The Imagery of Rhetoric: Film and Academic Writing in the Discipline-Based ESL Course

Film can be incorporated into discipline-based lessons and used to develop academic skills in written discourse. by Loretta F. Kasper

Introduction Singer; Stempleski). Film facilitates learning in several ways. It provides students As the population of ESL students in with a graphic illustration of relevant con- American colleges and universities in- tent information and exposes them to creases, helping these students become authentic natural language. Film se- literate users of English is ever more im- quences can be isolated and replayed. portant. Research has shown that literacy Each subsequent viewing enables students best develops by exposing learners to texts to clarify meaning and discover new ele- of different genres, using a multidisciplin- ments to examine in detail through class- ary perspective (Benesch; Costanzo), and room discussions and individual written encouraging students’ inquiry through responses. Finally, film appeals to the reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewer’s emotions, so that linguistic con- viewing, and visually representing (Stan- notations not readily apparent on the dards 3). printed page become so through voice Discipline-based ESL instruction views intonation and body language. language acquisition and content learn- This essay describes how to integrate ing as interdependent. This instructional film imagery into a discipline-based high model promotes classroom learning con- intermediate ESL course. The instruc- texts in which ESL students acquire tional model consists of two key elements: knowledge of language and multidisci- discipline-based print texts and related plinary content “through an abundance film texts. In the ESL classroom, I use vi- of language-mediated activities and sual literacy as a complement to verbal projects” (MaeGowan-Gilhooly 52). These literacy by having students analyze a vi- activities and projects use academic texts sual text—a film—to help articulate the to teach ESL learners how to use English content of a print text—an essay or a to acquire and articulate complex inter- book. In this course, ESL students have disciplinary knowledge. multiple opportunities to process and Research has shown that film imagery produce interdisciplinary texts, so that helps ESL students deal successfully with they gradually become familiar with aca- sophisticated discipline-based texts, and demic discourse in a variety of rhetorical offers them a visual model for various rhe- modes. torical modes of written discourse such A description of three separate read- as comparison and contrast, cause and ef- ing/writing lessons will illustrate how I use fect, and argumentation (Kasper and film to teach academic writing skills. The

52 TETYC, September 2000 first lesson derives from the discipline of ery, introduces the many doctors and linguistics, where the topic under study teachers who worked with this young girl, is language acquisition. The linguistics and describes the linguistic theories sur- lesson uses two print and one film text rounding her case. Because it states a and targets the rhetorical mode of com- problem, explores various solutions, and parison and contrast. The second lesson expresses a preference for one solution derives from the discipline of environ- over another, the film documentary re- mental science, where the topic we study flects exposition in the form of compari- is the causes and effects of earthquakes. son and contrast and provides students The environmental science lesson uses with a highly accurate and detailed model one print and one film text and targets for this rhetorical mode (Barsam 22). the rhetorical mode cause and effect. The After students watch Secret of the Wild third lesson derives from the discipline Child, the reading material makes more of anthropology, and the topic studied is sense to them, and they are better able to Darwin’s theory of human evolution. This write an essay in which they formulate lesson uses two print and one film text and test their own hypotheses about lan- and targets the rhetorical mode of argu- guage acquisition. They compose an mentation. intertextual comparison and contrast analysis in which they consider Genie’s Linguistics: The Imagery of language development within the frame- Comparison and Contrast work of the theories of Chomsky and Skinner. Students must include informa- The linguistics lesson focuses on devel- tion presented in the two print texts and oping written skill in comparison and in the film in their essays. contrast. I use two print and one film text In the following essay excerpt, a high to offer students a general introduction intermediate level ESL student addresses to language acquisition, including its the question of how human beings ac- stages, the critical period theory, the lan- quire language, contrasting the theories guage acquisition theories of Noam of Chomsky and Skinner and then apply- Chomsky and B.F. Skinner, and the pro- ing those theories to the Genie case: cesses of first and second language acquisition. The first print text, “Language The question of how people acquire lan- Acquisition in Humans”1 (21-25), de- guage has been analyzed by some scien- scribes the case of Genie, a young girl who tists and experts. Among them were the was deprived of exposure to language linguist Chomsky and the psychologist Skinner, who developed two different theo- from the age of 18 months to 13 years. ries of language acquisition. The main idea The second print text, “The Civilizing of of Chomsky’s theory is that all children had Genie” by Maya Pines, provides a highly an innate knowledge of the grammar of detailed account of the various aspects of their native language. They speak without the Genie case. thinking of the word order. According to The film documentary Secret of the Wild Chomsky’s theory the human being has a Child helps students comprehend the hidden mechanism to start using the native language [. . .] . In contrast, Skinner’s print texts by providing them with the op- theory is that nothing can come by itself. portunity both to see and to hear the Nothing can substitute parent’s love and young girl Genie. The film depicts in attention, normal communication, and graphic detail Genie’s life after her discov- strong process of study. People reach dif-

The Imagery of Rhetoric 53 ferent levels of language acquisition be- plates along geological fault lines. This text cause they grow up in different environ- discusses both strike-slip and thrust faults ments. and describes the earthquakes that have Examples like Genie represent that lan- resulted from pressure along each type of guage should be studied in the human en- fault line. To illustrate these concepts, I vironment with certain relation from par- draw a diagram depicting a strike-slip and ents, adults, and teachers [. . .] . These cases a thrust fault on the chalkboard. While show that methods like punishment, abuse, viewing this visual, students go step-by- harassment could cause very serious prob- step through an analysis of what happens lems in acquiring language, possibly even brain damage. Vice versa, when children when the earth’s plates glide along each are surrounded with love and care, they other sideways (a strike-slip fault) or when accept language with positive emotions and one plate pushes over another (a thrust big interest. The brain cannot advance fault). The diagram facilitates comprehen- without a normal environment [. . .] both sion in two ways—as a visual prereading of these things are necessary for acquiring exercise and an imagery link to the com- language. plex scientific concepts presented in the As this excerpt demonstrates, students reading. are able to use the print and film texts After reading “The Causes of Earth- from the linguistics lesson to write an es- quakes,” students view the film documen- say with stimulating intellectual content. tary Savage Earth: The Restless Planet. This The texts help induce them to think, make film describes the role of plate tectonics connections, and find relationships in earthquakes, focusing the camera on among events, skills critical in producing both actual and simulated situations. Stu- a well-developed and organized compari- dents travel visually to San Francisco, site son/contrast essay. of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, a magnitude 6.9 quake caused by pressure along the San Andreas, a strike-slip fault. Environmental Science: Next the documentary takes students to The Imagery of Cause and Effect Northridge, California, the site of a mag- The lesson on environmental science fo- nitude 6.6 earthquake caused by pressure cuses on developing written skill in causal along the Davis, a thrust fault. One of the analysis. This lesson uses one print and key sequences in the documentary is a one film text to explain the causes and visual depiction of the causes and effects effects of earthquakes. Students begin of pressure along these fault lines and the with a prereading activity that presents damage caused by resulting earthquakes. them with several questions for discus- The documentary also describes what sci- sion: Have you ever experienced an earth- entists have learned about earthquake quake? If so, how did it feel? What did prediction through observation and analy- you do? How long did the earthquake last? sis of precursor events. The film is effec- What happened in your neighborhood or tive because it creates a feeling of “being community after the earthquake was over? there” as it chronicles the causes and ef- Students read the “The Causes of fects of earthquakes step-by-step through Earthquakes” (35-39), which describes spoken narration and powerful visual several theories about their causes, in par- imagery. In this way, the film bears a close ticular those deriving from a study of plate relationship to expository writing in the tectonics, or the movement of the earth’s form of a cause and effect essay.

54 TETYC, September 2000 Film imagery presents a difficult sci- rock. That way they would be safer and entific concept visually. I ask students to would probably survive a serious earth- synthesize what they have read and quake. viewed as they respond to the following By calling upon powerful images, ESL essay prompt: “Consider the damage students are able to use film as a visual caused by the Loma Prieta earthquake that foundation for the written analysis of hit the San Francisco Bay Area in 1989. cause and effect. Film enables them not In a well-developed essay, describe the only to understand, but also to explore causes and effects of this earthquake and and articulate complex causal relation- the resulting damage. What steps, if any, ships. could have been taken to lessen or pre- vent some of this damage? What did sci- Anthropology: The Imagery entists and government officials learn of Argumentation from this earthquake?” In the following excerpt, a high inter- The lesson from anthropology uses a mediate student examines the causes for multidisciplinary approach to teach stu- some of the damage in the Loma Prieta dents how to develop an effective written earthquake: argument. The argumentative mode may be the most difficult for ESL students to In 1989 there was a very terrible earth- master. Nevertheless, proficiency in argu- quake near San Francisco. This earthquake was called “Loma Prieta” and it was caused mentative writing is a skill these students by pressure in a large strike-slip fault called must have if they are to succeed in col- the San Andreas. The “Loma Prieta” earth- lege. In fact, this skill is often measured quake caused a lot of damage and many through institutional writing assessments people died. Most of the damage happened required for students’ continuation in in the Marina district of San Francisco. degree programs. Houses here were completely destroyed. Effective argumentation requires that The reason for all this damage in the Ma- students be able to observe carefully and rina district was that houses there had been then describe honestly and accurately built on landfill. Landfill is soft earth rather what they have observed. Film can be a than rock. Many structures on landfill were most effective tool in engaging student destroyed including the San Francisco- Oakland Bay Bridge and the Nimitz Free- interest in discipline-based issues and in way. The energy of the earthquake caused providing the raw materials for argument the landfill to collapse and this destroyed (Keyser 11). Just as the filmmaker shares the buildings. This happened because the his or her vision of a problem or issue landfill was too soft to support the build- with the viewing audience, so too does ing during the earthquake. On the other the student writer learn to share his or hand, structures like the Golden Gate her vision with the reading audience. Bridge that were built on bedrock or solid earth were not destroyed. The anthropology lesson uses two print and one film text in a progression The results of the “Loma Prieta” earthquake of increasingly complex linguistic activi- made scientists and government recom- ties culminating in the development of a mend changes for buildings. They under- stood that the damage could be prevented written argument. Students begin the les- if the buildings were not built on landfill. son with a discussion of Darwin’s theory In cities where there are earthquakes, they of human evolution, the Scopes Monkey said that structures should be built on bed- Trial, and turn-of-the-century American

The Imagery of Rhetoric 55 culture. They then read, “Physical Anthro- evidence that is usually presented in the pology and Darwin’s Theory of Human court of law because this kind of evidence Evolution” (135-40). This reading pro- is not physical evidence; it is a religious belief. vides general information on anthropol- Drummond represented the Evolution- ogy, more specific information on ist viewpoint. Drummond’s legal argument Darwin’s theory and the anthropological was different and was based on scientific discoveries that followed, and background law. Drummond argued that the individual on the scientific side of the evolution is- mind is holy and that an idea is a greater sue. monument than a cathedral. He asked The class discusses the religious and Brady, “Why, if we must accept everything on faith, did God plague us with the power political controversy which resulted in the to think?” Drummond countered Brady’s Scopes Monkey Trial and which provides argument that we should only believe in the backdrop for the film Inherit the Wind. things that are in the Bible by using Brady’s The film raises many complex issues, and own theory to prove that evolution can be to help students understand them and blended with a belief in creation. prepare them for viewing the film, they I believe that Henry Drummond’s argu- read the text, “A Dramatization of Science: ment was more convincing because it was based on logical evidence and convincing The Play, Inherit the Wind” (144-48). This dialogue. Drummond said that God cre- reading introduces students to the char- ated the power of thought for humans. acters and provides them with back- Also, Drummond stated that we should not ground on the religious and legal issues take the Bible literally, and he gave an ex- dramatized in the film. ample of Copernicus’ theory of natural law After watching the film, students write to support his statement. The Bible says that the sun stood still and that the sun a summary of the arguments made by the moves around the earth. It is well known two lawyers. They discuss the effective- that this theory is not correct. Drummond ness of each legal position as they iden- also used the million-year old fossil remains tify and evaluate the statements they of a prehistoric marine creature, and he found most persuasive. The following stu- asked Brady if it were possible that at the dent excerpt, reprinted with permission, time of creation, a day were longer than illustrates: 24 hours. Drummond’s argument was strong enough to make Brady admit that The Scopes Trial was a very hot issue in he did not know how long a day was at the the U.S. back in the 1920’s because it was time of the creation. Although Drummond’s dealing with new evolutionary beliefs [. . .] . arguments were very convincing, he lost In this trial, there were two different points the trial. The judge found Scopes blamable of view represented by the law prosecutor and fined him $100.00 for his offense. Matthew Brady and the defense attorney In conclusion I can say that the Scope’s Henry Drummond. Brady represented the trial represented religious beliefs versus Creationist viewpoint, and Drummond science. It was unusual for teachers in many represented the Evolutionist viewpoint. of the public schools in the 1920’s to teach Brady argued for the Creationist position any theory that violated the theory of hu- by saying that science cannot explain the man creation as it is taught in the Bible. most basic of God’s creations. Brady be- Drummond and Brady both made power- lieved that since God made everything on ful and passionate statements in support earth, he could change everything, even the of their respective opposite positions. natural law. Brady quoted Bishop Usher who said that the earth was created in the As this student excerpt illustrates, fall of 4004 B. C. at 9:00 AM as evidence watching and analyzing the opposing ar- for his argument. This is not the kind of guments presented by the attorneys in

56 TETYC, September 2000 Inherit the Wind help teach students the to survive, and they won’t see which na- elements of a persuasive argument, from tionality they are because they will need to the emotional to the intellectual and pro- be together like ground and grass. They will need each other even if they are differ- vides them with a springboard for taking ent from each other. But now people don’t a firm written stand on other issues. I ask understand that. I will never understand students to choose an issue about which how there can be so much hatred and cru- they have a strong opinion and to write a elty in our world. persuasive essay to argue their position. They must be sure to include a rebuttal Student Feedback and Performance of the opposing viewpoint in the essay. I use multiple drafts and revisions to facili- Film imagery improves comprehension of tate genuine growth for these students as discipline-based information and is an writers. effective tool to develop and strengthen The following excerpt comes from an the critical thinking skills necessary for essay on racial prejudice written by a high written exposition and analysis of key is- intermediate ESL student. It demonstrates sues. The usefulness of film as a visual this student’s ability to take a stand and resource for clarifying content and devel- argue a point of view: oping academic writing skill is supported both by students’ feedback and by their In our history from earliest years to our progress as writers. When asked to com- time, some people don’t like other people; plete questionnaires on the use of film, some of them even hate others who are ESL students’ responses are overwhelm- different from them [. . .] . Time has passed from old times and now we are living in a ingly positive. They say that the films cruel and difficult world. At this moment, make the work clearer and help them to one would think all nations have to be to- understand the texts better. They say that gether and live without hating each other, if a concept is unclear when they first read but some people up to today still hate oth- about it, seeing the film enables them to ers who are different from them. Many visualize it. In addition, students say that times they hide this hate deep, deep in their the films add interesting variety to the souls. When I think about it, I become very course and “let them study the material angry. I want to meet these people and ar- in a different way.” They say that after they gue with them up to when they will finally see the films, “it is easier to write about understand that all people are like anybody the topic because the film gives extra else. When I was in school, I had a friend material to talk about in their essays.” Fi- who was kind and good, but people would nally, when asked if they believe that the always be cruel to her. They would say mean things to her because she was differ- films help them to write better, students ent from them. I wanted to tear them, but say that the films, “show them how to put my friend calmed me down and always an essay together” and “how to talk about said, “You have to respect all people.’ But similarities and differences, and also how could I respect them when they hated causes and effects.” Students’ feedback her for nothing, just because she was dif- also indicates that they believe the films ferent from them? [. . .] help them learn “how to collect evidence, All people in the whole world have to be together, they have to live without hat- form an opinion, and make an argument ing or killing. If for example, the whole for or against an issue.” world blows up and just two persons sur- In terms of their progress as writers, vive, these two people will help each other on a qualitative level, students’ writings

The Imagery of Rhetoric 57 become more critical and insightful as cipline-based visual and verbal media, we they use images and information from the help to give ESL students the tools they films as support in their writing. By pro- need to construct meaning, leading them viding several perspectives from which to increased levels of English language lit- students may articulate and analyze con- eracy. As it supports language and con- ceptual relationships and issues, film leads tent learning, film imagery enables ESL them to explore topics at a deeper level. students to visually process comparative On a quantitative level, pass rates on fi- and casual relationships between and nal reading and writing assessments in- among issues and events and encourages crease from 72% to 95%. These improved them to take and support a point of view pass rates enable students to progress on these issues and events. By examining more quickly to higher levels of English the discipline-based interrelationships language use and mainstream discipline among a variety of print and film texts, study. ESL students become familiar with academic discourse and acquire the cogni- A Final Analysis tive language proficiency required for college work. In this way, they gain the For ESL students to succeed in college, varieties of knowledge they need to take they must develop proficiency in both their place in an English-speaking aca- linguistic and academic skills. By estab- demic community. lishing strong connections between dis-

Note 1. All page citations refer to readings in the course text Interdisciplinary English by Loretta Kasper (McGraw, 1998).

Works Cited Barsam, Richard. “Nonfiction Film and/as Composition.” Images and Words: Using Film to Teach Writing. Spielberger 19-26. Benesch, Sarah. “Needs Analysis and Curriculum Development in EAP: An Ex- ample of a Critical Approach.” TESOL Quarterly 30 (1996): 723-38. Costanzo, William V. “Visual Thinking in the Writing Class.” Spielberger 69-78. Inherit the Wind. Dir., Stanley Kramer. Metro Goldwyn Meyer/United Artists, 1960. Kasper, Loretta F. Interdisciplinary English. New York: McGraw, 1998. Kasper, Loretta F., and Robert Singer. “Reading, Language Acquisition, and Film Strategies.” Post Script 15 (1997): 5-17. Keyser, Les. “Visual Composition.” Spielberger 7-12. MacGowan-Gilhooly, Adele. “Fluency First: Reversing the Traditional ESL Se- quence.” Writing in a Second Language: Insights from First and Second Language Teaching and Research. Ed. Bruce Leeds. Chicago: Addison, 1996. 48-58. Pines, Maya. “The Civilizing of Genie.” Teaching English through the Disciplines: Psychology. Ed. Loretta Kasper. New York: Whittier, 1997. 31-48.

58 TETYC, September 2000 Savage Earth: The Restless Planet. Prod., Bill Lyons. New York: Thirteen/WNET and Granada Television, 1998. Secret of the Wild Child. Prod., Linda Garmon. Boston: WGBH Educational Founda- tion, 1994. Spielberger, Jeffrey, ed. Images and Words: Using Film to Teach Writing. New York: CUNY, 1985. Standards for the English Language Arts. Newark: IRA and NCTE, 1996. Stempleski, Susan. “Using Video to Develop Cross-Cultural Awareness.” ESL for the 21st Century Conference. Union County College. Elizabeth, NJ. 18 Oct. 1997.

Loretta F. Kasper is an associate professor of English at Kingsborough Community College/ CUNY. Her most recent book is Content-Based College ESL Instruction (Erlbaum 2000). Her current research involves the use of multimedia and computer technology in ESL instruction.

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