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Political Economy and Geopolitics, 16Th to 21St Centuries

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Political Economy and Geopolitics, 16Th to 21St Centuries Volume 7 | Issue 9 | Number 4 | Article ID 3061 | Feb 25, 2009 The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus East Asian Regionalism and its Enemies in Three Epochs: Political Economy and Geopolitics, 16th to 21st Centuries Mark Selden East Asian Regionalism and its new East Asian regional order resting on Enemies in Three Epochs: Political foundations of dynamic economic growth. Economy and Geopolitics, 16th to 21st From the perspective of East Asian Centuries integration, the US-China opening of 1970 marked both the end of a century of Mark Selden war and polarization and the emergence of economic complementarity and geopolitical restructuring that have Précis: This paper examines the dominant transformed both East Asia and the world forces at play in East Asia in an effort to economy. In assessing the resurgence of chart regional dynamics within a global East Asia and the emerging character of non-Eurocentric framework in the course East Asian regionalism, emphasis is of three epochs.* In the first era, placed on relations among China, Japan th th and Korea as ascending regional-global spanning the 16 to the early 19 century powers and the position of the United a China-centered tributary trade order States as a powerful but declining provided a geopolitical framework within superpower. The analysis considers the which private trade could also flourish. At th interplay of geopolitics and political its height in the 18 century, as East Asia economy in structuring hierarchies of linked to a wider regional and global wealth, power and position both within economy, core areas achieved high levels Asia and in the world order or disorder. of peace, prosperity and stability. The Is the emergence East Asian regional second period is notable for dislocation, order a basis for regional independence war and radical transformation spanning or a new framework for US penetration? the years 1840-1970. In this era profound What insights can the past offer toward transformations were the product of the emergence of a viable regional order system disintegration, colonial rule, in East Asia, or, at a minimum, pitfalls to world wars, and anti-colonial wars and skirt? revolutions. With the collapse of the regional order, bilateral relations,I East Asian Regionalism: The 18th colonial and postcolonial, predominated. Century Since the 1970s there have been signs of the emergence of a third epoch notable Throughout the nineteenth and well into for progress toward the formation of a the twentieth century, the dominant view 1 7 | 9 | 4 APJ | JF in both East and West privileged a millennium. History does not, of course, dynamic Western world order over a repeat itself, yet it may offer insight into weak, inward-looking and conservative possible options. While sympathetic to East Asia that collapsed in the face of approaches emphasizing contemporary Western capitalism and militaryEast Asian dynamism and its continued predominance. The result was astrength into the 21st century, I propose Eurocentric world vision that reified the to rethink both Eurocentric and perspective of the colonial powers and Sinocentric perspectives on East Asia as their successors.[1] The essentialist a world center prior to its destruction by presumption that continues to pervade a European colonizers in the nineteenth substantial literature is that Western century, and to consider subsequent superiority is an historical constant, once regional restructuring and the and forever immutable. contemporary implications of alternative perspectives that break with An alternative paradigm that has Eurocentrism with particular reference to emerged in recent years recognizes the China-Japan-Korea relations and East salience of China not only as the Asia’s position in global perspective. dominant economic and geopolitical center[2] of an East Asian regional order Drawing on the work of Takeshi but also as a major actor in the global Hamashita, R. Bin Wong, Kenneth th political economy from at least the 16 to Pomeranz, Kaoru Sugihara, Anthony Reid th the 18 century and arguably continuing and Andre Gunder Frank, among others, to the arrival of the Western powers in it can be said that between the sixteenth th full force in the mid-19 century.[3] and eighteenth century, at the dawn of Interestingly, the avatars of this China- European capitalism, East Asia was the centered perspective on East Asia and center of a vibrant economic and the world economy emerged notgeopolitical zone with its own distinctive primarily from Chinese scholarship but characteristics. Two elements of the East from the writings of Japanese andAsian order together defined its American researchers.[4] China’s distinctive regional and global features. economic strides of recent decades, and, above all, the resurgence of East Asia with China, Japan and Korea as an expansive center of the capitalist world economy in the final decades of the long twentieth century and into the new millennium, lend plausibility to this approach. This has led some to anticipate that China will lead the way in creating a new Asian regional order, or even an Asia-led world system in the new 2 7 | 9 | 4 APJ | JF Canton and international trade in the 18th East Asia, particularly China, with Manila century as the key port of transit. Indeed, the large-scale flow of silver from the First, among the most important linkages Americas to China beginning in the that shaped the political economy and sixteenth century and peaking in the mid- geopolitics of the East Asian world was seventeenth century linked the major the China-centered tributary trade order, world regions and transformed both pivoting on transactions negotiated intra-Asian trade and China’s domestic through formal state ties as well as economy. The silver-lined story that providing a venue for informal trade Hamashita, Pomeranz and Reid detail conducted at the periphery of tributary began not with the multiple disasters missions. The system was also driven by a associated with the drainage of silver to wide range of legal and illegal trade, much of it linking port cities that were pay for opium, or with the debacle in the beyond the reach of the Chinese imperial Opium War that led to China’s and Asia’s state. While Korea, Vietnam, theforced opening on terms dictated by the Ryukyus and a number of kingdoms of Western powers, and the associated loss Central and Southeast Asia actively of Chinese sovereignty associated with engaged in tributary trade with China, the Treaty Ports and extraterritoriality. It Japan sent no tributary missions in the began rather with the preceding epoch of course of the 17th-19th centuries. China- Chinese global trading predominance and Japan direct trade nevertheless continued flourishing intra-Asian commerce. Reid through Nagasaki as well as indirectly writes of Chinese-Southeast Asian trade through the Ryukyus and Hokkaido, in in global perspective in the years addition to coastal trade that the Chinese 1450-1680: “The pattern of exchange in state defined as piracy. In short, despite this age of commerce was for Southeast the imposition of inter-state tradeAsia to import cloth from India, silver restrictions by both the Qing andfrom the Americas and Japan and copper Tokugawa governments, through both cash, silk, ceramics and other tributary and informal networks, dynamic manufactures from China, in exchange East Asian trade continued, underlying for its exports of pepper, spices, aromatic the region’s economic dynamism.[5] woods, resins, lacquer, tortoiseshell, pearls, deerskin, and the sugar exported Second, East Asian linkages with the by Vietnam and Cambodia.”[6] The end world economy from the sixteenthresult was massive silver flows into China century forward, mediated by silver from other parts of Asia, Europe and the exchange, transformed East-West trade Americas in exchange for silk, tea, relations as well as the domestic Chinese porcelain and other manufactures. and regional economies. Silver flows, to China’s domestic economy was also pay for tea, silk, ceramics and opium transformed as silver became the among other products, were critical in medium for taxation in the Ming’s single binding Europe and the Americas with whip reform, deeply affecting the 3 7 | 9 | 4 APJ | JF agrarian economy as well as urban eighteenth century. Silver became an exchange. important medium for trade in Korea, Japan and Vietnam somewhat later than in China. Recognition of these facts puts paid to perspectives that privilege Western merchants and traders as the driving force in world trade in general and silver circulation in particular. Silver provides one significant thread that ties China, Asia and the world economy over five centuries.Maritime perspectives on China and the world economy contrast to the long dominant Chinese junk, 17th century statecentric, specifically land centered and inward looking, China scholarship. Silver provides a thread to link Europe, We seek to examine the interplay of the Americas and Asia as well as a means statist tribute and private commerce both to deconstruct Eurocentric history and to in the seaborne sphere with silver as a chart profound changes internal toprimary medium of trade and finance Chinese economy and society. Tracing from the sixteenth century, and landed the world-wide flow of silver from the trade, including barter trade, that linked sixteenth century problematizes the China to Inner Asia and extended across unilinear notion of world history as the silk road to Europe. determined by the discovery of the “New World,” followed by the flow of silver to Beyond the tributary system and the Europe, and thence from Europe to Asia. importance of silver is a spatial vision As Hamashita shows, the articulation of centered less on national economies and Asian silver markets with Euro-American state policies, and more on open ports silver dynamics shaped world financial and their hinterlands. It is an approach flows and facilitated the expansion of that requires new spatial understanding trade that took place in the sixteenth and of the relationship between land and sea, seventeenth centuries.[7] between coastal and inland regions, and among port cities and their hinterlands.
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