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Hydropedology: Synergistic Integration of Pedology and Hydrology WelcomeWelcome toto thethe 33rd SemesterSemester ofof CUAHSICUAHSI EducationEducation andand OutreachOutreach DistinguishedDistinguished LecturesLectures

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GoGo toto CUAHSICUAHSI websitewebsite forfor completecomplete calendar,calendar, linkslinks toto papers,papers, presentations,presentations, andand discussiondiscussion forumsforums HydroHydroHydropedologypedologypedology::: SynergisticSynergistic IntegrationIntegration ofof PedologyPedologyandand HydrologyHydrology HydroHydroHydropedologypedologypedology andandandthethethe EarthEarthEarth’s’s’s CriticalCriticalCritical ZoneZoneZone TeamTeamTeam MembersMembersMembers

Lawrence Band, Johan Bouma, Kristofor Brye, Christopher Duffy, James Famiglietti, Roger Grayson, Allan Lilly, Henry Lin, Alex McBratney, Yakov Pachepsky, James Thompson, Scott Tyler, Rien van Genuchten, Michael Veprasksas, Hans-Jörg Vogel, Andrew Western Henry Lin Johan Bouma Yakov Pachepsky Andrew Western Jim Thompson Penn State Wageningen Univ. USDA-ARS Univ. Melbourne West Virginia Univ. Univ. Park, PA The Netherlands Beltsville, MD Australia Morgantown, WV

Rien van Genuchten Hans-Jörg Vogel Allan Lilly USDA-ARS Univ. Heidelberg Macaulay Institute Riverside, CA Germany Scotland, UK OutlinesOutlinesOutlines ofofof ThisThisThis PresentationPresentationPresentation

• Introduction: - Knowledge Gaps • Research Vision: - Critical Concepts & Challenges • Strategies for Achieving the Vision: - Three Interlinked • Expected Impacts: - Scientific & Societal IntroductionIntroductionIntroduction CriticalCritical RoleRole ofof SoilsSoils

Atmosphere (The root zone)

Critical Zone Bio-active zone Agriculture Environment Biosphere Hydrosphere (Soils) Engineering Deep vadose zone

Water table

Ground water zone Lithosphere AA MissingMissing PiecePiece ofof thethe Puzzle?Puzzle?

Hydrometeorology Atmosphere (Air)

Ecohydrology (Plant) Biosphere Pedosphere Hydrosphere Hydropedology ()

Hydrogeology (Rock) Lithosphere WhatWhatWhat IsIsIs Pedology?Pedology?Pedology?

• A branch of soil science that integrates and quantifies the morphology, formation, distribution, and classification of soils as natural or anthropogenically- modified landscape entities. (From: Hole, 1976) Temporal Century TheThe NeedNeed forfor IntegrationIntegration Year AtmosphereDay Biosphere Soil Core Pedon Watershed Land Surface Hydropedology realm Horizontal distance Soil Soils Physics Pedology Hydrology (Root zone) view? view? view?

Deep vadose zone The Missing Link? Or the Unwanted Zone?

Hydrogeology realm Ground water zone

Vertical depth DebunkingDebunking thethe StereotypeStereotype VisionsVisions onon bothboth SidesSides ofof thethe FenceFence((1)1)

• To hydrologists and soil physicists: pedologists use “strange” names to describe field soils and they make many empirical statements about soil functions that are not necessarily supported by measurements. To pedologists: “simplified” representation of natural soils in terms of homogeneity and isotropy that hydrologists and soil physicists often assume in their models clearly does not adequately reflect real- world conditions; DebunkingDebunking thethe StereotypeStereotype VisionsVisions onon bothboth SidesSides ofof thethe FenceFence((2)2)

• Soil-landscape relationships and are critical for surface and unsaturated zone hydrology to improve their quantitative characterization of flow and transport processes in the field; Pedologists can benefit from flow theory of soil physics and hydrology when transforming qualitative descriptions into quantitative expressions that are increasingly in demand from diverse users of soil survey information. Mn Surface Feature & Shiny Ped Face at 1.2 m Hagerstown At Penn State Agronomy Farm

Worm Holes

Worm Channels Plow Pan

Happy Earthworm Hagerstown in Grassland BackBack toto thethe EssenceEssence ofof NaturalNatural SoilsSoils (1)(1)

• Pedality: The essence of soil “architecture” that is influenced by the five interacting soil-forming factors at the landscape scale and is governed by interrelationships between inorganic-organic constituents and physical, chemical, and biological processes at the meso- or microscopic scales.

→ “back to soil structure!” BackBack toto thethe EssenceEssence ofof NaturalNatural SoilsSoils (2)(2)

• Layering of soil horizons: 1) any interface between soil layers slows down water downward movement; 2) soil layering promotes lateral flow, especially in sloping landscape with water-restricting layer underneath; and 3) soil horizons of different textures and structures often lead to preferential flow.

→ “back to field reality!” BackBack toto thethe EssenceEssence ofof NaturalNatural SoilsSoils (3)(3)

• Soil-landscape relationships: the foundation for mapping, classifying, and modeling soils. Landscape evolution has a lot to do with the throughflows of water, chemicals, and energy (i.e., the hydrologic cycle). A systematic understanding of soil- landscape relationships would facilitate the formulation of conceptual and mathematical models of landscape hydrology.

→ “back to landscape!” KnowledgeKnowledgeKnowledge GapsGapsGaps (1)(1)(1)

• Prediction of preferential flow dynamics and pathways at different scales, their interface with the soil matrix, their residence times, and their significance in different soils and landscapes remain unresolved. Hydrologists may not have a clear picture of flow pathways in the unsaturated zone before starting modeling or field experiments. Crayfish Biotube U niform flow (>1” dia., 2’ long) Preferential flow

Vertical flow l flow Latera ☺ KnowledgeKnowledgeKnowledge GapsGapsGaps (2)(2)(2)

• “Where, when, and how” water moves through landscapes and its impacts on soil processes and subsequently soil spatial patterns needs to be better understood. Currently, many hydrological models do a poor job in predicting subsurface lateral flow and baseflow vs. runoff in total streamflow.

∂θ ∂ ∂θ = [D (θ ) + K(θ )] ∂t ∂z w ∂z KnowledgeKnowledgeKnowledge GapsGapsGaps (3)(3)(3)

• Bridging multiple scales remains at the heart of many hydrologic and pedologic studies. The convergence of the efforts made by pedologists and hydrologists has not occurred.

Qin = Qout + ∆V + Rw ..? KnowledgeKnowledgeKnowledge GapsGapsGaps (4)(4)(4)

• Hydrologists need soil hydraulic parameters in their models and information to specify flow paths, but such data are often lacking or difficult to obtain in large volumes. Improved procedures to extract useful information from the available soil survey databases and to enhance quantitative interpretations for flow and transport characteristics in different soils are needed. Soil survey database including soil profile descriptions KnowledgeKnowledgeKnowledge GapsGapsGaps (5)(5)(5)

• Water table fluctuations in soils influence soil water storage capacity and runoff and thereby impact on such hydrological response as flood hydrographs, base flow, and solute concentrations in aquatic systems. Regular temporal sampling frameworks are becoming recognized in pedology, and concerted efforts from pedologists and hydrologists can lead to more complete datasets that include extreme events. SynergiesSynergiesSynergies throughthroughthrough IntegrationIntegrationIntegration

y So og il P dol hys Pe ics

y log Oth dro er Hy s Synergies!Synergies!Synergies!

Pedology →→ Hydrology & Soil Physics:

• Soil mapping → Soil variability • Soil profile descriptions → Soil structure and hydromorphological features • Soil survey databases → Soil hydraulic functions • → Hierarchical soil system • Soil genesis → Soil evolution Synergies!Synergies!Synergies! (cont.)(cont.)(cont.)

Hydrology & Soil Physics →→ Pedology:

• Soil hydrology → Driving force behind • Hydrology → Controls soil physical, chemical, and biological processes • & temperature regimes → Critical in classifying soils • Water distribution → Soil variability and mapping • Soil physical & hydraulic properties → Dynamic soil properties Pedology ..?

Hydro- The Pedon Paradigm pedology The Landscape Paradigm Soil Hydro- Physics logy

Basic Structure Solar 1 µ m energy The Critical Zone Evaporation Human use Precipitation

Transpiration Ped Runoff ce fa Ground surface ur bs w 1 cm u o S fl Microscopic scale Soils (Root zone) Infiltration Hydropedology Recharge ground water Pedosphere Realm Deep vadose zone Ground water flow (Pores partially Combined surface and ground filled with water) 1 km water flow to the ocean Hydrogeology Water table Ground water zone Macroscopic scale Realm (Pores entirely filled with water) 1 m Mesoscopic scale

(From: Lin, 2003) Hydropedology:Hydropedology: BridgingBridging Disciplines,Disciplines, Scales,Scales, andand DataData

• Bridging disciplines:

Pedology ↔ Soil physics ↔ Hydrology ↔ Others

• Bridging scales:

Lab ↔ Field ↔ Landscape ↔ Region & Globe

• Bridging data:

Data ↔ Information ↔ Knowledge ↔ Wisdom FundamentalFundamentalFundamental IssuesIssuesIssues ofofof HydropedologyHydropedologyHydropedology

1. Soil structure and layering as indicators of flow and transport characteristics in natural soils; 2. Soil morphology as signatures of soil hydrology; 3. Water movement over the landscape of different spatial and temporal scales in relation to soil cover; 4. Hydrology as a factor of soil formation and a driving force of soil dynamic changes. (From: Lin et al., 2004) ResearchResearchResearch VisionVisionVision I. Critical concepts and challenges for advancing hydropedology and for enhancing the prediction of landscape water flux - Holistic conceptual frameworks - Quantification of hierarchical structures - Identification and prediction of patterns - Bridging multiple scales - Need for elegant and robust models - Human impacts II. Unique contributions of hydropedology to the advancement of hydrology and pedology - Soil morphology including soil structure - Pedogenesis - Classification - Mapping - Database - Future pedology AA Holistic Holistic Conceptual Conceptual Framework Framework for for Integrated Integrated Hydropedologic Hydropedologic Studies Studies Scale of Properties Scale of Processes

Disaggregation Downscaling (smaller area) … (smaller area)

Microscopic Model Scale Patterns Structure Function Variability

Mesoscopic Model Scale Upscaling Patterns Structure Function Integration (larger area) Variability & Scale Bridging

Macroscopic Model Scale Patterns Structure Aggregation Function Variability (larger area)

States, Fluxes, Properties, Processes, … … … (Roads) (Traffic) DomDominantinant Flow Flow Pathways Pathways and and So Soilil Catena Catena along along a a Hillslope Hillslope Photo 3: Surface runoff Photo 2: Subsurface bubbling at footslope (Return flow) seepage (Pipe flow)

Hilltop (Dry Site) O θ A

Bw Backslope Surface flow at the base Flow through macropores (Moist or Dry Site) of hillslope during snow Depth network in O θ C/R melts and storms A Shale Hills Watershed Huntingdon Co., PA Valley or Swale Bottom Bw (Wet or Moist Site) or O θ Bt A Depth C/R Photo 1: Flow at the interface between Bt the soil and the weathered shale Saturated flow over the weathered bedrock

Depth Btx

C (From: Lin et al., in press) HypothesisHypothesisHypothesis 111

Systematically-designed and integrated hydropedologic studies across multiple scales and geographic regions result in appropriate quantification of the proposed holistic conceptual framework HierarchicalHierarchical StructuresStructures ofof SoilSoil andand HydrologicHydrologic SystemsSystems

(From: Wilding, 2000) (From: Maidment, 2002) SoilSoil StructureStructure atat DifferentDifferent ScalesScales

1 m 0.1 m 0.01 m Photograph X-ray tomography X-ray micro-tomography

A Soil Profile

Image Segmentation A Horizon into Structural Units B Horizon

Fractal dimension: Loose Dense Macropores matrix aggregate (black) (white) (gray) (Modified from: Vogel and Roth, 2003) HypothesisHypothesisHypothesis 222

Soil systems exhibit hierarchical structures (discrete or continuous) that can be quantified using soil- landscape expertise, coupled with a set of measurement techniques (noninvasive and invasive) Rainfall: Rainfall: 30 mm 5 mm over 1 h over 1 h

(From: Grayson and Blöschl, 2001) SpatialSpatial patternspatterns –– changingchanging controlscontrols

50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Jun-95 Dec-95 Jun-96 Dec-96 Jun-97 Dec-97

(Source: Western et al., 2004) HypothesisHypothesisHypothesis 333

Storages, pathways, and residence times of water flux in the landscape exhibit identifiable spatial distributions and temporal patterns, with possible interacting spatial and temporal dimensions. This spatio-temporal persistence of water fluxes can be used to subdivide landscapes into similarly-functioning hydrologic units DifferentDifferent conceptsconcepts ofof scalesscales andand spatialspatial heterogeneityheterogeneity

1) Macroscopic homogeneity

4) Fractal Macroscopic scale

3) Continuous hierarchy 2) Discrete hierarchy Mesoscopic scale

Microscopic scale

(Modified from: Vogel and Roth, 2003) Watershed Sub-watersheds (> 1 km, months-years) Management units

REA + Topography & land use

Field plot Soil mapping units (1-30 m, days-months) Remote sensing footprints

REV + Soil structure

Lab soil sample Soil cores (0.01-0.2 m, minutes-days) Columns/profiles HypothesisHypothesisHypothesis 444

Scale dependence in hydrologic parameters can be explained using hierarchical structures in soils, topography, and land cover. Scaling via structural hierarchies enables enhanced prediction of water fluxes across scales NeedNeed forfor ElegantElegant andand RobustRobust ModelsModels

Soil Process Model Scale Most current models are and Parameters Globe i+4 either “too good to be real” Upscaling or “too real to be good!” (larger area) Region i+3 Macroscopic Landscape (watershed) i+2 Knowledge Field (catena) i+1

(2) Mesoscopic Pedon i

Profile horizon i-1 (1) Ped (aggregate) Microscopic i-2 Model Complexity Downscaling Mixture i-3 Available dataset in (2) is more comprehensive (smaller area) or has a better quality than that in (1) Molecular i-4 (From: Lin and Rathbun 2003) A) B)

(From: Hole, 1976) C) ground water discharge area ground water (calcareous) recharge area (leached)

hydric soil

"edge effect" soluble salt accumulations

(From: Hole, 1976) (Source: L. Steffen, 2003) HypothesisHypothesisHypothesis 555

Soil-landscape relationships are essential elements in developing elegant and robust hydrologic models. Hydrologically similar soil-landscape units exist within watersheds and these can be identified using traditional and new pedologic and hydrologic techniques Genoform Phenoform

Land Use/Management Options No-till Tilled Forest Pasture Urban Cropland Cropland (1) (2) (5) (3) (4) …

Surface Soil 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or … Dynamic Properties (Use-dependent)

Control Inherent Properties Section (Use-invariant)

(Modified from: Grossman et al., 2001 and Droogers and Bouma, 1997) 350 y = 428.13e-0.5424x )

te 300 s 2 a R = 0.9485 m/ R µ n

( 250 o l a ti i a r nt t l 200 e t fi o n

P 150 y uppl

y-state I 100 S 0 ead t t

a 50 S

0 Restored Native Pasture Soybean Oat pasture Land Use HypothesisHypothesisHypothesis 666

The concept of “genoform” and “phenoform” combined with the use of pedotransfer functions can improve the efficacy of soil series and land use as carriers of soil hydraulic information under different human impacts HypothesisHypothesisHypothesis 777

Soil morphological features and their spatial arrangement over the landscape can be used to aid in determining dominant flow pathways and water fluxes through different soils and landscapes A)

Root channel

Interpedal Crack pore Living roots B)

Areal Scale Pore Scale Darcian Scale (Part B from: Hendrickx and Flury, 2001) Fe depletion Fragipan in the subsurface along an inter- Water seepage in between prisms prism macropore

2.5-feet long HypothesisHypothesisHypothesis 888

Pedogenesis provides valuable information regarding hydrologic processes involved in soil-landscape evolution over time. Hydrology/hydropedology provides a potential means of quantifying soil- forming processes Flux Factors

Climate (C) Organism (O)

Human Factor

Landuse (L)

Soil (S) Hydrology (H) S = f (C, O, R, G, L, H) t H = f (C, O, R, G, L, S) t

Time (t)

Time Factor

Relief (R) Geology (G)

Site Factors SEASONAL WET-DRY DRY WET-DRY MOIST CYCLES Carbonate coating Plinthite Mn masses Slickensides (White zone) (Red-grey-yellow zone) (Black coatings) (Shrink-swell) HypothesisHypothesisHypothesis 999

Soil taxonomic systems can be utilized or modified, particularly when used in combination with landscape features, to aid in categorizing diverse soils into hydrologically similar groups

Alfisols HypothesisHypothesisHypothesis 101010

Pedodiversity as portrayed by soil maps is indicative of hydrologic heterogeneity of soil-landscapes. Hierarchy of soil hydrologic units can be put in correspondence to the hierarchy of soil cover Soil Map

r2 = 0.936

Infiltration Rates

(From: Duffy et al., 1981) 0.6 Weikert (n=16) Berks (n=2) 0.5 Rushtown (n=7) m3)

3/ Blairton (n=1) m Berks-Weikert Ernest (n=4) 0.4 shaly silt

Content ( e

tur 0.3 15-25% slope is o il M o 0.2 ic S r t e

m Berks-Weikert association, steep Berks shaly silt loam lu

o 0.1

V 8-15% slope

0.0 0 m 20 cm 60 cm Deepest Soil Depth (cm) Ernest silt loam 3-8% slope

(From: Lin et al., in press) HypothesisHypothesisHypothesis 111111

The accuracy of pedotransfer functions for hydrologic model parameterization can be improved by using structural parameters of soils and linking to soil cover and landscape features Landscape Databases Hydropedology Soils Databases

One-time Regular One-time Regular sampling sampling sampling sampling

Use- Static Dynamic Static Dynamic Soil map dependent features features properties properties related info properties •DEM •Climate •Profile •Soil moisture •Map unit •Bulk density •Landscape •Land cover description •Infiltration •Classification •Organic position •Land use •Texture rate •Slope class matter •Parent •… •Mineralogy •Conductivity •… •Surface soil material •… •… structure •… •…

PTF I PTF II PTF III PTF IV PTF V (From: Lin, 2003) Pedotransfer Rules Subsurface lateral seepage between A and Bt horizons in Blairton Oe

A

Bt

Ksat (cm/min) AE BA Bt1 Bt2 Vertical 6.09 0.13 0.01 0.12 Horizontal 12.03 10.81 9.52 0.51 HypothesisHypothesisHypothesis 121212

Hydropedology is a promising direction for future pedology Decision-Making Synoptic-Scale With Soils – A Question of Scale Meso-scale

Local

(Source: G. Petersen, 2004) Spatial Variability Temporal Variability

Century

1000 m Year 10 m

1 m Day PreferentialPreferentialPreferential FlowFlowFlow atatat thethethe LandscapeLandscapeLandscape ScaleScaleScale

• Pipe flow (calcic pipe, tree root pipe, tile drain, …); • Funnel flow (coarser or finer lens, impeding layers such as fragipan, …); • Depression-focused flow (topographic depressions, Karstic depression & sinkholes, …) • Fracture trace flow (rock fractures, faults, …) • Lateral flow (, other slowly permeable subsoils or geologic formations, hydrophobicity, …) StrategiesStrategiesStrategies

1. Design of a set of scientific experiments to test the proposed hypotheses

2. Use of hydrologic observatories and natural soil laboratories

3. Promotion and dissemination of hydropedology Scientific Hypotheses

HydroView Infrastructure & Information Systems Technologies & Communications IntegratedIntegrated NetworkNetwork ofof HydropedologicHydropedologic ObservationsObservations (Hydrologic(Hydrologic ObservatoriesObservatories && NaturalNatural SoilSoil LaboratoriesLaboratories acrossacross ScalesScales andand GeographicGeographic Regions)Regions) StateState ofof TheThe PracticePractice inin HydrogeophysicsHydrogeophysics && RemoteRemote SensingSensing Error is propagated through traditional estimation processes

hydropedologic geophysical hydropedologic truth inversion estimate data empirical collection relation & inversion

(Source: K. Singha, 2004) IntegratedIntegrated HydropedologicHydropedologic InformationInformation SystemsSystems ArcHydroArcHydro ++ ArcSoilArcSoil

(Modified from: Corwin, 2001) ExpectedExpectedExpected ImpactsImpactsImpacts CriticalCritical ImportanceImportance ofof SoilSoil MoistureMoisture

“From Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo to increasing corn yields in Kansas to greenhouse gas flux in the Arctic, the importance of soil moisture is endemic to world affairs and merits the considerable attention it receives from the scientific community. This importance can hardly be overstated, though it often goes unstated.” (From: Nolan and Fatland, 2003) ContaminantContaminant Hydropedology?Hydropedology? -- TheThe “mystery”“mystery” ofof thethe unsaturatedunsaturated zone?zone? ..? The Critical Zone and the Soil Profile

Root zone

Vadose zone Water Table Leaking petroleum tank Chemical Landfill Toxic Shallow Septic Leaching of spill leaching waste well Inter- tank fertilizers & dump mediate Ground water pesticides zone on farmlands (fresh water)

Capillary Confining unit fringe

Pumping well Aquifer Abandoned (saline water) well (Modified from: Fetter, 1993) Where, when, how much, and how fast water and contaminants come from the overlying vadose zone? 7 + 1 Roles of Soils: From Earth's Critical Zone to Mars Exploration !

Soils (The root zone)

Atmosphere

Deep vadose zone Water table Critical Zone Ground water zone Biosphere Pedosphere Hydrosphere (Soils)

Agriculture Environment

Engineering Lithosphere

1. Soil is a precious life-sustaining natural resource in the earth’s system 2. Soil is a fresh water storage and transmitting mantle in the earth’s critical zone 3. Soil is a gas and energy regulating geoderma in the land surface 4. Soil is a living component in diverse ecosystems 5. Soil is a gift from nature essential for plant growth and animal production 6. Soil is a popular material for a variety of engineering applications 7. Soil is a natural remediation medium and a great buffering system in the environment 8. Soil is a frontier in extraterrestrial explorations TheThe Magi Magicc of of Mrs. Mrs. Soil Soil++ Mr. Mr. Water Water:: Sustaining Sustaining Life Life&& Civilization Civilizationonon the the Bl Blueue P Planetlanet!!

Flood or Nitrogen Drought Other Global Environmental Nutrients or Phosphorus Change Quality Contaminants

Human Food Pathogens Carbon Health Production

Heavy Land Ecosystem Pesticides Use Sustainability Metals

Soil is a geomembrane on the earth’s surface across which water and Water is a main driving force of many environmental issues. solutes, as well as energy, gases, solids, and living organisms are Biogeochemical cycle is inseparable from the hydrologic cycle. actively exchanged among the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, Soil-water interactions are critical to problems concerning and biosphere. Soil-water interaction is the fundamental interface nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, pesticides, heavy metals, between the biotic and abiotic and hence is a critical determinant of pathogens, and other nutrients or contaminants in the the state of the earth system. environment. SummarySummarySummary

• Introduction: - Knowledge Gaps • Research Vision: - Critical Concepts & Challenges • Strategies for Achieving the Vision: - Three Interlinked • Expected Impacts: - Scientific & Societal