements of coloniza- social identity of biracial people today. Whitney Laster tion, , and de facto segregation These two countries make for a signifi- McNair Scholar and investigating the effects on the social cant comparative case study because of identity. their similarities, and as noted by anthro- pologist Ruth Landes, “the fundamental feature of American race relationships… [is] matched only in South Africa” (1955:1261). Previous research has been limited in a number of ways. Because of the histori- cal and present-day similarities that these countries share, there have been many scholars who have conducted compara- tive analyses between the United States and South Africa (Ansell 2006; Marx 1999; Frederickson 1997), but only a minority have dedicated their research specifically to the social construction of biracial people (Makalani 2003; Beckles 1994; Landes 1955). Race-relations in these countries have followed strong Jennifer Stewart, Ph.D. experiences of and Faculty Mentor black oppression, but the status of the mixed-raced people remains undefined. Another area in which research lacks is the emphasis on social identity. The scholars and researchers who have done work comparing the political dynamics of the United States and South Africa have left out much discussion on the social psychological aspects such as identity formation, societal pressures and stereotypes. This present research adds to the understanding of the societal effects of

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 11, 2007 37 history on the social identities of biracial 2004:55). This theory holds that race and categories shows how limiting racial people. In-depth accounts of historical identity are the product of the socializa- categorization is--not only are ethnicities events, political environments, and laws tion process. It is during the socializa- grouped together to an absurd degree, that have shaped racial labels to this day tion process where members of society there are many population groups that are will be analyzed to highlight the differ- look at a person’s physical attributes left out. ences between the two countries. Ad- and “learn what attributes to value or to Until recent years, the United States ditionally, this study will summarize the reject” (Rothenberg 2005:3). Ultimately, government had based its race categories social identity of biracial people in the the constructionist view proposes that off of this model, varying subgroups to United States and “Coloureds,” the label the meaning of one's race is created and fit the time period. Specific racial catego- of mixed-parentage people, in South learned by its perspective society. ries have changed with such frequency in Africa, from intimate interviews with Not only are racial categories created the United States that it is nearly impos- subjects self-identified as being biracial. but, as the biracial person exemplifies, sible to enumerate exact classification Similarly, this study will demonstrate the a category can also be transformed: schemes. Looking at the categories in commonalities shared by American and “Racial agreements of a society undergo South Africa we are able to see how this South African societies as they pertain to a constant process and restructuring as model was adapted and evolved to fit race-relations and social identity. a result of political and social change” their society. Reviewing race categories The goal of the study is to broaden the (Doane 1994:9). Critical Race Theory, of South Africa thus suggests how race research in the area on the construction in general, is extremely applicable can be socially constructed, because of biracial people. The questions I intend when investigating biracialism because South Africans created their own catego- to address begin with: What are the it contradicts and rejects the essential- ries to fit their unique structure, with the specific historical factors that influenced ist approach that a person’s physical official inclusion of mixed-raced people. the social construction of race within the or biological characteristics determine These racial categories of South Africa United States and South Africa? What their personal and social characteristics. have been well established and steady are the explicit factors that influenced the The essentialist or biology approach over the years than the United States. unique construction of biracial people? leaves no room for ambiguity or areas in The categories in South Africa are White, Or more importantly, what impacted the between because it generally looks for Black/African, Coloured and Indian. dichotomous American racial system absolutes. Noel Ignatiev, editor of Race in comparison to the continuous South Traitor, proclaims that “biological race Social Identity African system? And finally, what are the theories lead to absurdities… the well Identities are the definitional categories social identities of people categorized as known (American) phenomenon of white given by society to specify who we are. biracial? women giving birth to black babies, but A person’s social identity is determined a black woman can never give birth to a by a variety of factors and they serve as Social Construction of Race white baby” (1995:1). With the creation the social location for a person’s posi- In much of the literature (Newman 2007; of “new races,” new social meanings tion in the world (Newman 1996:33). Omi-Winant 1994; Rothenberg 2005), formulated to attach to the race labels. Social Identity Theory (Kaufman 2003; two main perspectives on identities Different societies have invented differ- Eramsus 2002; Tajfel 1982) examines the emerge: essentialism and construction- ent labels and meanings for the biracial effects of society on individual iden- ism. An essentialist argues that identity people, further evidencing how race is tity. The theory suggests that personal is an inherent and universal fact, that the constructed by social context. identity is largely based on membership characteristics of a person are biologi- in social categories. These categories ex- cally determined at birth. An alternative Racial Categories press characteristics associated with the theory to essentialism is constructionism, The socialization process which all identity, define appropriate behavior, and which argues that identity is the “prod- humans have all undergone to understand access the social worth of that identity. uct of a person’s context, place, cultural race is dependent upon racial catego- Individuals have multiple social identi- influences, and time period” (Newman ries. Johann Friedrich Blumenbachm ties dependent on religious or sexual 2007:36). When applied to race, essen- (1752-1840) was a prominent German choices, physical appearance, nationali- tialism views race as biological and/or anatomist and early anthropologist who ties, sex, etc. Identities are both subjec- cultural, while constructionism shares studied the science behind racial preju- tive and objective categories that are ideas with Critical Race Theory, propos- dice. Blumenbach is widely known for formed during the socialization process. ing that race is a social construct (New- his study on the classifications of human Prominent scholar of social identities man 2007; Doane 2003; Haney-Lopez races. Even to this day the Webster David Newman proposes that the forma- 1996). Race is a constructed category dictionary gives reference to the Blu- tion of a person’s “social racial identity influenced and accepted by society. The menbach Study on race (Haney-Lopez is constructed through human identifiers” social construction of race refers to the 1996:6). The model divides the human (1996:37). The identifiers are dependent “sociohistorical process by which racial race into five groups: Caucasian, Mon- on context, often think in terms of op- categories are created, inhabited, trans- golian, Ethiopian, American, and Malay. posites, reflect social rankings and power formed, and destroyed” (Omi-Winant Grouping the entire human race into five relations, and have psychological and

38 Between Black and White: An Exploratory Investigation of Biracialism in the United States and South Africa structural meanings (p. 38). Although date ethnic identifications on the basis of although the rule is no longer in effect this formula seems basic, the formation color, it was widely understood that most through law, the idea lives on to this day. of biracial people is complicated. The blacks were slaves, and no slaves were As a social response to the strictness identity of a biracial person is not stan- white (Beckles 1994:37). of the rule, many biracial people tried dard throughout varying contexts, and White slave masters used the scheme to gain solidarity through their ties of therefore social rankings and structural that black skin color equates slave status blackness and soon began to accept and meanings also fluctuate significantly. to their advantage, and often engaged internalize their black identity. Because being biracial means falling in forced sex with their female slaves somewhere in between the established because “rape of a slave was not a crime” Fall of Slavery categories, it has no opposite to draw (Marx 1998:58). Soon laws were created When the Declaration of Independence definite comparisons to. Identities are to address these interracial sexual activi- was signed in 1776, the words “all men definitional categories, yet there is not a ties. The 1662 Naturity Conditions stated are created equal” echoing throughout all definite identity of mixed-race people, that in situations where there were doubts Americans, many blacks felt emancipa- sustaining the lack of definite category about the race of a slave child, they tion would shortly occur. But less than for biracial people. would be determined a slave or free ac- twenty years later the line “Any alien, Identity evaluation is important be- cording to the condition of their mother. being a free white person, may be admit- cause it shows the role of an individual Laws stating that the child’s racial identi- ted to become a citizen of the United or group within society. The lack of fication is dependent on the mothers’ sta- States” was written in the Naturalization social recognition that biracial people tus therefore meant the illegitimate child Act of 1795 (Congress Naturalization face can lead to lack of a strong self and of a white male and black female would Act). The Act states that only whites social identity and can result in social be a slave, because interracial relations qualified as citizens of the U.S. and had exclusion, confusion, and personal rarely occurred in other combination. a tremendous impact of the status of insecurities. Sociologist Mary Waters blacks. testified before Congress during the 2000 One-Drop Rule Eventually by 1830, black freedom census trials regarding social identity Contradictory to the opinion of white fighters and abolitionists really began and its meaning for biracial people. She slave owners, other white citizens did not to make waves toward better treatment highlighted the positive changes that like the thought of white impurity and of blacks. Throughout, however, inter- could occur with the recognition of the laws soon appeared to prohibit interracial racial relations had still persisted and biracial people in the U.S., stating “the marriage, though the act of sex between biracial children remained bound to fact that the group does not exist now different races was never banned. Soon, the black slave status. Because of the does not mean the group cannot come the multitude of biracial generations large numbers of biracial children and into existence and begin to have social caused hysteria because it defied the need their offspring, the 1850 Census finally meaning for people” (as cited in Maka- for clearly defined racial boundaries. divided the nonwhite population into lani 2003:90). Some biracial people with light enough black and . Mulatto was the skin tones began to pass for white, threat- first governmental term used to identify Historical Comparison ening to disrupt the white race’s purity. a biracial person. It derives from the The One-Drop Rule was constructed Spanish and Portuguese word for "small Forming a Nation: The United States to fix to the biracial problem. By the mule." Mulatto was used inconsistently of America mid-nineteenth century “the offspring of in the Census until 1930, but is gener- When the first slaves came to North interracial unions were generally catego- ally considered offensive because it was America in 1619 they were traded by rized as blacks even if they only had one once a generic designation term used for merchants of the Dutch West Indian drop of African blood” (Marx 1998:69). all hybrids. The enumerators declared Company for food. These slaves were The One-Drop Rule is one of the most one’s racial category according to the initially considered indentured servants. prominent ideologies that affects the state person’s physical appearance. Therefore, The black slaves were considered strong of biracial people to this day. Haney- a person could be black in one census workers but had come from dissimi- Lewis describes the rule as a basic meta- and mulatto in another. Overall, in 1850 lar cultures that the whites dismissed phor of purity and contamination: “White the census recorded 11.2% of the black as being ignorant and uncivilized. So, is unblemished and pure, so one drop population as mulatto (Painter 2006:59). although the black servants were not of ancestral Black blood renders one This figure is likely to be extremely low initially labeled as slaves, the inhumane Black” (1996:27) and therefore impure. because many people at the time refused treatment they received and the fact that An impure person could not be white. to acknowledge racial mixing. they had no control over their own lives Therefore biracial people were legally Finally in 1865 with the passing of the led to the belief that they were slaves. identified as black, and the explicit poles Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitu- Unlike their white indentured servant of white/good/superior and black/evil/ tion, blacks were granted citizenship and counterparts, no ethical contract was ever subservient were once again defined. guaranteed equal rights with whites, and signed between the parties. Subsequently, The One-Drop rule has been transferred the Fifteenth Amendment gave suffrage though slaves did not blatantly consoli- from generation to generation, and to all men no matter what skin color.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 11, 2007 39 Although it seemed like the end of racial tity, label or culture, and lumped into one Act of 1964 overall helped the social domination and oppression of blacks, all-encompassing category. and economic status of blacks because soon a new president came into office The United States strived to define it desegregated all public places, and and progress soon regressed, as ingrained distinct races throughout the twentieth increased job and educational positions. racial attitudes continued to permeate. In century, but, for the most part, a person Since the civil rights era, programs, 1883 the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which was either white and received societal marches, persuasive speeches, etc. have declared equal treatment of everyone and legal privileges, or non-white and tried to improve the situation of black in public accommodations, was ruled treated as inferior. Some tried to define Americans, and thus biracial Americans unconstitutional. The Supreme Court their race through legal means in order too. Even with the continuing fight for declared that the Fourteenth Amendment to gain such rights and privileges. There greater acceptance of racial groups, it forbids states, but not citizens, from are 52 documented cases that were was not until the 1990s when accep- discriminating. (Painter 2006:141). brought before the courts to decide if a tance and use of the term biracial gained person was white or not (Haney-Lopez popularity, and it is still on the rise. The Jim Crow Era 1996:4). None of them had to do with a U.S. Census 2000 was the first census "One of the biggest fears in society black American of mixed race wanting in which respondents were allowed to was the mixing of the races; this was to be considered legally white because, indicate a multiracial identity, and can be something the white people vowed to although frequent, this claim would be viewed as “another step in racial forma- stop. The government succeeded by ruled out immediately because of the tion” (Schaefer 2000:16). Some lobbied using the segregation laws” (Wagman underlying racial prejudice. The majority for listing the term “multiracial” on 1993:197). In 1896 in the monumental of the cases included people from Asia or the census but a compromise on allow- Supreme Court case of Plessy V. Fergu- the Middle East. Each case varied in cer- ance of checking multiple identities was son, the courts ruled for “separate but tain ways, with the determining factors reached. equal.” The ruling was of monumental often being skin color or other subjective There are many new organizations, significance because it was stating that categories. This was controversial be- publications, and Web sites (see appen- the government backed racial prejudice cause the Supreme Court sometimes had dix) that provide valuable information by ruling legal separation of the races. to reject the same scientific explanations and support for biracial people today This is equally important to the history of race that were used to degrade blacks in the United States. The significance of biracial people because interracial in favor of common knowledge beliefs, of these programs and support groups communication was extremely difficult. when the science failed to reinforce are tremendous. Biracial people are The ruling is commonly noted as the start popular beliefs about race. For instance now hearing their voice in U.S. society of what we now call the Jim Crow era, the court ruled that “skin color cannot and have been able to encounter more “a legal expression of racial domination” serve as racial lines we are familiar with” personal positive gains. The creation (Marx 1998:140). (Haney-Lopez 1996:59) and went on to of these programs and groups show the ruled the South and say a person’s physical attributes had evolution of new racial categories, and spread into some areas of the North little to do with their racial identity. how changing history creates new stories as well. Jim Crow was known first as in these people’s lives. Research supports a “stage Negro” and the name soon Civil Rights and the that the biracial label will continue to became known as a collective racial Biracial Movement transform from the “socially unstable” epithet. The popularity of the shows that Tired of being oppressed, many black identity (Makalani 1994:91) to an ac- portrayed blacks as coons spread Jim Americans used their strengthening edu- cepted racial distinctiveness. It also Crow as a racial slur. Jim Crow soon be- cation and voice to stir up a significant shows that this newly accepted American gan to signify black disenfranchisement civil rights movement. When the white racial category is a social construction, and brutal segregation, but by 1900 Jim primary was banned in 1944 blacks slow- and not a biological distinction. Crow meant a system of laws to segre- ly regained the right to vote and power gate all aspects of life and deemed blacks in the United States. During this period Forming a Nation: Republic of as inferior to whites (Davis n.d.). Misce- of the mid 1900s solidarity was key, and South Africa genation laws that criminalized marriage many black Americans unified, with the About 30 years after the Dutch landed in between whites and people of other help and support of some whites. Day-to- the Americas they reached yet another races increased in degree and frequency day victories by individuals were backed "new world." In 1652 Dutch navigators during the early twentieth century, and by collective measures, like proactive in the Dutch East Indian Company land- American "" were treated the equality groups such as the National ed on the western cape of what is now same as "negros." This strict segregation Urban League and the National Associa- South Africa. From 1652 until the 1870s meant that the whites did not, by law or tion for Advancement of Colored People. this land and its indigenous population by choice, interact much with blacks or The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was very would become familiar with encounters biracial people. All mixed-race people in influential, along with the Voting Rights with white colonial settlers from Western this time who could not pass for white Act of 1965, in ending the disenfran- Europe. The Dutch (initially referred to were stripped of a separate racial iden- chisement of blacks. The Civil Rights as Boers) planned to use the area as a

40 Between Black and White: An Exploratory Investigation of Biracialism in the United States and South Africa reenergizing stop for its vessels on the heritage groups did not have a respected way to India. They appeared to keep label, but rather they were known more Pre- to themselves and didn’t expand their by what they were not: neither white nor With growing wealth and capital, class land holdings until about five years later indigenous Africans (Martin 2002). For stratification became more and more when they began to view their coinci- some time, Malay people (typically from prevalent. Some scholars (Chazan 1999; dental landing at the southernmost tip of Malaysia or Indonesia) were also lumped Marx 1998; Frederickson 1997) argue Africa as more than a pit stop to India. into this category. All of these people that studies about racial stratification are The Dutch began expropriating land and eventually became known as "people directly correlated to studies of power importing black slaves from the same of colour," a term that evolved over and struggles for material resources. northern areas where people were being time by social and lingual adaptation to With the discovery of diamonds and captured and shipped to the Americas “Coloured” people. The very creation gold, race and class stratification soon (Hopkinson 1964). and existence of the Coloured identity became a permanent fixture of South The black inhabitants did not under- significantly distinguishes the historical African society. Whites rose steadily stand nor welcome the Boers and many contexts of the United States and South to the wealthy class as the non-whites small wars occurred during this time. Africa. The mixed-race people in South scrambled for a place on the spectrum. Although tension was high, the Africans Africa are given a social and political Although blacks did hold some posi- were not unfamiliar with war and did not identity before, as opposed to after, major tions in the mines or as servants, the think of the white invaders as much of a racial oppression and discrimination was overwhelming majority of white South threat. The two groups often seemed to written into their legal codes. Their ac- Africans still viewed them as a backward be interdependent for shared lifestyles cepted racial label allowed the Coloured race. The black Africans, stemming from and mutual convenience (Chazan et al. people to create a meaning, although a legacy of oppression, remained un- 1999). The technology of the Boers gave subjective and ambiguous, which gave educated and lived in destitution. Some them an unequal advantage when they them a group say in the history of South chose to hold onto traditional values did engaged in battle with other natives, Africa. and lifestyles while they remained at and upon winning they began to take the Overall during the seventeenth cen- the poor farming or subsistence level. conquered Africans as slaves for them- tury, life in most of South Africa was The Coloured people once again fell in selves. Colonization was in full effect reasonably calm, although small ter- between the two poles. during the late fifteenth century and soon ritorial battles were being fought in the Social identity was as unclear as the the British set their eyes on the beau- coastal areas. Governmental institutions definition for the Coloured people. Both ties and resources of southern Africa. were based on supposed nonracial fran- in 1937 and 1976 when the South Afri- Through an agreement made with the chising open to land-owning males, and can government tried to define the racial Dutch, the British claimed rights to most the formation of representative govern- label no consensus could be reached of the lands surrounding the southern ment began in 1853 (Lewis 1987). The (Lewis 1987). Racially mixed citizens cape of Africa. equipoise of people was disrupted when were, at this time, simply the descendents For the next century a plethora of diamonds were found in 1867 and gold of white and black ancestry and viewed wars, battles, and squabbles were fought in 1886 by the eastern coast lines. This by whites as an acceptable working between the Boers and the Africans, the lure of instant wealth amplified the popu- class, if they remained at a distance. It British and the Boers, the Africans and lations of Europeans in South Africa to was thought at this time that Coloured the British, and among African tribes. 200,000 in 1865 and over one million by people were above the status of the black They fought to determine who owned 1905 (Chazan et al. 1999). The mining Africans, giving the Coloureds some po- what land and who created the laws of industries soon completely transformed litical voice. Racial divisions continued those lands. By the 1800s, the dominat- the country and its future. The demand to increase and although the principle of ing British had a strong hold over laws for mineral wealth intensified altercations non-white franchise remained intact until and land in the region and their liberal between all population groups. From 1910, when the Union of South Africa ideology set the foundation for anti- 1899 to 1902 over 500,000 British troops was established, voting qualifications slavery laws passed in the 1830s (Lewis were sent to squash African empires, seemed to rise whenever non-whites 1987). The capturing of Africans for such as the Zulu, and to suppress Boer were close to meeting the standards slaves and the egalitarian views of the power (Chazan et al. 1999). The domi- (Lewis 1987). The South African Act of British began the first generations of nating figure before the rush for precious 1909 removed the right for Coloureds to people from both European and southern material was the poor rural farmer, indif- stand and serve as elected or nominated African ancestry. ferent to color or race; after, it was the representatives in the houses of Parlia- Most historians believe that by 1838 whites equipped with funding from their ment. An even greater blow came with the population of the Cape colony was overseas ties that prospered from the an all-white franchise (including women) made up of white colonists, Khoi-San booming economy. with the Franchise Laws Amendment (African ethnic titles) and a group of Act of 1931 (La Guma n.d.). This meant heterogeneous people of mixed parent- the numbers of the white population who age. At this time, many of the mixed were able to vote increased, decreasing

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 11, 2007 41 the power of Coloureds. rated the entire South African population calling Coloured as leftovers or “people As an attempt to create a stronger into distinct racial groups. All of these that were left after the nations were voice for the non-whites, the African legal regulations are important to note sorted out” (Erasmus 2002:18). The Political Organization (APO) became the because they effect social interaction by Coloured label was so indefinitive that first national political organization for limiting it to one's specific race. These in some documents “coloured” would be Coloured people in 1902. Although this racial groups were estranged to an ex- written or typed in undercase lettering, organization’s membership was entirely treme when the Group Areas Act of 1950 whereas the other racial labels all began Coloured, the consensus agreed upon was implemented. The act became the with uppercase (Reddy 2002). During early on was to have greater allegiances heart of the apartheid system designed to this time, the South African government with other African-based organizations geographically separate the racial groups. went through a wide variety of illogical (La Guma n.d.). Even with said alle- Population control was a central theme tests and categorization rules to deter- giance to blacks, the APO distinguished used by the Apartheid government for mine race. For instance, when determin- themselves specifically as Coloured. The a successful platform during the elec- ing whether a person was Coloured or APO’s goal was to increase power of the tion, urging the white South Africans to native (African), they would ask which non-white population. In the decades that increase their power within the country sport they played. If they answered rugby followed the APO’s creation, racial ten- by increasing group separation. Once in they were Coloured, but if they answered sion increased and whites gained more power, they implemented segregation soccer they were native (Posel 2001). political power. Soon, a new generation and legally enforced Apartheid, “as race Similar to the cases in the United of Coloured radicals formed and rejected became the factor in the distribution States, there were many cases in South the passive cooperation of the APO and rights” (McEachern 2002:219). District Africa to determine one's race. Racial formed the National Liberation League Six, a well-populated heterogeneous identity cases were heard by the Race of South Africa in 1935. area transformed into an all-white area Classification Appeal Board, and 17 in weeks after the Group Areas Act was made it to the South African Supreme Apartheid passed, is one of the most prominent Court. Physical anthropologists and Even with the Coloured and African examples of the effects of the Popula- geneticists were often called to stand as political and social organizations, the tion Act. Every other race group was expert witnesses. By 1964, 3,940 appeals National Party came to power in 1948. In displaced and thousands became home- had been made; one-third of the appeals this same year the National Party intro- less overnight. Peaceful neighborhood were by Coloureds who wanted to be duced the system of apartheid. Apartheid ties were broken, and from this point considered white, and the rest from na- derives from the Dutch language and on, housing arrangements were based tives who wanted to claim the Coloured refers to “apart or separate.” It was a solely on skin color, and the whites were label (Posel 2001). These cases were political extension of the Dutch policy always assigned to the well-maintained actually insignificant in number or effect of baasskap, translated into "bosshood," and environmentally sound areas. when compared to the numbers of mil- meaning complete white domination of One of the main goals of the apartheid lions of absurd categories given, and also society (Hopkinson 1964). Apartheid left regime was to place every person living because rulings of the cases differed and black Africans legally and economically in South Africa into a distinct racial outcomes were often viewed as luck of powerless, and gave very few opportuni- category; however, defining the Coloured the draw. ties to the Coloureds and Asian popula- race proved to be difficult. An example is tions. For instance the Electoral Law the Population Registration Act No. 30 of Post-Apartheid Amendment Act, which passed shortly 1950, which defined a Coloured person Blurred and misguided views by the after, gave Coloureds the opportunity to as a person who “is not a white person outside world made many other countries vote only in the presence of a white elec- nor native” (Erasmus 2002:18). The believe that Apartheid was a good system toral officer. In effect the Coloured vote, Population Registration Act’s main goal for South Africa. Between 1948 and and overall power, had little significance was to codify racial purity. By this time, 1970 South Africa was the second-fastest because of their low numbers. the Coloured race was distinct, by defini- growing economy in the world (Chazan New laws continued to emerge under tion that they were neither black nor et al. 1999). The economic boom in the Apartheid system to decrease inter- white. New generations of racial mixing some aspects backfired on the whites in racial mixing in both public and private were prohibited by this time because “ra- power because it forced them to loosen sectors. The Mixed Marriage Act was cial mixing was an evil thing, bringing some of the restrains set on the Africans passed in 1949 to “check blood mixture biological, moral, and social pollution” to fulfill the greater need for manpower. and promote racial purity” (Hopkinson (Posel 2001:100). Internally, most non-whites were tired 1964:90). This notion was further em- Throughout the Apartheid era, of the harsh constraints of Apartheid, phasized a year later with the passing of Coloureds were forced to consolidate a and with the slight decrease of rigidity, the Immorality Act that imposed severe definite group but the exact definition black and Coloured leaders arose. The penalties for sexual relations between of their identity was unclear. Marike de Soweto School Uprising in 1976 resulted whites and non-whites. In 1950 the Klerk, wife of the last state president in hundreds of blacks killed or impris- Population Registration Act No. 30 sepa- during the apartheid era was quoted for oned and became a call to action. Sit-ins,

42 Between Black and White: An Exploratory Investigation of Biracialism in the United States and South Africa speeches, and rallies ignited across the people in the United States. suggested that “race relations on cam- nation, very similar to the Civil Rights pus is a particularly powerful part of the movement in the U.S. Media coverage of When one considers the question societal and university context in which the injustices of South Africa increased, of a ‘coloured identity’ in today’s racial identity is played out” (Chesler, and the protests also increased in power South Africa, what emerges is a Peet, and Sevig 2003:215). Because and effect, soon leading to the death of situation full of ambiguities and college life allows identity formations to the Apartheid regimen (Chazan 1999). contradictions: people who were take place, I chose to conduct interviews Finally in 1983, Coloured people formerly oppressed to the very idea with college students in the United States regained their ability to be represented of a ‘coloured culture’ and are now and South Africa to better understand the in parliament. However they were se- rediscovering it and presenting it current biracial state. The two universi- cluded to separate exclusive chambers. as a contribution to South African ties I focused on were Grand Valley The United Democratic Front (UDF) culture. (Martin 2002:222) State University and the University of was launched in 1983 and membership KwaZulu-Natal. soon expanded to about three million Coloureds are continuing efforts to em- Grand Valley State University (GVSU) members. Anti-Apartheid organizations, brace their identity and celebrate it. is a medium-sized liberal arts college, international resource sanitations, and The new collective and social identi- located on the west side of Michigan, boycotts against parliament were fre- ties of the Coloureds were made public a midwestern state in the U.S. Racial quent (Chazan 1999). Internal battles be- during testimonies throughout the trials tension appears to run high in Michigan, tween citizen armies and police brigades of the Truth and Reconciliation Com- which ranks second for race-related hate in townships, and external financial pres- mittee, a place where witnesses and crimes in the 50 states (Federal Bureau sures headed by human rights activists, offenders were subpoenaed to recollect of Investigation 2004), and GVSU has finally led to the end of Apartheid. To the events during apartheid and to pos- also encountered hate crimes target- head off a even more gruesome uprising, sibly gain amnesty. The transformation ing minority students. Grand Valley the Apartheid government eventually of the social identity of the Coloureds is showing efforts to make a tolerable released the ban on the African National can be seen through Zahrah Narkadien’s environment for its students through Congress, a strong black powered politi- testimony as reported by Grunebaum student groups and diversity promo- cal party, and also released the national and Robins: “We had a history that was tions by administration. GVSU has a peace icon, Nelson Mandela. All of these forced on us by the South African gov- total population of 22,000 students, with events finally led to the one person-one ernment” (2002:160). She told the com- a high percentage of whites. However, vote election in 1994 where Mandela be- mittee about the stereotypes of Coloureds with increasing overall enrollment, the came the first truly democratic president. being violent citizens and the subsequent proportion of minority students has risen. unfair treatment. Telling the story of one The University of KwaZulu-Natal The New South Africa situation, she was thrown into solitary (UKZN) is located in the coastal city, Even with the repeal of the Population confinement for seven months after a Durban, in the largely populated prov- Registration Act, the racial categories fight broke out and she heard the warden ince of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. still remain in South Africa. They can be say, "Let's blame it on the Coloured!" Formally called Province of Natal dur- heard in casual conversation, can be seen She continued, “So I suffered just for ing the apartheid era, the name change in the work place, in housing or educa- being a Coloured woman. I thought I was embraced the large black-Zulu culture of tion applications, and are still used by the just an African woman… because my the area. Under the new government the government. For example, the Employ- parents had always taught me that my school merged the once predominantly ment Equity Act in 1998 reproduces the ancestors were African. But I despised it white University of Natal with highly racial categories, but attempts to make at first.” She thought being either African Indian populated University of Durban- amends to the Population Registration or a white Afrikaan would be better, until Westville to make UKZN in 2004. The Act by opening more job opportuni- she gained her freedom from jail and enrollment is now quite high compared ties to Coloureds, Indians and Blacks. then her freedom to embrace and enjoy to other public schools, as it ranks 38,532 The powerful legacy of Apartheid left her Coloured identity (Grunebaum and students. Since the merge, racial barriers the new South Africa with some hefty Robbins 2002: 160). Zahrah’s journey to have diminished at a welcoming rate; problems to work out. The structures that reach a positive biracial identity can be however, though achieving a multiracial were built to support the institutionalized applied to the majority of mixed-raced enrollment status, racial groups are still racism are still undergoing a revamp- people not only in South Africa, but also solidified around the campus. ing process, and racist attitudes are still in the United States. For the purpose of this study, subjects deeply entrenched. One of the biggest who had only black and white ances- contemporary issues is how to address try were chosen. Although including the social equation: Coloured identity The Biracial Social Identity students who identify as white or black equating to the problem identity (Reddy or other multiracial identities would Methodology 2002). Even so, Coloureds are engag- A study that attempted to understand likely provide further insight to the racial ing in steps similar to those of biracial racial awareness among college students construction in these countries, for this

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 11, 2007 43 initial study I focused on the specific tention of the subjects, and the data do would most identity with out of given “in-betweeness” of the two: white and reflect revealing patterns. An almost choices, all but one subject chose black black. Selection for participants began equal number of males and females were over white. One hundred percent chose with contact of people who have publicly represented and a variety of age, educa- Coloured, but it dropped to 63% when made aware their identity. At GVSU tional levels, and majors were represent- the label multiracial was available. initial contact was made with self-pro- ed in the sample. The sample is a good claimed bi- or multiracial participants of representation of the total population of Qualitative Analysis a preestablished group, the Multiracial university students who are biracial, and Racial Identification: Student Association. In South Africa, data conclusions were generalized for initial contacts with students came about fascinating conclusions. One girl asked me, if I was mixed in classroom dialogue, in which their In the United States more than half why wasn’t I gray or half or my identity was publicly announced within of the participants were raised by single body black and half white. the discussions. I then used snowball white mothers. Thirty-six percent of sampling, asking them to nominate two participants grew up in black neighbor- A strong similarity between the two to three other persons who are self-pro- hoods and 54% spent the majority of nations was seen right away. In ref- claimed biracial or considered by peers their childhood in a diverse environment. erence to a question focused on the that could potentially respond to the sur- Although only one participant grew up socialization process used to recognize vey, until I reached my targeted sample in a predominantly white neighborhood, and learn race categories, 81% of both size of 11 subjects in each country. almost 50% attended a predominately American and South African subjects The subjects received a survey white school system. When asked if they mentioned schools as the institution questionnaire (see appendix) soliciting could choose a particular racial group responsible for this learning process. demographic information, while a tape to surround themselves, 27% said they Newman (2007:132) claims that one of recorder was used to capture open-ended would choose a predominantly black area the most powerful institutional agents of dialogue about identity. The survey where the rest choose a diverse multira- socialization is the educational system requested information on family life, cial area. About 73% of participants said for children because they “subtly teach school settings, preference in dating, that race was slightly important when them who they are and what they can choices in selective race labels, and choosing a significant other while one expect from themselves in the future.” intimate inquiries about their identity and participant said they would never date a Almost all of the participants, indifferent shifts throughout their life. Due to the white person. When asked to choose the of country, recalled their memories with hesitancy of some people to talk about race label they would most identify with feelings of confusion and frustration or race, respondents were prompted to make out of given choices, 100% of the sub- with humorous retrospect of ignorant sure all areas were fully addressed. The jects chose black over white, 90% chose comments. Participants recounted stories interviews were administered in empty mixed over white or black, and when when their peers or teachers labeled them classrooms in the universities in the com- given the choice of multiracial, again in a racial category they did not consider pany of the researcher only. 90% chose that self-identifying label. themselves belonging to. One American For the most part, participants were re- In South Africa 73% of participants who attended a primarily white school ceptive and willing to share their biracial were raised by two-parent households recounted: stories, perhaps because past opportuni- in which most of their parents were ties to discuss their identity and related also identified as multiracial.Twenty- I was on the bus and the kids were aspects have not been offered often, if seven percent were raised in Coloured saying that I was Mexican. And I at all. The only difficulties encountered communities, another 27% were raised didn’t know better so I thought I with participants centered around time in predominantly white areas, and the was Mexican so I went home and I constraints. Prompting did occur, but for remaining 46% reported being raised in told my mom I was Mexican. And the most part the open-ended questions diverse areas. Thirty-six percent went to she laughed and was like “no no,” were in conversational form and partici- schools that catered to the Coloured com- so she got out a globe and showed pants had control of the direction of the munities, 18% were enrolled in a diverse me Mexico, and then Germany conversation. In addition, this study was school system, and a little less than half and she said that’s were she was completely voluntary and all participants attended predominantly white schools. from, and then Africa and she said were free to end the discussion or leave Twenty-seven percent of the participants that’s where my dad was from. the study at any time. No participants left said that race was very important when Then she showed me the U.S. and prior to the completion of the study. choosing a significant other, another said people came from all over. 27% said it was completely unimport- And I’m a mixture… I think this ant, and the remaining group felt it had all went over my head at this time. Findings/Results some relevance. Twenty-seven percent And I still thought I was Mexican. The data were analyzed descriptively to said they would not date a black person establish trends. Although the sample and 9% would not date a white person. Other subjects both in the U.S. and S.A. size was small it allowed for full at- When asked to choose the race label they mentioned standardized tests, adminis-

44 Between Black and White: An Exploratory Investigation of Biracialism in the United States and South Africa tered through the educational system. best summarized through one respon- classes or around campus students would Filling out the questionnaire of govern- dent’s recount: “Yeah. All the time. I remark about their small representation ment-issued tests that do not acknowl- feel like I had to choose. In high school in the school. edge mixed-race people can deny one's I felt like I had to act more black to be The apparent difference in these racial identity and force biracial people accepted. I always knew I was both but stereotypes is that American subjects to choose a race that is not their own. In it was just easier that way.” The majority encounter them primarily when trying this way, schools play a role in the pro- of the same American subjects also felt to gain acceptance into a preestablished duction of race as a social category both as though their skin tone automatically racial group, whereas the stereotypes of “through implicit and explicit lessons in made them an outcast amongst their the South Africans subjects are applied the schools practice” (Lewis 2004:188). white peers, perhaps resulting from the independent of context and to their own One South African participant recounted legacy of the One-Drop Rule, causing the preestablished racial group. In effect, a survey she was asked to fill out and internalized belief that their brown skin South African participants have a greater said “it was only white or black. I felt color means they are not white. In at- social support network when facing feel- like I had no say. They didn’t recognize tempting to find a social group to belong ing of alienation, because they do have us. I left it blank because I didn’t want to to, they often had to try to adopt black their Coloured group identity and an choose.” cultural values and reject white ones. existing network to turn to. On the other All of these recollections show the This is highlighted in a subject’s com- hand, many American subjects encoun- confusion created through arbitrary race ments: “I don’t even like rap but I made tered stereotypic issues when trying to labels that are produced in society and myself listen to it so I could fit in with gain acceptance and comfort of group reproduced through everyday language. the hip black crowd.” solidarity and, therefore, had difficulties At young ages when children are trying American subjects also encountered in finding social support due to hostility, to figure out their own identities and racial slurs such as “house nigga,” rejection, or barriers of distinct white or place in the world, being multiracial “whitewashed” or “oreo” by some mem- black identity. can add to the confusion and prolong bers of the black community. They noted the identity shaping process. According that, because of the way they dressed, Adaptability: to Lewis, the schools that most of the spoke, or even the neighborhood they participants attended chose to reproduce lived in, they could never be fully ac- 'Cause when you’re in Rome do as (probably subconsciously) “rather than cepted by blacks because they were not the Romans does [sic]. challenge the contemporary racial forma- “fully black.” Subjects also recounted tions of society” (2004:190). stories of where they felt alone or con- Another prevailing difference between fused within social or racial groups and the groups arose from the question about In-betweeness: how they tried to transform themselves having to be or feeling forced to choose to fit into the certain group by listening between black and white racial groups. I'm not quite over there and then to certain music or only attending certain One of the strongest and persistent they’re like you can’t come over functions. Almost all of these stories themes appeared in the analysis of this here. were relayed in past tense and subjects question, that of adaptability. Coloureds felt that with personal growth, race took this opportunity to say that they The second question of the open-ended seems to matter less to their personal are proud of their Coloured heritage and section of the survey, which asked esteem. they would not want to be anything but whether the subject’s race ever made The stereotypes Coloureds encoun- what they are. For instance, participants him/her feel ostracized, illustrated more tered seemed to be embedded in the proudly proclaimed, “No, I like being similarities between the countries. The historical racism of South African culture coloured. I don’t want to be anything same number (90%) of participants said and institutional structures. Deemed by else….The best of both worlds,” and, that their biracial status has indeed made many white South Africans as “leftovers” “No, I don’t choose. Like I can change them feel ostracized at some point in and “trash,” many subjects said they feel who I might be in different situations.” their lives. Differences did surface when ostracized because of the harsh stereo- One hundred percent of the American analyzed further; the majority of Ameri- types they battle on a daily basis that subjects responded that they are forced can students recounted more stories of are attached to everyone in their racial by societal pressures to choose a distinct being in the out-group from the black group. Sixty-three percent mentioned race of either black or white, and 72% American standpoint, whereas the South stereotypes in answering the question of subjects said that at one point in their African participants told of harsh stereo- about their race making them feel ostra- life, they did wish to solely constitute types they battle primarily from whites. cized, and gave examples, such as, “We either the white or black racial group. When asked if they ever felt forced [are] viewed as the violent, drug-abusing, Even so, the theme of adaptability reoc- to “choose a side” by downplaying alcoholic, take-no-shit kind of people.” curred at the same time. This means either their “whiteness” or “blackness,” Subjects recounted stories of times where that subjects felt that they were able to American subjects said they often felt whites ran away from them if they were easily adapt to different social and racial the pressure to “be more black.” This is in large groups, or how in discussions in settings. Through personal growth many

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 11, 2007 45 concluded that the “forcing to fit” into because of their mixed ancestry from different race groups positively affected Conclusion the two most prevalent and opposing their ability to adapt to the groups when Despite the limitations (time constraints distinct race groups of white and black. needed: “I wanted to at least be accepted of the research and the somewhat narrow Their unique in-between role gives them by people who looked like me and when sample size for the subject interview), the opportunity to socially adapt to other they didn’t it was like, 'what do I gotta the information gathered through inves- race groups, and to experience the best of do,' ya know? But now I’m cool with it, tigation of the historical environments both worlds. like I said; I’m in the middle, I can move and the significance of the surfacing As research and literature in the Unit- around!” In total 77.2% of all of the par- themes produced in the surveys can not ed States on multiracial identities con- ticipants mentioned the word “adapt” and be downplayed. Through literary and tinue to grow into the academic sphere, many said it multiple times throughout subject-interview analysis, evidence it will be important to reference the gains the conversation. supports that history, in both the United of the Coloureds in South Africa and Participants said they used their ability States and South Africa, does have a continue cross-country and cross-cultural to adapt, a positive and unique character- strong effect on one's personal identity. analysis. Historical analysis and con- istic that other racial groups are robbed As noted through the historical back- temporary research on trends in identity of. According to most subjects, distinct ground, these two countries, located in and race will expand our understanding race groups do not have the same ability completely opposite hemispheres, under- of biracial identity and the social need or opportunity to adapt; for instance, as went notably similar patterns throughout for group identity. Further research can this South African student proclaimed, “I their nation formation. Black populations enrich some preliminary assumptions have had the ability to be, well, experi- remained marginalized through coloniza- this research produces. For instance, ence, things that others can’t.” When tion, slavery, and segregation to varying why were the mothers of the majority of encountering situations where they could degrees in both countries. Prevailing American subjects white, and how does be in a minority position, many subjects through racial prejudice, discrimination this contribute to their child’s multiracial felt as though their mixed race allowed and separation, miscegenation was fre- awareness and social identity? As this them to accept the racial or cultural dif- quent, resulting in generations of people work suggests, if we are able to explore ferences, and adapt to them. Although with racially mixed parentage, biracial history we may be better able to cri- they admit that it can be a difficult people. tique the construction of these people to balancing act, “Being coloured it’s … it's Although the United States and South enhance a great social cohesiveness and like walking the fence. Bordering two Africa shared similarities of foundational positive social meaning for all people.  worlds and hard to balance. Hard to stay structures, the social construction of the on top but we don’t want to fall.” Falling biracial people differed. South Africa ac- off of the fence that borders the two races cepted the mixed-race label of Coloured means the biracial people could not enjoy during its formation process, allow- the “the best of both worlds,” the clichéd ing the South African biracial people but real phrase that the overwhelming to constitute their own unique racial majority of participants mentioned. group. Contrary to the more continuous American subjects shared very similar racial categories of South Africa, the feelings. As mentioned, they appeared to dichotomist nature of the United States undergo a more intense identity process forced racial polarization. The separate but concluded with a contented outlook. and distinct race groups were validated One participant said with a smile, “I by the One-Drop Rule, which deprived realized I do have the ability to adapt.” the American biracial people of much Many subjects found that this ability was of their own history and social identity. a great use in combating feelings where This resulted in greater feelings of group they felt they had to conform or trans- exclusion of the biracial people in the form to fit in. Peter Kaufman profoundly United States, in contrast to the group states, “to create new identity one must identity of the Coloureds. not only change roles but also must However, it is vital to note that transform the subjective reality in which although Coloureds have had, for some he or she exists” (2003:484). With matu- time, their own racial group, they still rity it seemed they used their adaptability encounter feelings of ambiguity. This in place of the failed complete transfor- further suggests that black and white mation process. In general, adaptation mixed-raced people, independent to seemed to be a great source of personal particular social contexts, do encounter and group pride. I am left with the pro- similar cognitive processes. Most impor- found words that, “I can adapt. I am both tantly biracial people in South Africa and equally. I get the best of both worlds.” the Unites States have the ability to adapt

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Appendix: A

A Place For Us National, The Amegroid Society of America, Association of Multi-Ethnic Americans (AMEA), Center for the Study of Biracial Children, Happa Issues Forum, My Shoes, and Project RACE. All found on the multiracial.com Web site.

48 Between Black and White: An Exploratory Investigation of Biracialism in the United States and South Africa