EXPLORING THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN ABORIGINAL ECOTOURISM AND
COMMUNITY-BASED DEVELOPMENT IN HAIDA GWAII, CANADA
by
KELLY WHITNEY-SQUIRE
Thesis
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the Degree of Master of Recreation Management
University
Spring Convocation 2011
© by KELLY WHITNEY-SQUIRE This thesis by KELLY WHITNEY-SQUIRE was defended successfully in an oral examination on November 26, 2010.
The examining committee for the thesis was:
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Dr. Cynthia Alexander, Chair
______Glyn Bissix for, Dr. Tom Hinch, External Reader
______Dr. Alan Warner, Internal Reader
______Dr. John W. Colton, Supervisor
______Dr. Susan Markham-Starr, Director’s Delegate
This thesis is accepted in its present form by the Division of Research and Graduate Studies as satisfying the thesis requirements for the degree MASTER OF RECREATION MANAGEMENT.
…………………………………………………..
ii I, KELLY LYNN WHITNEY-SQUIRE, grant permission to the University Librarian at Acadia University to reproduce, loan or distribute copies of this thesis in microform, paper or electronic formats on a non-profit basis. I, however, retain the copyright in my thesis.
______Author
______Supervisor
______Date
iii Table of Contents
List of Tables ……………...... ….... vii
List of Figures ……………………………………………….……...…..... viii
Abstract ……………………………………….....……...... …...... …. ix
List of Abbreviations …………………………………..…...... ……..... x
Acknowledgements ...... xi
Chapter 1: Introduction .....………………………….………………..... 1
Study Purpose and Objectives ………………………………….... 3
Study Area ……………………………………………………….. 4
Theoretical Approach ………………………………………….… 5
Potential Research Implications ………….…………………….... 6
Definitions ……………………………………………………...... 7
Researcher Experience ………………………………….……….. 8
Chapter 2: Haida Gwaii Tourism Context ...... 11
Geography ...... 11
Tourism in Haida Gwaii ...... 14
Tourism Planning in Haida Gwaii ...... 16
Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program ...... 18
Chapter 3: Literature Review …………………………………...... ….. 20
Community Development …………………...... ……...... …….. 21
Community-Based Ecotourism ………………………...... ….. 25
Aboriginal Ecotourism ……………………...... …... 26
Chapter Summary ……………………………....…...... …... 34
iv Chapter 4: Research Approach and Methods ………………………... 36
Research Paradigm ……………………………………..……...... 36
Methodological Approach ………………………………..……... 36
Description of Research Methods ………………………...... 37
Trustworthiness and Consistency …………………………..….... 42
Data Analysis ………………………………..…………………... 44
Meeting Ethical Research Requirements ………...…………….... 46
Chapter 5: Results ……...... ……………………………...... 49
Theme 1: Commitment to Community and Planning………...... 50
Theme 2: Economic Factors …………………………………...... 62
Theme 3: Role of Continuity ………………………………...... 73
Theme 4: Stakeholder Impact ………………………………...... 86
Theme 5: Role of the Haida Heritage Centre and Haida Gwaii Museum ………….…………...... …….. 96
Summary of Themes ……………………...... ……………. 104
Chapter 6: Discussion ……………………………………...…...... 108
1. Comprehensive Approach to Community-Based Development ……...... 108
2. Role of Art in Community-Based Development ...... 115
3. Role of Language in Community-Based Development ...... 119
4. Continuity of the Haida Culture ...... 123
5. Demonstrating Aboriginal Ecotourism ...... 126
Chapter 7: Conclusions and Recommendations ………...... 132
Key Insights ……………………………...... ………...... ……. 134
v Recommendations to the Community ...... 136
Recommendations for Future Research ……………………...….. 138
Final Word ...... 140
References ………………………………………………………...... 141
Appendices
A. Interview Guide Questions ...... 152 B. Informed Consent …...... …………...... ….....……...... ….... 155 C. Haida Gwaii Heritage Tourism Strategy ...... 158
vi List of Tables
Table 1 Definitions …………………………………...... …..... 5
Table 2 Community Development Approaches...... …..... 23
Table 3 Research Methods …...... 38
Table 4 Key Stakeholder Agreements ...... 86
Table 5 Community Development Activities by Approach ...... 110
Table 6 Activity Examples by Benefit Category ...... 131
vii List of Figures
Figure 1 Map of Haida Gwaii …………………………………...... 13
Figure 2 Haida Representation on TAC ...... … 17
Figure 3 Photos of Signage in Skidegate ...... 79
viii Abstract
This thesis assesses the effect of historical events on Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development in Haida Gwaii, Canada. The establishment of the
Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site in 1988 precipitated changes in how ecotourism is managed at the islands-wide and community levels. These changes placed the community in a greater position of power in managing and controlling development and effectively changed the relationship between Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development. The community has used this new relationship to develop ecotourism products and services that reflect the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the people.
The purpose of this study was to better understand the relationship between
Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development. Using a case study approach, qualitative data were gathered in the form of interviews, field journals, and participant observation. The results of the two month field visit indicate that the key components of the relationship are: (a) commitment to the community; (b) economic factors; (c) role of continuity; (d) stakeholder impact; and (e) the role of the Haida
Heritage Centre and the Haida Gwaii Museum. The principle conclusions reflect the
Haida’s approach to community development, the importance of art and language to ecotourism, and continuity as a driver of Haida culture. The use of the term
“Aboriginal” in this thesis was based on its use in the current literature.
ix List of Abbreviations
AMB Archipelago Management Board
ATBC Aboriginal Tourism British Columbia
BC British Columbia
CHN Council of the Haida Nation
DMO Destination Marketing Organization
GHNPR Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site
HHC Haida Heritage Centre at Kaay llnagaay (Also referred to as the Haida
Heritage Centre.)
MIEDS Misty Isles Economic Development Society
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
NBCTA Northern British Columbia Tourism Association
QCI Queen Charlotte Islands
TAC Haida Gwaii Tourism Advisory Committee
VIC Visitor Information Centre
x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to thank several people who have been so helpful in preparing this thesis. I have no doubt that I would have had great difficulty containing my wandering pen to the issues at hand without the help of John Colton. Your support and instruction has been patient and kind and a source of inspiration. Thank you. To my family and friends who have lent their support and encouragement over the past year and a half a heart felt thank you. This comes with a reminder that I will be home soon.
My greatest appreciation goes to the wonderful people of Haida Gwaii. Without your openness and trust this document would not have been possible. I thank you for the enthusiasm you brought to the project and the warmth shown me while I enjoyed in your island paradise. I gained far more from the experience than I could have possibly imagined.
Upon successful completion of this thesis the intent is to deliver a copy to the
Operations Manager at the Haida Heritage Centre at Kaay llnagaay in addition to an
Executive Summary to be made available to interested members of the community.
Thank you.
xi CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Aboriginal communities engaged in ecotourism are challenged daily to build and maintain their cultures while navigating within a complex and global industry (Bell,
1999a; Harris, 2009; Notzke, 2006). Aboriginal ecotourism occurs within a system that is, for the most part, outside the control of communities, yet it retains the potential to provide economic opportunity and to empower Aboriginal peoples (Notzke, 2006).
Increasingly, Aboriginal communities are taking greater control over development; however they continue to face tremendous challenges resulting from historic and modern day considerations (Curtin, 2004; Notzke, 2006).
Historically, government efforts to support Aboriginal communities have focused on economic development and the delivery of services and programs based on perceived needs (Bell, 1999a; Fleras, 1996). Alternatively, responsibility for services and program delivery has been handed off to local Aboriginal governments through decentralization
(Bell, 1999a; Elias, 1991; Fleras, 1996). The rationale is that Aboriginal communities are better suited to deliver effective programs and services to their own people while at the same time building capacity (Bell, 1999a). Collectively, these approaches have proven largely unsuccessful due to the use of an approach to community development that does not reflect the values and beliefs of Aboriginal peoples (Bell, 1999a; Elias,
1991; Tester et al., 2008). In the face of these failures, the problem of how to build vibrant and healthy Aboriginal communities remains (Bell, 1999a). In response, Bell
(1999a) postulated that there is a need for an alternative community development
1 approach–one that serves to support the spiritual, traditional, and cultural relationships within Aboriginal communities. The emergence and growth of Aboriginal ecotourism has provided an opportunity to implement just such an approach to community development (Bell, 1999a; Colton & Harris, 2007; Harris, 2009).
Increasingly, scholars have shown that these newer forms of “community-based” development are more effective as they build on the inherent strengths within communities such as traditional associations and customs, local leadership, and community collaboration (Harris, 2009; Nepal, 2007). In the face of dwindling natural resources, Aboriginal communities are increasingly implementing ecotourism projects as a means of fostering economic growth (Butler & Hinch, 2007; Notzke, 2004; Weaver,
2008).1 However, these community-based ecotourism initiatives are also fostering additional benefits that support community wellness, community learning, community empowerment, and community stewardship (Colton et al., 2007; Hipwell, 2007).
Much of the research dealing with Aboriginal ecotourism focuses on communities in the early stages of community-based development. Research done in communities such as Alert Bay, B.C., Pond Inlet, Nunavut, and Sarawak, Malaysia confirm this observation (Dowsley, 2009; Hitchner, 2009; Vodden, 2002). There are few examples of Aboriginal communities using ecotourism wherein outside private and other interests have been unable to exert a tremendous amount of influence over development.
There are fewer cases still wherein Aboriginal communities have negotiated extensive
1 The Haida Gwaii Community Viability Strategy (2007), documented the struggling condition of the forestry and fishing economies and that the regional economy has “experienced a steady transitioning away from goods production to service-based employment”. This report is available online at www.mieds.ca/images/uploads/CVS_final_volume1.pdf
2 control over decision-making processes. Even more rare are Aboriginal communities that have been afforded the time necessary to develop ecotourism at their own pace and in their own measure. The Haida are a rare exception. The establishment of the Gwaii
Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site in 1988 precipitated changes in how ecotourism is managed at the islands-wide and community level. These changes placed the community in a greater position of power in managing and controlling development and effectively changed the relationship between Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development.
Study Purpose and Objectives
The Haida have been involved in community-based development involving ecotourism initiatives since approximately 1986 with the establishment of the Haida
Heritage Site by the Council of the Haida Nation2. Their longterm involvement provided an optimal setting to study the historic and present state of Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development. The central purpose of this research is to,
• better understand the relationship between Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development; and • explore how the spiritual, traditional, and cultural relationships of the Haida are embodied within ecotourism initiatives and how this has served to enhance the community.
2 The designation of a protected area by a First Nation was unprecedented at that time and led to the establishment of the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site in 1988. See Chapter 4, Stakeholder Impact.
3 The objectives of the research were carried out in Haida Gwaii, British Columbia using a case study approach and incorporated aspects of naturalistic inquiry into the research design. A two month field visit and practicum work experience at the Haida
Heritage Centre in Skidegate provided an opportunity to work with the community and connect with individuals and organizations involved in ecotourism.
Study Area
Arrangements were made with the Haida Heritage Centre in Skidegate for placement at the centre wherein the research was conducted. This placement proved invaluable in providing me with access to professionals, administrative personnel, local businesses, and planning documents that would not have been available otherwise. More importantly, it was a meaningful way to give back to the community through my involvement and contribution to the development of ongoing ecotourism initiatives at the centre. The Haida Heritage Centre (47,000 square feet), was built in 2007 and houses the Haida Gwaii Museum, the Performance House, the Haida Gwaii Watchmen
Program, the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site offices, and the Archipelago Management Board.
As a research fieldwork site, Haida Gwaii provides a good opportunity to explore
Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development. The area has long been impacted by ecotourism development and visitor demand due to its location, unique geography, wildlife, and cultural history. It is due to this progression in ecotourism development that the community of Skidegate became directly involved in ecotourism
4 management and planning initially in response to the desecration of abandoned villages sites in the 1970s.
Theoretical Approach
The holistic approach to this research is based on naturalistic inquiry. This approach corresponds to the Aboriginal concept of “holism” as one that “expands beyond the mental, physical, emotional and spiritual aspects of individual lives to encompass relationships with families, communities and the physical environment”
(Archibald, 2006, p. 50). The use of naturalistic inquiry is well-suited to the worldview of Aboriginal peoples and was critical to obtaining results that incorporate the history, culture and values of the people. The use of the term “holistic” throughout this thesis is in reference to the Aboriginal concept of the term.
Colton and Harris (2007), developed an earlier theoretical concept of Aboriginal ecotourism and the role of ecotourism in community-based development initiatives. This research identified the broad components of community-based benefits through
Aboriginal ecotourism and led to a deeper inquiry into the breadth and type of community development benefits that accrue from tourism development initiatives
(Colton & Whitney-Squire, 2010). This current research builds on these and other scholarly works.
5 Potential Research Implications
It is hoped the findings of this research will support the on-going work of the
Haida Heritage Centre, through the use of ecotourism to support the spiritual, traditional, and cultural development of the Haida. Practical applications of this research include:
• to allow Aboriginal communities to look beyond economic factors and broadly
consider other benefits associated with ecotourism development;
• that non-aboriginals will be less able to inject their own visions of ecotourism
development onto the community (Fleras, 2004);
• to provide evidence of value accruing to the community to support atypical
applications for grant funding (e.g. the development of art and cultural tours or
programming); and,
• to provide greater awareness of the impact of planning decisions on individuals,
the broader community, organizations, and network associations.
The contributions of the Haida community of Skidegate to this research project will be recognized by the researcher. This will be done by providing the results of the research to the Haida Heritage Centre at Kaay llnagaay by means of the thesis document and an executive summary designed specifically to identify and support ecotourism development in Skidegate and the island’s communities. The findings of this research will be presented at academic and university forums and shared with other Aboriginal communities.
6 Definitions
The following definitions will serve to guide the discussion and provide context to some of the major concepts within this study.
Table 1. Definitions
Aboriginal 1) Nature-based attractions or tours owned by indigenous people, and also Ecotourism indigenous interpretation of the natural and cultural environment including wildlife (Zeppel, 2006). 2) Ecotourism in which cultural objectives are served first rather than economic opportunity. In some cases, cultural, social, and environmental costs outweigh economic benefits. It reflects a contemporary relationship to the environment and cultural and traditional respect for nature. (Sofield, 2002) Aboriginal The concept of Aboriginal tourism should be used to designate only those tourism Tourism ventures that are owned and operated by Aboriginal peoples, without exhibiting a particular focus on Aboriginal culture. It may or may not exhibit a sense of place and cultural context. Cultural Aboriginal tourism and cultural ecotourism are subsets of Aboriginal tourism. (Notzke, 2004) Aboriginal 1)Aboriginal worldviews includes concepts of wholeness (holism) and balance Worldview and the importance of relationships within the family, the community, and the environment. (Castellano, 2008, p.119) 2) Tends to be characterized by maintaining their special relationship with their ancestral territories. The cultural distinctiveness of indigenous people, which is central to the concept of ‘indigenous’ in contemporary international law is inseparable from territory. (Daes, as cited in Higgins-Desbiolles, 2009) Aboriginal 1) Development based on the establishment, or re-establishment of relationships Community- with the land, with one’s own personal aspirations, with one’s family and Based extended family, and with one’s organizations. (Bell, 1999a). Development 2) Community in the Aboriginal sense is the intimate relationship with all living things, both animate and inanimate. (Blesse, as cited in Bell, 1999a) Cultural Travel directed towards experiencing local traditions, arts and heritage while Heritage respecting the host community and surrounding environment. (Steele-Prohaska, Tourism as cited in Nyamweru & Kameru, 2008) Ecotourism 1) A sustainable form of natural resource-based tourism that focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, and is ethically managed to be low- impact, non-consumptive, and locally oriented (control, benefits and scale). It typically occurs in natural areas, and should contribute to the conservation or preservation of such areas (Fennel, 1999). 2) Ecologically sustainable tourism with a primary focus on experiencing natural areas, that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation (Ecotourism Australia, 2010). Primary 1) The relationships with the land, with one’s personal aspirations, with one’s Relationships family and extended family, and with one’s organizations. Expressed as the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of Aboriginal peoples. (Bell, 1999a)
Note. Sources as cited.
7 Researcher Experience
My life experience was of considerable assistance in researching and articulating the experiences of Aboriginal peoples within the context of community-based ecotourism development. That is not to say that I do not hold an inherently Westernized world paradigm; however, as a long-time northern resident, I found I could personally identify with the feelings of “otherness” experienced by Aboriginals or people living in remote, northern communities (O’Riley, 2004). It is the experience of thinking of oneself and one’s community as not being attached in some way to the world outside–it is a world within a world. Everything not within your immediate frame of reference becomes thought of as “the outside”. One becomes fearful of the “outside”, mistrusting of it and the idea that you might be judged by a standard with which one is unfamiliar.
Similarly, growing up in the Yukon Territory where tourism is now a primary industry, I saw first hand the annoyance of the locals who experience the invasion of their home turf. Tensions can escalate toward people from the “outside” who dare to dictate how one should think or behave in regard to tourism development. It matters not whether the “outsiders” are right–the attitude of the locals is that their community comes first. On a professional level, I also worked for many years within northern government policy and planning departments that had a legislated responsibility to deliver equitable programs and services to residents. This background proved helpful to me in understanding the differences between needs-based and capacity-focused community development strategies and how these approaches might affect Aboriginal communities.
8 As a mature woman, it is also relevant that I have experienced oppression in my life and can relate to the immediacy of fear in dealing with certain groups of people.
Epistemic privilege is an awareness of the differences in power between groups.
Narayan (1989) suggests that “it takes more than good will” on the part of those in positions of power to generate a meaningful exchange with some groups or individuals
(p. 321). My personal experiences provided a certain amount of insight and understanding in regard to the work and observations made while in Haida Gwaii.
Although I had no previous experience working directly with Aboriginal communities my approach to the experience was to be open and dedicated to the work that I chose to perform. The potential challenges I faced working in the community stemmed from interpersonal relationships and the potential hesitancy on the part of some to accept me into the community. However, the internship at the Haida Heritage Centre at Kaay llnagaay provided an opportunity to work closely with staff members and allowed me to come into regular contact with members of the community and visitors to the centre. It was the warmth and kindness of the Haida people that helped to overcome many of the challenges. In the end, the collaborative practicum was very successful as expressed by the supervisor:
I wanted to take the time and thank-you for sending Kelly our way. I admit I was a little bit hesitant to take on a student during this busy time of the year but as you communicated Kelly was an excellent person to join our team. She was helpful in so many ways and she was able to adapt and fit in with our young staff and she has taught us a lot. I am sure we will be seeing her again sometime, hopefully soon.
I was particularly impressed with her patience and ability to become a part of the staff and community during her short stay. This was very helpful in conducting her research. I just came from a work shop in Edmonton, hosted by Robin Roth
9 of York University focused on conservation and collaboration between Aboriginal communities and govt, universities and industry and the way our relationship worked out here is exactly what others communities are trying to establish. Kelly was able to lend her talents for the betterment of the community, while establishing relations in a respectful way that was sure to garner honest, reliable and truly useful information for her research project and for the community. In addition to this she was a great friend and sometimes motherly figure to myself and the rest of the staff.
Haaw’aa for the experience, after going through this we are now open to more opportunities like this in the future. (J. Alsop, personal communication, July, 2010)
The remaining sections of this thesis include an overview of ecotourism in Haida Gwaii, the methods used to collect data, the results to emerge from the analysis of the data, and a discussion of the key findings. The following chapter provides additional background information in regard to the study area and the context of tourism and ecotourism development in Haida Gwaii.
10 CHAPTER 2
Haida Gwaii Tourism Context
The Haida have had a profound impact on tourism development in Haida Gwaii as a result of their long term involvement and participation. This chapter provides an overview of the geography of Haida Gwaii as its remote location has implications for accessibility. Understanding the current state of tourism development and planning processes in Haida Gwaii is critical as all residents of the islands are affected. Further, it informs the analysis of the results and the discussion of key findings to follow. The section on the Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program is intended to provide the historical context of the Haida’s initial involvement with ecotourism development.
Geography
Haida Gwaii lies approximately 80 nautical miles west of mainland British
Columbia and 200 miles north of Vancouver Island. There are two major islands with year round populations, approximately 150 smaller islands, and over 1500 uninhabited islets that stretch the length of the archipelago (Carey, 1991). Transportation to the islands is by ferry, air, or private vessel. Ferry service is by far the main form of transportation. Visitors leaving from Port Hardy on the north end of Vancouver Island must travel 15 hours up the Inside Passage to reach Prince Rupert and another 7 hours across Hecate Strait to reach the Skidegate Landing Terminal.
11 Haida Gwaii means “Islands of the People” and the Haida alone occupied these islands for thousands of years, only being “discovered” by the “outside” world in 1787 by Captain George Dixon (Dalzell, 1988). Today, the resident population of Haida
Gwaii is approximately 4500 as of the 2006 Census (Statistics Canada, 2009). The
Haida make up approximately one third of the total resident population (1850) of the islands with the majority living in the villages of Skidegate and old Massett (Statistics
Canada, 2009).3 The Haida population of these two communities is 710 and 670 respectively (Statistics Canada, 2009).
The five other communities on the islands include Massett, Port Clements, Tlell,
Queen Charlotte, and Sandspit, which is the only community located on Moresby Island to the south.4 There are also a number of areas on the islands with more seasonal populations, such as Tow Hill. While Figure 1 shows the main ground transportation route between Sandspit and Massett/Old Massett, there are literally hundreds of logging roads providing access to most areas of the islands. Those areas that are not accessible by road are limited to boat and float plane transport, which is especially true of South
Moresby.
Figure 1, provides a simplified outline of the island’s communities, major parks, and transportation routes.
3 The two Haida villages, Skidegate and Old Massett, are reserves pursuant to the Section 2 of the Indian Act and defined as a tract of land set aside for the use and benefit of a band (Retrieved from www:// laws.justice.gc.ca). The term ‘occupied’ is intended to imply year-round residency in a community. 4 Queen Charlotte City was renamed the Village of Queen Charlotte in 2005 after being incorporated (Village Office, personal communication, October 24, 2010).
12 Figure 1. Map of Haida Gwaii
Figure 1. Adapted from Gwaii Haanas: National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site.
[Brochure] Government of Canada and Haida Nation. (n.d.). Printed with permission.
13 Tourism in Haida Gwaii
Given the relatively small population of the islands, Haida Gwaii offers diverse tourism products and services that largely target visitors seeking outdoor adventure, ecotourism, and culture-based experiences. The majority of amenities and services are located in the Village of Queen Charlotte, however, each of the communities offers an eclectic range of restaurants, accommodations, gift shops, and galleries. The Northern
British Columbia visitor’s map lists six categories of related tourism experiences including: Fishing and Boat Tours, Kayaking and Mother Ship Tours, Land Tours and
Adventures, Museums and Attractions, Recreation Facilities, and Arts and Galleries.
The services provided by these tour operators and businesses vary in style and price; and provide a range of options from which visitors can choose5.
In addition, there are fourteen annual festivals and events held on the islands including the Surfing Expression Session, the Tlell Fall Fair, and the Aboriginal Day
Celebrations. There are two major parks in Haida Gwaii: (1) the Gwaii Haanas National
Park and Haida Heritage Site covers the lower half of Moresby Island; and the Naikoon
Provincial Park, which covers the northeast area of Graham Island. There are also eleven newly established conservation areas and the Delkatla Nature Sanctuary located near Massett and Old Massett (Interview, Rose, June 16, 2010). Camping and recreation areas offer overnight and day-use options and many are in remote areas accessible only by ferry or on one of the many inter-connected logging roads. While outdoor recreation
5 The Tourist Pad Map is available from most local businesses and Visitor Information Centres. It can be obtained by contacting the Misty Isles Economic Development Society at www.mieds.ca.
14 and adventure are a significant part of the visitor experience, cultural tourism is widely recognized as a mainstay to the majority of attractions (MIEDS, 2010b).
The majority of outdoor adventure experiences are provided by non-Haida businesses, a number of which operate offshore fishing lodges, sailing tour packages, air tour packages, but whose offices are located off island. Tour operators in the Gwaii
Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Sites are predominantly non-Haida businesses. However, many of these tours include a cultural component. as the interest in the history and traditions of the Haida is a key visitor draw. Haida business are most often culture-based and include: artists, art galleries and gift shops, the Haida Heritage
Centre and Haida Gwaii Museum, land-based tours, and fishing and boat tours. The tours offered at the Haida Heritage Centre include: Totem Pole Tour, Canoe Tour,
Traditional Paddling Tour, Weaving Tour, and Carvers Tour. The Haida Gwaii Museum offers world-class exhibitions on the history and culture of the Haida in addition to a limited number of exhibits depicting the settlement history of the islands (Field Journal,
May 11, 2010).
The Haida also operate a number of small businesses out of their homes including bed and breakfasts and restaurants featuring traditional Haida foods in addition to more service-based businesses such as clothing and grocery stores. There are also a number of small home businesses operated by Haida entrepreneurs. For example, one couple in Old Massett sells ice cream out of the front hall of their home during events and festivals. Others provide one-off whale watching tours when they have some free time (Field Journal, June 21, 2010). The Haida are creative in taking advantage of some
15 of the ecotourism opportunities available to them; and some of the tour guides offer their own unique and colourful perspectives on the island’s history, people, and environment
(Field Journal, May 18, 2010).
Tourism Planning in Haida Gwaii
Providing the context of how ecotourism planning is currently organized and managed in Haida Gwaii is crucial to understanding relationships between Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development. A review of key management organizations provides the context for further discussion. Provincially, tourism in Haida
Gwaii is administered through the Ministry of Tourism, Sport, and the Arts and regionally through one of six Destination Marketing Organizations (DMO). The
Northern British Columbia Tourism DMO encompasses a large geographic area that includes Prince George, the Chilcotin, and the West Coast, which includes the islands of
Haida Gwaii. The Northern British Columbia DMO currently operates Visitor
Information Centres in Queen Charlotte and Sandspit and two other locally operated
Tourism Information Centres are located in Massett and Port Clements.
In conjunction with the Northern British Columbia DMO, tourism in Haida
Gwaii is currently managed through the Misty Isles Economic Development Society
(MIEDS). MIEDS is a recent addition to Haida Gwaii having begun operations in 2008 and is tasked with “increasing the level of co-ordination and collaboration and the implementation of island-wide economic development”, of which tourism plays a major role (MIEDS, 2010a). The Haida Gwaii Tourism Advisory Committee (TAC) is a local
16 grass roots organization that was developed to take on the role of a local destination marketing organization. This committee was born of an earlier attempt to inform planning through the Haida Gwaii Heritage Tourism Strategy (TAC).6 Aboriginal ecotourism in Haida Gwaii is currently managed co-operatively by the Council of the
Haida Nation, the Skidegate Band Council and the Old Massett Village Council.
The Haida Gwaii Tourism Advisory Committee is the single point wherein collaborative, island-wide tourism and ecotourism planning takes place.7 In addition to those noted, the committee has representation from MIEDs, the accommodation sector, tour operators, the sport fishing industry, and members at large.
Figure 2. Haida representation on Tourism Advisory Committee.
Tourism BC
Haida Ecotourism Representation on Tourism Northern BC Advisory Committee DMO
-Gwaii Haanas Nat. Park Reserve -Haida Heritage Centre -Old Massett Village Council MIEDS -Haida Gwaii Museum Society (Economic Haida Gwaii Development) Tourism Advisory Committee DMO
Figure 2. Adapted from MIEDS Newsletters. Available at http://www.mieds.ca
6 This strategy was developed through in depth community consultations and is widely supported by Haida and non-Haida islanders. It is a foundational document in laying out the values that inform the development of heritage or ecotourism in Haida Gwaii (see Appendix A). 7 TAC is made up of stakeholders from all across Haida Gwaii. MIEDS provides funding that is matched by Tourism BC for a core budget and staff from MIEDS facilitate meetings and decisions.
17 Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program8
Long before the Haida Heritage Site and Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve were established in 1986 and 1988 respectively, the people of the Gitga’at First Nation worked to protect the culture and heritage of abandoned village sites found on Moresby
Island.9 The Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program was established in the late 1970s and early
1980s as the Gitga’at people would return to their traditional villages in the summer to find that artefacts were missing, totem poles cut down and removed, and in one instance the remains of an ancestor had been taken. To protect their heritage and culture they started to schedule their return to coincide with the arrival of visitors each spring, remaining onsite into the fall of each year. They became part of what is known today as
The Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program.
The Watchman Program consists of men, women, elders, and youth from the
Gitga’at who live on site at a designated heritage village for two to four week periods each summer. During that time, it is an opportunity for them to share their culture and values with visitors. They allow only twelve people to land on the shores at any given time and visits are kept to an hour or less. The program’s mandate is to protect sensitive heritage sites, which is accomplished in great part through the education of visitors about the history and people of Haida Gwaii. Watchmen are posted in each of five
8 This section on the Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program is based on a personnel communication with D. Kendrick, in 2009. This work was developed by the researcher as a contributing author to the Tourism Research Innovation Project: Innovations in Sustainable Tourism. The full article (p. 31) can be viewed online at http://web.viu.ca/sustainabletourism/Innovation%20manual%20Final%20June%204.pdf 9 The Haida Heritage Site was designated as such by the Council of the Haida Nation in 1986, an action preceding the establishment of the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve, but subsequent to the designation of SGang Gwaay (Anthony Island / Ninstints) as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981. (D. Kendrick, personal communication, 2009.)
18 villages and cultural sites in the Gwaii Haanas from May to September each year. These sites include: (a) K’uuna Llnagaay (Skedans), (b) Taanuu Llnagaay (Tanu), (c) Hlk’yah
GaawGa (Windy Bay, (d) Gandll K’in Gwaayayy (Hotsprings Island), and (e) SGang
Gwaay Llnagaay (Anthony Island). Parks Canada began funding the program in the late
1980’s and today cooperatively manages the program with the Council of the Haida
Nation. This is the only such cooperative management arrangement in place with a First
Nations Band in Canada. Parks Canada offers interpretive training for the hosts and guides of the Watchmen Program because they are a significant part of the visitor experience. Visitors planning to enter the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and
Haida Heritage Site are required to go through an orientation to familiarize them with the park and its rules when visiting the abandoned village sites and other ecologically and culturally sensitive areas of the park.
Chapter Summary
Haida Gwaii’s geographic isolation has shielded the islands from development; however, it has also increased the cost of living for locals and made access difficult for visitors. The abundance of unique and protected ecosystems in addition to the cultural heritage of the Haida have made it a destination of choice and tourism business have developed a diverse range of services and products to meet this demand. The Haida have focused largely on the provision of ecotourism and culturally based experiences, which has been influenced by their efforts to protect ancient village sites from visitors.
19 CHAPTER 3
Literature Review
The purpose of this literature review is to provide an overview of issues affecting the development of Aboriginal ecotourism at the community level. The goal of this discussion is determine how the literature defines and understands (a) community development, (b) community-based ecotourism, and (c) Aboriginal ecotourism.
Developing an understanding of these issues is foundational to exploring the relationships between Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development and the consideration of those relationships in terms of the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the Haida.
Overview
Aboriginal ecotourism grew out of a desire on the part of tourists to explore increasingly remote and unique cultural and environmental areas of the world, creating a need for products and services in these areas (Scheyvens, 1999; Weaver, 2008; Zeppel,
2006). Aboriginal peoples became involved with ecotourism for two basic reasons; out of necessity, or to take advantage of the opportunities presented (Butler et al., 2007;
Notzke, 2006). The continued growth of Aboriginal ecotourism has been fuelled by a curiosity of the exotic other, a desire to experience natural areas, and an interest in other cultures and belief systems (Higgins-Desbiolles, 2009; Notzke, 2006).
Aboriginal communities have often unprepared to deal with the influx of tourists and many have been simply overrun by outside interests and internal difficulties
20 (Scheyvens, 1999). However, Notzke (2006) suggests that Aboriginal communities went from feeling trapped by ecotourism to the realization that it could serve to protect and preserve their cultures. Recent debates centre on the effect of national and international issues on the development and sustainability of Aboriginal communities participating in ecotourism initiatives (Harris, 2009; Hinch et al., as cited in Notzke,
2004; Weaver, 2010).
For some communities, Aboriginal ecotourism has become an opportunity to implement development initiatives that reflect the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the people (Bell, 1999a; Colton et al., 2007).
Community Development
In the context of this study, ‘Community’ is defined as a group sharing an environment, however, in human communities it refers more specifically to groups in a particular area that share social values, beliefs, resources, and generally have a common identity (Collins, 1990). Blesse (as cited in Bell, 1999a) describes Aboriginal community in the sense of the intimate relationship with all living things, both animate and inanimate. As a tribe or in reference to clan affiliation, it generally means groups of bands claiming a common language and ancestry and working within social and political networks (Brizinski, 1993).
The development of a community is typically approached in one of two ways: 1) traditional (needs-based) development and 2) capacity-focused (asset-based) development (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993). Bell (1999a), postulates that the
21 government’s use of the traditional approach is a significant barrier to developing vibrant Aboriginal communities. Developing a community is seen only as a process of establishing programs and services that have been designed to meet the needs of residents. However, this approach is considered restrictive as the focus is on addressing problems within the community and not the underlying causes (Bell, 1999a; Cornell &
Kalt, 1998; Elias, 1991; Kretzmann et al., 1993).
Capacity-focused (asset-based) approaches are seen as more effective because the focus is on addressing social issues within communities by building the capacity of individuals and associations (Kretzmann et al., 1993). This approach advocates a broad approach to community development wherein the community determines its own needs– using the inherent strengths in the community to bring about change (Green & Haines,
2002; Kretzmann et al., 1993). Similarly, Cornell and Kalt (1998) advocate a nation- building approach wherein the success of economic development is measured on the basis of the social, cultural, and political environment of the Aboriginal community.
Bell (1999a) argues that none of these approaches has been overly effective in developing Aboriginal communities as they are grounded in a system of beliefs that do not reflect those of Aboriginal peoples. Bell (1999a) believes there is a need to shift the focus away from the needs-based and asset-based approaches toward one that serves to re-establish Aboriginal relationships. These relationships include their spiritual relationship with the land and cultural relationships with the family, extended family and associations (Bell, 1999a). This approach is akin to the capacity-focused approach.
However, it places greater emphasis on the types of relationships found in Aboriginal
22 communities and is more in line with an Aboriginal worldview (Anaquot, 2006;
Archibald, 2006; Bell, 1999a).
Bell (1999b) considers the building of Aboriginal community to be something that must be done from the ground up–through projects that reflect the spirituality, traditions, and culture of the people (Clarke, 2009; Hipwell, 2007; Tester et al., 2008).
The following table highlights the differences in the three types of community development.
Table 2. Community Development Approaches
Aboriginal Traditional Capacity Focused
-relationship/kinship -needs based -asset based -land/environment -service based -capacity building -family/community -program specific -individuals relationships -siloed delivery -associations -heritage -singular purpose -community built -traditions -externally focused -internally focused -spiritual/holistic -externally driven -relationship driven -language/historical context
Note. Adapted from Bell, 1999a; Kretzmann et al., 1993.
Traditional forms of community development focus on deficiencies within the community that are addressed by outside agencies (Kretzmann et al., 1993). Capacity- focused forms of community development advocate building assets from within the community and are internally driven by the community (Kretzmann et al., 1993).
However, effective Aboriginal community development, while similar to the capacity- focused approach, has some unique historical and culturally based needs and qualities that inform the development. Facilitating a change in how Aboriginal community
23 development is approached requires planning processes and initiatives that incorporate and reflect their worldview and grounded in their own traditions and values and that bring about benefits and outcomes of their own choosing (Bell, 1999a). Similarly, others have long recognized the need for total or comprehensive approaches to community development–one that considered the needs of a people on the basis of the interrelationships of Aboriginal peoples (Elias, 1991).
Aboriginal community development in other parts of the world is considered a process of healing (decolonization), and recognizes that historical events of the past impact on individuals and communities in the present (Archibald, 2006). This is based on “historic trauma theory” that posits that “people can be injured by events occurring prior to their birth”, that a “relationship exists between history, the social, economic, and political environments and individual experiences” (Archibald., p. iv). Similar to Bell,
Archibald (2006) notes that the best healing practices are those rooted in local cultural practices, languages, and traditions. The most successful projects are those that are values-based, focus on the entire family, link to spirituality, respond to the needs of the community, and are community supported (Archibald, 2006).
The literature illustrates that community development is more than a simple process of meeting needs or assisting residents to draw on the resources available to them. For Aboriginal community development to be effective, an approach is needed that is more in line with their worldview. Further, the approach to development needs to draw on their history and social networks and incorporate projects that reflect their own way of being (Anaquot, 2006; Bell, 1999b; Tester et al., 2008)
24 Community-Based Ecotourism
The focus of current research is framed around the community as the critical component in ecotourism development (Clarke, 2009; Hipwell; 2007; Notzke, 2006).
The following principles are considered critical to successful community-based ecotourism development (a) small in scale, (b) active participation, (c) provides tangible benefits, (d) provides equitable benefits, (e) maintains values of conservation, and (f) maintains the cultural environment (Hipwell, 2007). Further, these principles are linked to the more important and fundamental premise “… that in order to be ethically robust and sociologically sustainable, ecotourism must start from the needs, concerns, and welfare of the local host communities” (Scheyvens, as cited in Hipwell, 2007, p. 5).
Although some Aboriginal communities have been able to build successful ecotourism initiatives on the basis of these principles, they can only serve to guide development (Hipwell, 2007). Some Aboriginal communities, such as Tl’azt’en First
Nation of British Columbia continue to face significant internal and external challenges,
(Dowsley, 2009; Nepal, 2004; Notzke, 2006). Internal barriers are rooted in the community, and where ecotourism has not been successful, the reasons are based on factors that inhibit local involvement, such as discriminatory employment practices
(Mvula, 2001). Similarly, community beliefs can constrain efforts to develop ecotourism
(Nepal, 2004). For example, a fear of losing control, a fear of change or the potential for increased conflict within the community, and a fear of losing cultural and traditional values that are shared inappropriately (Nepal, 2004).
25 External barriers include the private or political interests of those who would dictate the needs or set parameters around the choices communities are permitted to make (Hipwell, 2007). For example, the Tsou people of Taiwan who have refused government assistance in order to maintain control over development initiatives
(Hipwell, 2007). This emphasizes the need to consider the context in which community development occurs (Hinch et al., as cited in Notzke, 2004). Where this context not considered, outside interests will have greater control and influence over development and “may serve to alienate, rather than benefit the local community” (Scheyvens, 1999, p. 245.).
The choice of ecotourism for development by Aboriginal communities seems a natural one as visitors often see these cultures as having a close bond with the natural environment (Zeppel, as cited in Higgins-Desbiolles, 2009). So too, ecotourism is frequently considered a “good fit” for development as Aboriginal communities are often located in places of natural beauty and have access and knowledge of these areas
(Colton et al., 2007). However, understanding what practices best serve community- based development necessitates a clear understanding of what practices best serve
Aboriginal ecotourism.
Aboriginal Ecotourism
The literature contains many definitions of Aboriginal tourism. Generally, it is considered to be those tourism ventures that are owned and operated by Aboriginal peoples, without exhibiting a particular focus on Aboriginal culture (Notzke, 2004). It
26 may or may not exhibit a sense of place and cultural context and Aboriginal ecotourism is considered a subset of Aboriginal tourism (Notzke, 2004). There are relatively few definitions of Aboriginal ecotourism. Zeppel (2006), defines it as,
Includes nature-based products, indigenous ownership and the presentation of indigenous environmental and cultural knowledge. Includes Aboriginal peoples and their traditions because of the strong bonds between Indigenous cultures and their natural environment. Includes, culture, spiritual links between Indigenous peoples and the knowledge of traditional lands or resources (p. 11).
However good they are, definitions are often difficult to apply in a given situation without looking at the principles they uphold. In reviewing six selected definitions from the literature several principles tended to be repeated consistently. This review is based on the work of six scholars.10 Based on the definitions in the literature, the core principles of Aboriginal ecotourism are: (a) ownership and service delivery, (b) culture as the main attraction, (c) environmental ethics, (d) sustainability, (e) appreciation of the natural environment, and (f) meaningful engagement.
As these principles are foundational to Aboriginal ecotourism, they serve to inform community-based development initiatives. Aboriginal ownership is critical as it provides legitimate power and control over development decisions, which relates to issues of sustainability (Notzke, 2004; Weaver, 2010). Culture as the main attraction reflects the essence of Aboriginal peoples and is key to drawing visitors (Butler & Hinch
2007; Zeppel, 2006). Environmental ethics demonstrates the importance of Aboriginal peoples’ connection with the land and their efforts to conserve the environment
10 Principles based on: Ceballos-Lascurain, as cited in Higgins-Desbiolles, 2009; Fennel, 2008; Butler & Hinch, 2007; Zeppel 2006; Notzke, 2006; J. Butler, as cited in Weaver, 2001;
27 (Higgins-Desbiolles, 2009; Zeppel, 2006). Providing opportunities to explore the natural environment is simply logical given the setting and purpose of ecotourism–more importantly, it creates ways in which hosts and visitors can interact in meaningful ways
(Fennel, 2008; Higgins-Desbiolles, 2009).
Other scholars have expanded the consideration of these principles within the context of Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development, linking them to a range of benefits to be gained by hosts and visitors (Bell, 1999a; Colton et al., 2007).
These benefits express an Aboriginal approach to community-based development wherein related activities reflect the spirituality, traditions, and cultural values of the people. The following, broadly reflects the range of community-based benefits to be gained and are based largely on the work of Higgins-Desbiolles (2009), Bell (1999a,
1999b), and Colton and Harris (2007).
• cultural ecology
• environmental stewardship
• cultural awareness
• economic values
• social capital
• cultural independence
Cultural ecology.
This is described as a means of communicating the cultural and ecological vision of indigenous people, cultural ecology reflects “principles[s] of guardianship in human
28 relations with nature (Stewart-Harawira, p. 155-156, as cited in Higgins-Desbiolles,
2009). Examples of “cultural ecology” include the practice of withholding or restricting the types of information shared with guests as a means of protecting cultural identity
(Notzke, 2004; Clarke, 2009). Only those that prove themselves worthy are provided with what is referred to as “backstage” knowledge (Clarke, 2009). In Camp Coorong,
Australia some visitors have experienced a meaningful change in their perceptions about the Aboriginal connection to the land and spirituality as a result of their time at the camp
(Higgins-Desbiolles, 2009). Higgins-Desbiolles (2009) postulates these types of experiences bring about a transformation in ecological consciousness, helping visitors transform their perspectives about culture and ecology.
Environmental stewardship.
Aboriginal businesses and communities incorporate “environmental stewardship” by sustaining natural resources using community-based practices (Pye-
Smith et al., 1994). For example, the Annapurna region of Nepal where “communities build a productive life, their identity and pride around caring for their environment” (Pye-Smith et al., 1994, p. 156). This region supports small-scale development and the most successful communities are those grounded in primary environmental care, which is described as communities that meet their need for income, health, and housing while at the same time taking care of the environment” (Pye-Smith et al., 1994). In Namibia, the first country in the world to include the protection of the environment in their constitution, the Torra Conservancy is working to ensure that the
29 sustainability of resources is a priority (Wall & Wang, 2005). The Torra Conservancy has developed a community-driven environmental management plan and has won international awards for their conservation efforts (Wall, et al., 2005).
Cultural awareness.
Aspects of cultural awareness affect hosts and visitors and incorporate activities that support reciprocal learning experiences (Colton et al., 2010). An example of
‘cultural awareness and learning’ would be visitors to the Rripanu Yidaki family business in Australia who share their passion for music with those wanting to learn how to play the didjerido. Guests at this family run business spend time on the land and “are in constant contact with the land”, learning how to gather local foods, throw spears, and learn weaving traditions (Clarke, 2009, p. 178). Visitors with Kuku Yalanji Dreamtime
Tours are taught about medicinal plants, shown how to gather fruits, and how to make a bark wurun (shelter), and how to make paint for ceremonial purposes (Sofield, 2002).
For the host, these interactions focus on cultural revival, preservation, and retaining traditional knowledge (Sofield, 2002). Similarly, in coastal Kenya, Mijikenda guides share stories with visitors, their history, and places of significance to the Kaya Kinondo and Digo people (Nyamweru et al., 2008).
Economic values.
Looking past the usual effects of economic development such as employment and the generation of wealth through local business, some communities have developed
30 strategies unique to their culture that are representative of their underlying values or principles. An example is found on Taquile Island, Peru where community members have formed pricing co-operatives established by member craft businesses to ensure equity in the distribution of earnings (Mitchell & Eagles, 2001). In Sarawak, Malaysia local people have developed a home-stay program, which is tied to hospitality as a traditional way of life (Harris, 2009). This program helped locals see that it was acceptable to charge for accommodation whereas previously they had felt obligated to entertain guests for free (Harris, 2009).
Social capital.
Defined by Green et al. (2002) as aspects of social structures that encourage collective action, many Aboriginal communities have found ways to use ecotourism initiatives to foster social capital. The people of Kaya Kinondo in Kenya are exemplary in their efforts to balance ecotourism development with the cultural needs of the community. These people have used grants and earnings from small forest based eco- tours to build a small school and purchase textbooks. Earnings are also used to support local women and youth groups, which help to cover the cost of annual ceremonies in the village (Nyamweru et al., 2008). In the Annapurna region of Nepal, community groups are working collaboratively to collect fees from tourists to support social groups. These organized management groups, such as “Mother’s Groups”, work on local projects such as clean-up and training initiatives. This has helped to spread the benefits of ecotourism broadly to the greater community (Nepal, 2007).
31 Cultural independence.
Cultural independence broadly reflects the activities or actions of Aboriginal groups that support their independence (Nyamweru et al., 2008). In Australia, the Yolnu kinship network is an example of cultural independence wherein certain visitors who have respected the customs of the family return year after year to their new family
(Clark, 2009).11 The business relies on word-of-mouth through their clients who don’t think of it as a tourist attraction due to the personal interactions with the family and land
(Clark, 2009). In this way, the the Yolnu use cultural practices to support a local economy that fosters their own independence. Another example of cultural independence is the progress of the Maori in Kaikoura, New Zealand (Curtin, 2003). A range of ecotourism activities has provided a mechanism where Maoris have become a major employer and economic force in the community (Curtain, 2003). The Maoris have used this to promote local awareness and empowerment through training and education initiatives (Curtain, 2003). WhaleWatch, a successful coastal tour business has used this to ensure that local Maori play a leading role in development and to assert their exclusive claim and sovereignty to control whale watching in the area (Curtain, 2003).
Fennell (2008) opines that Aboriginal ecotourism is a myth, based on evidence suggesting “indigenous peoples and traditional societies have historically had difficulty in managing resources in a sustainable way” (p. 129). Fennell (2008) posits that
Aboriginal peoples are not guided by an environmental ethic that is more holistic than that of Western societies–questioning the legitimacy of their ecological stewardship.
11 Kinship Network: Described as the Yolnu way of expressing family, but is more inclusive of everyone they relate to in society as “close kin”. In this way, kinships can be extended to outsiders as “new family”– to include those who have made a good impression and do not breach local etiquette (Clark, 2009, p. 185).
32 Higgins-Desbiolles (2009) argues against this by pointing out that “indigenous people have been impacted by modernity”, advocating that “indigenous people are integrally related to their environments and their ontology does not separate the cultural from the ecological” (p. 151).
Fennell’s point of view highlights the inherent difficulty that comes of defining
Aboriginal ecotourism through a single Westernized lens wherein all people are judged by a single standard. Higgins-Desbiolles is much closer to the heart of the issue in stating that one can’t separate Aboriginal culture from their environment without paying a price. In the same way, the principles of Aboriginal ecotourism and the benefits of community-based ecotourism cannot stand alone. Effective planning must link these principles and benefits and incorporate both aspects into the development of community- based ecotourism initiatives if they are to be meaningful and sustainable. As Notzke puts it, “there can be no sustainable product without a sustainable culture” (2004, p. 47). The concern is that the misuse or inappropriate use of traditions and spirituality in tourism products and services puts their values and therefore the existence of their culture at risk.
Issues of sustainability in the literature centre on the conservation and protection of ecological areas and the interest in natural areas to create economic benefit (Ross &
Wall, 1999). The underlying premise is that, if managed appropriately, ecotourism can lead to sustainability by balancing the needs of conservation against the needs of development (Ross et al., 1999). Conversely, the literature draws attention to the barriers faced by Aboriginal communities in balancing sustainable development and conservation. The most significant barriers are those that continue to deny indigenous
33 rights to own or access traditional land (Colchester, 2004; Colton, 2005). This not only affects the ability of Aboriginal peoples to control community development initiatives, but discourages the pursuit of sustainable practices such as ecotourism (Colchester,
2004; Weaver, 2010). The latter statement is in reference to the establishment of parks and protected areas for the purpose of conservation, but which in effect prevent
Aboriginal peoples from accessing the land (Colchester, 2004). This results in there being little motivation to develop community-based ecotourism initiatives under these circumstances.
The literature suggests that planning is the essential ingredient to sustainability
(Curtain, 2003; Ross et al., 1999). Aboriginal ecotourism is felt to be sustainable where there is a traditional, geographic approach to land-use and a “community-oriented approach, which recognizes the social impact that tourism development undoubtedly has on local residents” (Getz, as cited in Curtin, 2003, p. 178). This statement would tend to support the position of other scholars who advocate the critical and central role of the community in developing ecotourism initiatives (Harris, 2009; Hipwell, 2007; Nepal,
2004).
Chapter Summary
This literature review examines the various approaches to community development and outlines the principles on which the community can be served through ecotourism development. The community is shown as central to success, and that development must be considered within the context of the spiritual, traditional, and
34 cultural values of Aboriginal peoples (Bell, 1999a; Tester et al., 2008). The literature highlights the need to understand how the approach to community development affects the ability of Aboriginal peoples to incorporate planning processes serve the needs of the community first and foremost. Having established the critical role of the community, the literature considers the foundations of Aboriginal ecotourism development and how this informs the range of benefits that flow to communities. The analysis and discussion sections of this thesis provide an in-depth exploration of these issues as they relate to the study area.
35 CHAPTER 4
Research Approach and Methods
Research Paradigm
The importance of identifying one’s research paradigm is critical as its choice informs the overall process of inquiry and the corresponding methods of data collection that are to be incorporated (Morse & Richards, 2002). The process of inquiry is informed by three foundational paradigms: positivism, interpretivism, and critical theory
(Koetting, 1984). Each of these research paradigms is linked to corresponding research methodologies that reflect the underlying ontology and epistemology of the researcher
(Morse et al., 2002). The research paradigm used in this study is that of interpretivism as it reflects the process of inquiry as subjective and an exploration of the relationship between the researcher and the researched (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Methodological Approaches
There are three major categories of qualitative research postulated by Denzin and
Lincoln (2003) and Morse and Richards (2002): phenomenology; ethnography; and grounded theory. The underlying assumptions of phenomenology are critical to the process of inquiry as they serve to establish the reality of the lived Aboriginal experience as evidence of their own existence (Morse et al., 2002). The use of this qualitative methodology informed the ways in which I observed the meaning of that lived experience and my ability to obtain contextually accurate and useable results (Gubrium and Holstein, 2003).
36 As a qualitative methodology, ethnography is used to “collect, analyze, and represent information” about cultural groups (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003, p. 166). In this study, ethnography informed the use of fieldwork as the means of exploring the beliefs, values, and behaviours of the Aboriginal community (Morse et al., 2002). This approach allowed me to work closely with the Aboriginal community and to obtain data that reflected their cultural perspectives. Grounded theory is a means of exploring interactions and processes wherein the researcher attempts to identify any variations
(Denzin et al., 2003). This methodology was well-suited to this study as it is a fluid process described as “… theory that flows from data rather than preceding [it]
…” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 204). This qualitative methodology served to inform the investigation of relationships between ecotourism and community-based development and observation, interviews, and narratives were used for the systematic collection of data.
Description of Research Methods
The study incorporated the use of several corresponding research methods to collect data. A complete list of the research methods employed, materials used, and description of activities are noted in Table 2, however, the primary research methods employed in this study were fieldwork notes, interviews, and participant observation. In addition, I had the opportunity while in the field to review secondary sources such as historical agreements, government documents, consultant reports, feasibility studies,
37 funding and development proposals, environmental assessments, workshop reports and business plans.
Table 3. Research Methods
Method Materials Description of Activities
Field Work Field journal notes and -maintained a written record of all conversations; Notes photography for example, resident opinions, events, impressions, cultural information -obtained photographic evidence to document events and cultural gatherings
Researcher Observations and -kept a daily journal and record of activities Diary personal reflections on -noted personal biases (reflexive/introspective) experience. -noted assumptions made on issues, expectations -kept a record of methodological decisions
Interviews Formal/informal -obtained informed consent as required for interviews & focus interviews and permission to take individual groups and/or small photos group discussions. -made digital recordings of all formal interviews
Participant Forms of interaction -attended events and ceremonies, performed work Observation with the community. duties, participated on tours; visited local shops and businesses; visited all the island’s communities -spoke with residents in the community and visited in their homes; chatted with youth and elders -observed individuals at work and play within the community and their interactions with visitors
Note. Adapted from Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Strauss, 1987; Morse & Richards, 2002;
Glaser, as cited in Morse et al, 2002.
Fieldwork notes.
In ethnography data takes many forms and is made up of ‘observational data’ with these observations being recorded as field notes (Morse et al., 2002). Field notes can take the form of photographs, video, interviews, and a diary or field journals
38 (Wolcott, 1995). In this study a field journal was used to maintain a daily record of observations and personal reflections on the experience. Two sections within the field journal were used to record and track the information, noting the date of each entry, details of conversations held, and key observations made of events or during activities in which I took part.
A detailed photographic record was maintained of community events and ceremonies, the work of staff at the Haida Heritage Centre, the island’s communities, key visitor attractions, and the people themselves. These photos capture significant interactions of community members and participants in ecotourism activities. For example, instructional activities wherein locals and visitors teach or learn traditional weaving skills, go paddling in the traditional Haida canoes, or are taken on guided tours.
In addition, video footage of two potlatches in Skidegate provided a colourful and insightful look at the significance of dance and song within the community. The photos and video footage document these and other activities and were incorporated into the research as evidence of key findings. For example, the unique signage used by the community for residents and visitors.
Interviewing.
Interviewing can take three forms: unstructured; semi-structured; and structured
(Morse et al., 2002). As a method, interviews can be one on one conversations or occur within small or large groups of people called ‘focus groups’ (Morse et al., 2002).
Essentially, it is a means for the researcher to interact with participants and offers them
39 an opportunity to tell their story (Morse et al., 2002). In this study, one-on-one structured interviews were used to obtain detailed responses to questions about ecotourism and community-based development. The interview questions sought to elicit feedback from residents that reflected their role in ecotourism planning, how the values of the Haida are incorporated into planning strategies and process, and the level of input they have into development initiatives (see Appendix A).
A total of 19 formal interviews were conducted and recorded with residents of
Skidegate, Old Massett, and Queen Charlotte, affiliated tourism organizations such as the Misty Island Economic Development Society, the Tourism Advisory Committee,
Haida Heritage Centre, Haida Gwaii Museum, and local tourism businesses and tour operators. Local government organizations included representatives from the Council of the Haida Nation and the Skidegate Band Council in addition to key employees with the
Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site, and BC Parks staff at
Naikoon Provincial Park.
Informal interviews formed a large portion of the data collected as I was able to remain in the community for an extended period of time and had many opportunities to speak with individual members of the community. These informal interviews included young people working at the Haida Heritage Centre, Haida Watchmen, Elders within the community, local and area guides, and people living in communities outside of
Skidegate where I was based. These interactions provided much insight into the workings of the community and allowed me to develop an understanding of the affect of ecotourism development on the attitudes and needs of residents.
40 Participant observation.
The purpose of identifying one’s position as an observer relates back to the epistemological “beliefs about the preferred relationship between the researcher and the researched” (Samdahl, 1999, p. 125). Participant observation is indicative of the researcher’s ability to remain objective and detached, but emotionally involved in the research (Denzin et al., 2003). In 1960, Junker noted several positions: “complete participation (conceals role); the participant doubling as observer; the observer doubling as the participant; and the complete observer [non interaction]” (as cited in Jarvie, 1969).
In striking a balance between full interaction and non-interaction, I chose to assume the role of an ‘observer doubling as the participant’ wherein the emphasis is placed on observation with participation taking on a secondary role. The choice of positioning myself within the context of the proposed research as ‘observer participant’ was my inability as the researcher to truly “join” (as an insider) with the Aboriginal culture
(Garson, 2005; Jarvie, 1969;).
I remained in daily contact with residents from the islands’ communities, management and administrative staff at the Haida Heritage Centre, visitors to the islands, local business operators, artists, tour guides and tour operators. In my spare time
I made several day trips to other areas of Haida Gwaii to familiarize myself with the islands, visited iconic culture sites such as Skedans and SGang Gwaay and participated in major community events and ceremonies such as the repatriation of the Jasper Totem
Pole to Old Massett. As an observer participant, these interactions provided many
41 opportunities to build acceptance and trust within the community, which served to inform issues of reliability and validity.
Trustworthiness and Consistency
Trustworthiness is described by Morse and Richards (2002) as “truth value”, which is: the credibility of the inquiry; applicability, which is the transferability of the results; and consistency, which is the dependability of the results” (p. 168).
Trustworthiness and consistency is ensured through checks and balances established in the various phases of the project as follows: 1) Design, 2) Execution, and 3) Completion
(Morse et al., 2002). This study incorporated trustworthiness and consistency into each of these stages as follows:
Design stage.
The main considerations in the design stage were the appropriate selection of
“strategies, types of data, and analysis techniques … to ensure maximal validity” (Morse et al., 2002, p. 175). A significant amount of preparation went into planning and developing the research design in advance of carrying out the project. Appropriate training was undertaken by the research in advance to ensure that the project would be carried out successfully. This included the preparation of a detailed research proposal, which was reviewed by a committee of advisors who provided feedback and suggestions to strengthen the research.
42 Execution.
Purposeful sampling was used in the study. However, interviewees in turn nominated the names of other potential participants who could further inform the research. As the sole researcher in the field it was critical to remain open to the changing needs of the study and key to this were on-going debriefings with the supervisor.
Further, a process was established to ensure that data could be collected and assessed appropriately throughout the project. This included maintaining a record of research events and decisions, which could be checked by an independent auditor at a later date
(Morse et al, 2002). In addition, member checking was incorporated into the process.
A key participant in the community was forwarded a copy of the results and discussion sections for their review. They were asked to comment on the accuracy of the findings and to ensure that individuals were not identifiable due to concerns of confidentiality.
Completion stage.
The goal in demonstrating the trustworthiness and consistency in qualitative research is to assure the credibility, applicability, transferability, and consistency of the research findings. Lincoln et al. (1985) make a further distinction of trustworthiness as being inherent to the human instrument. As the instrument of the research, I was diligent and consistent throughout the study to ensure rigour in the design, execution, and to the extent possible completion of this project (Morse et al., 2002).
43 Data Analysis
Data analysis was inductive and began from the earliest stages of the study including the initial planning discussions with the community, the information gathering stage, and the final stages of transcribing and coding the interviews. The primary and secondary data gathered from the fieldwork notes, interviews, and participant observation formed the basis of the data to be analyzed. The general procedure I used to analyze and interpret the data is described as follows.
Step 1 full transcription of all interviews
Step 2 review transcribed material looking for similarities in response patterns
Step 3 development of initial codes based on similarities in response patterns
Step 4 round one: coding of all interviews
Step 5 round two: review and re-code material looking for patterns within emerging
themes
Step 6 round three: review and re-code material looking for broader thematic groups
Step 7 round four: review and re-code material to establish core thematic groups
This process of coding and re-grouping is referred to as open coding: a process “aimed at opening up the data, identifying concepts that seem to fit the data” and fits with the approach to grounded theory (Morse et al., 2002, p. 121). In steps 1 - 3, I reviewed and transcribed all the interviews and proceeded to review the material looking for similarities in responses to develop the initial coding groups. The process of coding and
44 re-coding to determine the emerging thematic groups was done in an excel spreadsheet to document and track the progression of the analysis. Coding of the transcripts constituted the identification of relevant sections by underlining it and placing an identifier code beside the applicable line or section of text. Steps 4 - 6, completed three separate rounds of coding wherein I continued to bring together similar patterns into increasingly broader thematic groups. On concluding each round, the results were peer reviewed.
Upon completing round three, I found I had narrowed the initial one hundred and fifty-three codes down to twenty separate thematic groups. In the 7th step, a fourth round of coding reduced these twenty thematic groups to five core themes. Each of these core themes rendered between 3 and 4 sub-themes that are used in the detailed analysis of the results. The 5 core themes to emerge from the data include:
1. Commitment to Community and Planning
2. Economic Factors
3. Role of Continuity
4. Stakeholder Involvement
5. Role of the Haida Heritage Centre and Haida Gwaii Museum
Limitations.
In developing the initial research design, several limitations were identified.
These included, 1) concerns over the study being undertaken by a single researcher, 2) the possibility that the community itself may limit the ability of the researcher to obtain
45 sufficient data, and 3) the use of inductive data analysis would result in the data being too theory laden, too subjective with no way to place boundaries on the inquiry (Lincoln et al., 1985).
Personal limitations included my own inexperience and the possibility that an insufficiency of available skill sets would constrain the research. One of the challenges that I faced was a limited understanding of what it means to be “connected to the land”, which falls outside the realm of my own experience. A further challenge was that I had not previously worked directly with an Aboriginal community. In regard to these challenges and my own limitations, the intention from the outset was to remain open throughout the process and seek regular input from the supervisor. The use of regular peer debriefings while in the field provided the level of assistance required and allowed me to address questions as they arose (Morse et al., 2002). In regard to concerns over the use of inductive data analysis the research process provided a clear point at which “a satisfactory level of explanation” had been obtained and the responses to interview questions and the observations being made tended to repeat themselves consistently
(Morse et al., 2002). The role of the community in obtaining sufficient data was not an issue as the community and residents of Haida Gwaii openly and willingly participated in the research process.
Meeting Ethical Research Requirements
Pursuant to Acadia University’s Research Ethics Board (REB), this study received approval to conduct the research on April 5, 2010. This study adhered the
46 requirements and guidelines as a project involving “living human subjects”,
“interviewing a human subject”, “secondary use of data”, and “naturalistic observation” (Research Ethics Board, 2009).
Informed consent.
As required by the Research Ethics Board, the rights and confidentiality of participants was protected through the use of informed consent (see Appendix B). Onsite debriefings were offered to all participants and any questions were addressed immediately. All resources, journals, documents, and data will be kept on file for the requisite number of years. Electronic or originals of photographs were provided to individuals upon request while on site in Haida Gwaii.
Confidentiality.
Due to the small population of Haida Gwaii pseudonyms have been used in the results section of this thesis and will be used in any future reports or summaries provided to the Haida Heritage Centre for distribution. In addition, the titles of individuals have not been used to ensure the confidentiality of study participants.
Ethical considerations.
Research carried out in Aboriginal communities comes with inherent ethical considerations that must be addressed. Field researchers may be well versed in the historical issues and understand the need for collaboration and community participation,
47 but need to comprehend the broad impact of research conducted in Aboriginal communities (Butler et al., 2007; Nepal, 2009). Long and LaFrance (2004), consider the
Aboriginal research industry to be an “expression of a much larger process of colonization”, wherein Aboriginal peoples are not in control of the research process. For this reason, permission to conduct the research was obtained in advance from the
Operations Manager at the Haida Heritage Centre and I completed the practicum component of the master’s program while in the community. This was a mutually beneficial arrangement sought by both parities as the Haida Heritage Centre had requested assistance in staff training and the development of policies and procedures related to the development and management of their on site and out-bound tour operations. As I had extensive experience as a research and policy analyst and had worked with tour operators both as a guide and in management positions the arrangement turned out to be mutually beneficial.
48 CHAPTER 5
Results
This chapter will review each of five major themes to emerge from the analysis.
Each section will begin with an overview and conclude with a brief summary. The major themes and sub-themes to be reviewed include the following:
1. Commitment to Community and Planning 1.1 Commitment to the Haida Community 1.2 Commitment to Planning 1.3 Balancing Ecotourism and Community 1.4 Guiding Ecotourism Initiatives
2. Economic Factors 2.1 Funding as a Major Barrier 2.2 Taking Advantage of Opportunities 2.3 Human Resource Development 2.4 Barriers to Visitor Growth
3. Role of Continuity 3.1 Respect For All That Is Haida Gwaii 3.2 Cultural Stewardship Through Art & Language 3.3 Environmental Stewardship
4. Stakeholder Impact 4.1 Key Agreements 4.2 Key Stakeholder Agencies 4.3 Importance of Autonomy and Trust Building 4.4 Historic Agreements and Local Politics
5. Role of the Haida Heritage Centre and Haida Gwaii Museum 5.1 Cultural Significance of the Facility 5.2 Support and Integration with Community 5.3 Role in Island Ecotourism 5.4 Key Priorities
49 Theme 1: Commitment to Community and Planning
This theme broadly reflects the Haida’s deep commitment to the community as foundational to planning for ecotourism development. This is more than a simple commitment to a task or to achieving a particular goal. It reflects an abiding commitment to the islands, to the people, and to their way of life. In terms of ecotourism development, their culture and community comes first. In terms of planning, their commitment is exemplified through their dedication to the process of planning. There is an understanding that planning is integrally linked to their ability to find a balance between the needs of the community and the necessity of guiding development initiatives.
1.1 Commitment to the Haida Community
Home: Haida Gwaii in the homeland of the Haida … home is where you keep what is precious to you. Home is where you invite guests to share. Home is where you speak your own language. Home is where you return to reflect on your past and your future, and where revelations rooted in your ancestry are reborn and nourished. (Communications Committee, Needs Identification, 1998)
One of the things I was most struck by in Haida Gwaii was the deep and abiding commitment the Haida have to their islands and to each other. Their ties to the community and the island are often expressed as the length of time having lived there, the familiarity of place and family, and the interconnectedness of their lives past, present, and future. The majority of residents I interviewed noted they had been born and raised in Haida Gwaii, others indicated they had left only to return after years away to
50 settle once again in one of the island’s communities. They are not simply residents, but
Haida with family, clan, and ancestral roots dating back thousands of years. Haida and non-Haida alike told me they had been there their entire lives such as Lynn who stated “I am Haida and I am Raven”, indicating not only her heritage, but clan affiliation, which is central to their individual and collective identity.
Randy was particularly vocal about being Haida. Not only did he lay claim to his cultural heritage, he made intentional claim to his ownership or entitlement to the islands, by greeting every visitor with “Welcome to my islands” (Field Journal, May,
2010). To the Haida, they have always occupied Haida Gwaii and never relinquished their rights to it, a position made clear by Randy who explained, “The Haida people are taking the islands back from Canada. I can’t remember giving it away and I sure as hell don’t remember getting paid for it” (Field Journal, May 18, 2010).
Other study participants identified with their ties to their family and clan as reflective of their level of connectivity and commitment to the islands. One very active member of the community stated, “It’s interacting with one another–that’s fun. I’m personally involved with business, with my family–so I work with my brother and sister and my mother. I get to spend time with the people, my family members, and clan members” (Interview, Robert, May 17, 2010). This identification with one’s family lineage and clan affiliation strengthens the connections to the community. Randy articulated this by stating,
51 Our culture is protected–surrounded by 90 miles of ocean on all side. Others [Aboriginals] are not so lucky–they don’t know who they are as the Haida know who they are. All Haida can trace their roots back at least 150 years.12
The Haida people know intimately that everything they do affects all else and that their lives within the community are the sum total of their own actions. The relationships between land, family, and clan are deep and interconnected within the network of the community and are very important. As explained by Brenda,
You have a community like Skidegate where people live together–most people don’t have fences–they have dogs that roam, but somewhere beneath it all there is a knowing that says everything is connected and you can’t impact that part without impacting the other part. (Interview, Brenda, June 28, 2010)
In developing ecotourism, Robert sees planning as a means to an end; providing Haida with an opportunity to truly understand the culture more “… so you can perpetuate it and bring it into your personal context–into a modern context” (Interview, May 18, 2010).
The commitment is to the community and the future of the Haida people and not to ecotourism in and of itself.
1.2 Commitment to Planning
The Haida have long been involved in ecotourism planning. In the past, the reasons were more closely linked to cultural development; however, recently it is also tied to ecotourism as the island’s remaining growth industry (Interview, John, June 17,
2010). The understanding that planning affects everyone on the islands is closely linked
12 The comment was made in reference to the Haida knowing the boundaries of their land i.e. no others can contest their claim to title. It also speaks to the fact that they are isolated geographically, which has protected them from outside cultural influences.
52 to (a) the high level of participation and (b) the long term involvement of residents in ecotourism planning. The majority of people I spoke with understand the critical role that ecotourism plays and the need for planning to support not only their cultural aspirations, but also this remaining industry now and for future generations.
So back to the question, who’s affected by planning–it’s all of us whether you are Haida in Skidegate, in Grade 8 trying to figure out what you might want to do, or a 45 year old man with a family–it affects us all because maybe if we did a better job of it …. (Interview, Jack, May 20, 2010)
The Haida’s level of participation and long-term involvement with ecotourism planning is best exemplified by the development and construction of the Haida Heritage Centre.
This Skidegate-based project was conceived well over 30 years ago and was planned in conjunction with an expansion of the Haida Gwaii Museum.13 In reviewing the old planning documents, some dating back to 1995, I found the names of many individuals were repeated year after year as proof of their lengthy involvement in this major development initiative (Field Journal, May, 2010).
This centre [was] an initiative of the Skidegate Band Council and its been an initiative and dream of the community for more than thirty years … the whole development/building process was about 15 years. ( Interview, Julia, May 19, 2010)
Others referred to the long term involvement and engagement of the communities in planning for specific projects or initiatives,
At some point along the way somebody from each community was at the table. We went through that process for almost two years–a year and a half–just over a year of meeting. [The program was] extended longer than the available funding
13 The Haida Gwaii Museum is an island wide society with representation from all communities.
53 as they understood that things were slower here and that it take a little bit more work to get to the place you wanted to go. (Interview, Robert, May 17, 2010)
One Elder who had been involved with planning the Haida Heritage Centre and the
Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program for many years relayed her personal experience and involvement with planning,
I’ve got 20 years of planning in … so now with all my experience I’ve been able to look at [problems] sort of from a distance and say okay we need this … how are we gonna get there. People are so resourceful … it’s an intuition you think about it and you think how can I do that–okay thinking outside the box–because we’ve never had the box–anything goes. (Interview, Brenda, June 28, 2010)
Although community involvement in planning is high, much of the success in planning has resulted from the dedication of a core group of individuals. Robert and others recognize the importance of community-based planning and understand that much of the work routinely falls on a small but dedicated group of individuals. “There is a good core group of people involved in tourism [that] care about tourism and want to see success in the tourism industry and who are participating in it” (Interview, Robert, May 17, 2010).
There is also a growing awareness among islanders that planning must become increasingly cooperative to be effective and that a shift must be made in favour of island-wide projects involving Haida and non-Haida. This was acknowledged by many members of the community and clearly supported by residents such as Nicole who acknowledged that this shift had already begun to occur and felt that the reality of limited funding would foster further cooperative planning efforts.
Well I think that the communities are finally pulling together now and for a while there it just seemed like every community was after the same pot of money to promote tourism and I think that’s all coming together now. They are seeing that
54 there is a benefit to joining forces and yeah there is only so much [money] out there. (Interview, June 11, 2010)
1.3 Balancing Ecotourism and Community
The Haida have an advantage in guiding community-based planning by virtue of the fact that they are keenly aware of what they do not want to be in regard to ecotourism development. Brenda expressed her belief that the Haida have a greater purpose than that of servicing the needs of others and felt this informed their approach to planning initiatives and helped to establish boundaries in regard to their level of involvement.
I think that the one thing that we decided a long time ago was that we weren’t going to be water carriers and bag carriers–that’s not what our people were here to do. So if you know what you don’t want to do, you can do the other things. (Interview, Brenda, June 28, 2010)
By defining such a boundary, the Haida have been cushioned to an extent from the pressures their modern popularity has brought them. Robert’s personal reaction to the attention given the Haida is one of surprise, “It’s been difficult for me to understand why we are so popular because we’re not”. This popularity has been wrought by what John refers to as “really good press agents”, but has come at a cost. During the interview with
Brenda she addressed the pressure of this popularity,
People come here looking for something that doesn’t exist in their own lives and are trying to fill it with something from some other culture whether it’s Haida or Hinduism they are looking to fill a hole in their own life and they will take parts from whatever and it’s disjointed and broken and doesn’t work. (Interview, June 17, 2010)
55 On a lighter side, local Haida tour guides have been asked, “Are there any real Haidas we could talk to about this?” Visitor expectations are high and this is true not only of the
Haida, but of iconic cultural locations such as the Haida Heritage Sites in Gwaii Haanas where “tourist expectations are quite high.” For some, there is a misunderstanding that these are abandoned village sites and not wholly rebuilt replica villages that can be toured. History has also influenced the ability of the Haida to share with visitors, which impacts the authenticity of the experience. Brenda explained that there is a hesitancy on the part of Haida–they hold back, “It’s difficult to put more out there … I think we’re very guarded–those of my ancestors or Elders that know things are not prepared to put everything out [there].”
The understanding that you “never want to sell out” has affected the balance between visitor experience and authenticity, and the community. It’s a fine balance, but overall current practice has fostered positive cultural exchanges for hosts and visitors.
Brad, a local guide, is actively trying to find that balance and recognizes that “there is a certain amount of learning that we have to do ourselves before we can properly share stuff and open up”. He was referring to the work he has personally done as a young man to learn more about his own culture in order to share effectively.
We have to know how to talk to people and we have to know what being Haida is all about–we have to be able to explain it and apply it and show them [visitors] what things are significant to the Haida culture. (Interview, June 5, 2010)
Culturally, the Haida Watchmen sites in Gwaii Haanas embody a rightful balance between tourism and community and have long fostered positive cross-cultural exchanges. Shannon, a former Haida Watchmen, reflected on her experiences,
56 I know where I am from now and I know who my family is and it kind of opened me up to talking with people because I was real shy and I was never able to talk to people because they are just as curious about our culture as we are about them. (Interview, June 2, 2010)
The Haida’s efforts to maintain their sense of identity in the face of the popularity that ecotourism has helped to bring them was conveyed to me while onsite at the SGaang
Gwaay village site on Anthony Island.14 I listened to the Watchman on duty talk to each of the visitors in the group and share not only the history and culture of the site, but that of his home and family and his mother who works with him on location (Field Journal,
June 27, 2010). Both aspects of his life and culture and place were equally vital to the host and visitor experience.
This balancing of community and ecotourism development has been guided to a great extent by the efforts of those involved in planning. This balance is expressed clearly by a statement on the Haida’s authenticity,
Authentic: The Haida are not a piece of art or a dance or a song. We are The People. We are not on display. We are not frozen in time. We are not a Disney version of a First Nation. What we will share with out guests will be our living culture, which blends the lessons, voice and relics of our past with the realities of the modern world. We understand the need of our guests to know that they are truly touching what is Haida; we ourselves need to discover what is real. (Communications Committee, Needs Identification, 1998)
1.4 Guiding Ecotourism Initiatives
People involved in planning understand that the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the Haida are an integral part of the planning process from the outset and
14 SGang Gwaay is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The name means Wailing Island, which comes from the sound of the air pushing through the rocks at tide–making the sound of a keening women. GHNPR and Haida Heritage Site, Visitor Guide.
57 central to guiding and constraining community-based development initiatives. By formal means, the values of the Haida community are outlined in the value and mission statements of key planning documents.15 While reviewing and documenting the many planning documents housed at the Haida Heritage Centre, even the oldest incorporated a values or needs identification statement as a means of defining the purpose of projects from the perspective of the Haida community.
The document prepared by the Communications Committee in 1998 included a comprehensive statement about the “values that [the Centre] would espouse in all of its activities, products, and services”. This “Needs Identification” statement comprises eight community-based needs that reflect the Haida values of (a) home, (b) nourishing, (c) spirituality, (d) continuity, (e) pride, (f) closing the circle, (g) authentic, and (h) involvement (Field Journal, May 13, 2010)16. It is self-evident that a tremendous amount of time and thought went into preparing this document by the committee’s membership.
Another example of a formalized value statement currently in use is the
“Summer Program Themes” for the Haida Heritage Centre. This comprehensive training tool is used by management to provide staff with “key ideas and central focus in communicating concepts, ideas and objects,” to visitors more effectively. These themes focus on their connection to land, continuity, and art and; are invaluable in assisting staff to understand their role as cultural stewards (Field Journal, May 11, 2010). It is crucial to point out that this “training tool” came out of in-depth planning sessions to update the
15 See also, Section 4.ii (Key Stakeholder Agencies). 16 Several of these Needs Identification statements have been used within this thesis as they so clearly support the stated themes to emerge from the data (see Appendix C).
58 older Mission and Vision statements of the Haida Heritage Centre, Haida Gwaii
Museum Society, and the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site in 2009.
Similarly, the Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program is felt to exemplify the timelessness of Haida values as part of the planning that occurs within ecotourism development initiatives.
The core values are still there from those original people [Watchmen] and that’s a big part of the culture is that you are reminded about what the original intention of this was [and] as it becomes bigger internationally or as a tourist destination– the Watchmen are always reminded that they are there to protect the site as their first objective. (Interview, Ken, June 24, 2010)
Central to guiding and constraining development initiatives is the fact that the Haida
“consider what is to be respected and conserved in tourism development” (Interview,
Robert, May 17, 2010). In this, culture is placed above ecotourism and there is an understanding that whatever the project, “it must support the protection and continuation of the Haida culture” (Interview, Jack, May 20, 2010). Shannon has seen the encroachment brought on by tourism and expresses well the determination of the Haida to protect their culture.
When I first arrived here some Haida people said they didn’t want to become another Hawaii–we’re not having fake potlatches for people just because they are here. We’re going to keep our culture intact–there are certain things that we will share and certain things we will not share. (Interview, June 2, 2010)
59 Informally, the Haida have attempted to keep culturally based restrictions in place to minimize the sharing of certain aspects of their spirituality, traditions, and culture with visitors. Study participants provide several examples of this:
“You shouldn’t tell people that’s our medicine; medicines are spiritual” (Field Journal, June 3, 2010).
“We have our own unwritten rules; you can’t just give away songs of dances” (Interview, Randy, May 18, 2010).
“There are certain places where you can’t stay; places where we harvest roots” (Interview, Brad, June 5, 2010).
“Some stories should not be told to tourists” (Interview, Joe, June 3, 2010).
“We’re not supposed to talk about the Shaman’s or where they are buried” (Field Journal, May 24, 2010).
There does not seem to be a formal planning process for determining what is and isn’t culturally appropriate, but many Haida indicate that the community itself provides the general parameters. “If it’s gonna be touchy, if it’s gonna be inappropriate you start to check with the people–so they say this is the way it used to be done and you get some general guidelines” (Interview, Robert, May 17, 2010). Randy says that the chiefs are central to this culturally based approach, “… [they] say this is not proper, you can’t do this and it will kill it dead” (Interview, May 18, 2010).
Several documents also serve to guide ecotourism development initiatives. Some of those noted by study participants include the Gwaii Haanas Agreement, Haida Gwaii
Community Viability Strategy, and the Haida Gwaii Community Tourism Plan, but the
60 one referred to most frequently was the Haida Gwaii Heritage Tourism Strategy
(Appendix C). This document was a collaborative effort and was “Comprised of representatives of all communities in Haida Gwaii–it is one of those documents that understands the balance and [is] actually beneficial … as the foundation for tourism development”.
People are really clear that the Haida Tourism Strategy is a document that reflects the island’s values. It doesn’t have things in such a way that are trendy or fashionable … [but] because it deals with values and principles its something that’s not necessarily going to age. Action plans change not the values statements. The success of [the document] is that it’s still our values and clearly communicates our values. [The strategy] came from a grassroots place. It is such a good fit…we can be successful in other documents if we draw on some of the principles like consultation. It was also trust in the people who were at the table. (Interview, Jack, May 20, 2010)
This key document was considered so valuable in laying out the values and principles of the Haida community that it was adopted as a foundational document of the Haida Gwaii
Tourism Advisory Committee, for the fact that there was “no point in reinventing the wheel”. A second critical document used to establish values and benefits is the Gwaii
Haanas Management Plan for the Terrestrial Area, which will be discussed in Chapter 5,
Section 4.2 (Stakeholder Impact).
Summary
The level of commitment to the community and to planning is deeply felt in
Haida Gwaii. The commitment to planning is demonstrated by their long term involvement and the level of participation in ecotourism development initiatives. They
61 have also shown a profound ability to balance the pressures on their community and culture as a result of development by understanding clearly their own identity. This has been made possible in large part due to the identification of their needs and values within a number of key planning documents in use within the community.
Theme 2: Economic Factors
The theme broadly reflects issues related to economic development and ecotourism as the remaining industry in Haida Gwaii and the affect of this on community-based planning. Issues around capital and core funding are critical to development as is the need for renewed entrepreneurship. This section also addresses the importance of cultural capacity building and training as foundational to continued economic development and positive visitor experiences.
2.1 Funding as a Major Barrier
Funding is considered by many study participants to be the largest barrier to ecotourism development. Specifically the lack of capital dollars to develop infrastructure, but more importantly the ongoing operating or core funding needed to support that infrastructure. Issues surrounding core funding have become such a barrier to planning that some people are hesitant to take on additional projects such as a resort, which had been a part of the original development plans for the Haida Heritage Centre.
(Robert, Interview, May 17, 2010).
62 The experience of the Haida Heritage Centre is an example of the dilemma in which the community of Skidegate finds itself (Field Journal, June 6, 2010). Initially, the community found it relatively easy to apply for and obtain money for capital projects and were of the belief that the Haida Heritage Centre would be self-sustaining through ecotourism and other revenue streams. However, as revenues have consistently fallen below the initial estimates, management frequently finds itself in a situation where there are limited or no operating funds. As the Haida Heritage Centre is essentially a public agency, Julia considers it quite obvious that “Institutions like the Haida Heritage Centre never make money” (Interview, May 19, 2010). However, the desperate need for operating funds has led to a systemic problem wherein community planners often resort to applying for new funding rather than seeing projects through to a point where they are fully operational and self-sustaining (Field Journal, May 29, 2010). Christine feels this is a critical issue as it seriously hinders the ability of the community to plan effectively in the long run, “Because it really is easier to just abandon that project and just do something else or get money to do the same project again with a different name” (Interview, July 4, 2010).
This approach to development has affected other ecotourism organizations on the islands, such as the Misty Isles Economic Development Society and the Haida Gwaii
Tourism Advisory Committee. The need for operating or core funding has led these organizations to propose the development of an “Additional Hotel Room Tax”. The proposal estimates the tax would bring in approximately $120,000 per year in “sustained tourism funding for Haida Gwaii” and “will be used specifically for
63 marketing” (Tourism Haida Gwaii, 2010). This type of funding will enable them to apply to organizations on the basis of matching funding, which will increase their finance options (Interview, Nathan, June 11, 2010).
Building awareness among island residents as to the importance of ecotourism to the island’s economy is critical to raising the level of community support for planning and development. Many islanders understand the ecotourism industry to be the only remaining economic generator, “Tourism is not rising, it’s here because the other industries are gone” (Interview, Jack, May 20, 2010) or Nicole who confirmed this by stating that “from a personal point of view I think tourism is kinda all we have left” (Interview, June 1, 2010). Organizations such as MIEDS and the Council of the
Haida Nation recognize the potential for ecotourism to meet economic objectives and are working to create awareness of their activities.
The Council of the Haida Nation’s tourism representative stated that “the big part for us is communicating and letting everyone know what is happening and what the benefits are and [that] things are not happening without your involvement and that we are taking in your input–that we are acting for the best interest of the entire nation” (Interview, Ken, June 24, 2010). The need to build an awareness of the benefits of ecotourism development stems from what Rose says is “ … [a] disconnect between what the expectations of the communities are to tourism–there isn’t a tourism concept outside of a certain group of people … [and we are] not able to sell the potential of it” (Interview, June 16, 2010). Darlene is a good example of this disconnect as she is angry and sees tourism as a poor replacement for the lost logging and fisheries jobs,
64 The Haida used to work in forestry for $40 an hour–they are not interested in tourism jobs that pay 12 dollars an hour and many are leaving for the oil fields or forestry jobs elsewhere. These [tourism] jobs are not adequate to meet islanders needs. It is too expensive for people to get here so there will never be huge tourism development here. (Field Journal, May 14, 2010)
Darlene raises other issues as well and feels strongly that the Haida get preferential treatment in many ways. She feels it is great to support the Haida culture, but sees the
Haida Heritage Centre as a horrible expense and doesn’t feel the government should put more money into it (Field Journal, June 26, 2010). There are many such strongly held opinions on the islands. Changing these attitudes and opinions is the challenge for those involved in ecotourism planning.
One of the challenges we’re facing is communicating the values and what the benefits are [in ecotourism] especially to the non-Haida communities that were resource based and they’ve seen changes–population decline and not much money. So it’s easy to point fingers and feel like there is less opportunity as a result. (Interview, Ken, June 24, 2010)
Ken sees the current situation as a transition period–the process of moving away from resource extraction based industries to ecotourism which is non-extractive and sustainable. He understands the frustration and tension that arises when people don’t have an income, but feels that for the most part people understand the need to change.
2.2 Taking Advantage of Opportunities
The need for renewed entrepreneurship in the community is critical. The core issues to emerge from the data involve (a) helping residents see the existing
65 opportunities, (b) how to take advantage of the opportunities, and (c) the level of difficulty in changing ingrained ideas and attitudes.
John feels strongly that Aboriginal peoples are the most impacted by ecotourism planning, “In my mind it would be the Aboriginal peoples because [of] the lost opportunity is where they are hardest hit”. John feels that for Haida to find success in ecotourism, they need to broaden their concept of what [ecotourism] means within the context of the islands. For example, the exporting of bentwood boxes,
It is very expensive to get here and you can’t just drive here … so there are some limitations to what you can do. [If] you can broaden your definition of what tourism is, like … the value of wood products you could create. So could you not say that is part of tourism and culture and if you’re expanding the things that you do within your group–say you are selling bentwood boxes to Mexico–that is a cultural tourism piece. (Interview, John, June 17, 2010)
Essentially, John feels that in order to take full advantage of the opportunities available to them, the Haida need to expand their perspective on what ecotourism can look like and move beyond the somewhat restrictive options available in Haida Gwaii alone.
Other study participants suggested that,
“People are missing out on local opportunities such as accommodation, bed and breakfasts … or even storytelling–it doesn’t have to be from the old ways–there is a big opportunity to capitalize on life experiences” (Interview, Robert, May 17, 2010).
One of the biggest criticisms levied against the Haida is the fact that they have not used their designated allocation of user-days and user-nights to operate tours in the Gwaii
Haanas National Park and Haida Heritage Site (Field Journal, June 8, 2010). Currently, the right to conduct tours into the national park is controlled by the Archipelago
66 Management Board, which is accomplished by restricting the number and types of tours allowed. There are three classifications of allocations: (a) Haida allocation, (b) non-
Haida allocation, and (c) general allocation. Currently, the annual Haida allocation is
10,000 user-days and user nights of which they have used none. “I don’t think they understand what they are missing by not showing up for the Haida allocation as they should” (Interview, John, June 17, 2010). Others drew attention to the fact that the Haida have also failed to work with non-Haidas who could have potentially worked with them to build Haida-based tours into Gwaii Haanas.
My biggest condemnation is that they’ve had 10,000 visitor days that they have not used and people who would put the money forward to operate with them to make it happen and they haven’t even bothered to pursue that. (Interview, Nathan, June 11, 2010)
For some, the most unfortunate result is that the demand for this level and type of service has not been taken advantage of,
They haven’t exploited to the fullest potential the opportunities here in tourism … there are a lot of people [who] would love to get on a Haida operators boat– they’d love to be guided by Haida … well we don’t have any Haida operators in the Gwaii Haanas system. So now it’s becoming an issue if they don’t use it they’re going to lose it. So for me they have just under performed. (Interview, Jack, May 20, 2010)
There is a degree of misunderstanding among the non-Haida community as to why the
Haida have not taken greater advantage of some of these ecotourism opportunities. Some of the reasons are systemic such as learned dependency such that, “Everything is kind of expected to be band planned [and] the economic development society should be handing over these platter opportunities that you just jump in and go with” (Interview, Robert,
67 May 17, 2010). Another phrase commonly heard was “a sense of entitlement” in that
“they/we are not conditioned to pay for anything”, yet this was tempered by an awareness that “[change] has to be built slowly.” and “I think there is a sincerity here to make it happen.”, but [it’s difficult] because most of the people you’re dealing with have always had government money to support them” (Interview Nathan, June 11,
2010).
Other reasons the Haida have tended to not be involved in ecotourism are culturally based. Chelsey described one aspect of their culture that has had a direct impact on people’s attitudes,
There was a history of slavery within the Haida culture and there were some things that the slaves did and some people have said that ‘I don’t want to be a slave to visitors.’ They see it as a low level job–not one with a lot of esteem associated with it. (Interview, May 20, 2010)
An Elder explained the difficulty of separation,
Generally speaking, when you’re having to be separated from your family for long periods of time–especially for Haida people–as much as it can be a love/ hate thing–you hate the gossip and things, but on the other hand when you are not there you miss it and so being away from family and from home [as a guide] for extended periods of time is difficult. (Interview, June 28, 2010)
Another cultural reason for the lack of engagement as explained by Brenda was the difficulty many Haida have speaking with strangers.
Whereas when you go into the tourism industry, oh my god, I have to talk to all these people and they expect me to answer all these questions and know all this and I don’t know it or I don’t think I know it or I don’t feel confident that I know it–it’s a lot of pressure. (Interview, June 28, 2010)
68 But changing old and ingrained ideas is difficult and takes a lot of time and patience from all those involved. John understands this, “It is all about integration and education
… everybody has to be prepared to step up and figure out how they can contribute” (Interview, June 17, 2010).
2.3 Human Resource Development
Three main issues emerged from the data related to human resource development
(a) fostering cultural training, (b) the need to build expertise, and (c) improved service delivery. These issues relate to economic factors in terms of the direct impact they have on visitor experience and this in turn affects the ability of the islands to continue to draw visitors. However, these issues are very much related to the empowerment that comes through the training and the connection to cultural and family values.
To the Haida, the roots of human resource development do not lie solely on a need to support the economy, rather it is seen more as a means to an end. Robert, who believes the end goal of planning is to support their heritage, conveyed this to me,
One of the big benefits of planning in tourism that we want to get out of it is to lower the unemployment rate–the better the economy–the better or more well off we are, the more we could do to support cultural initiatives to support the things that are important traditionally or spiritually. (Interview, May 17, 2010)
Several of the tour guides I worked with actively sought out opportunities to learn and gather cultural expertise through their employment at the Haida Heritage Centre.
Working here is great because it gives me a chance to expand my horizons and personally grow and give myself more knowledge. Because this is something I’m very interested in–it keeps my heart into it too–working here has been good for
69 me as I’m actually interested in what we’re doing here and I’m interested in learning more about it. (Interview, Brad, June 5, 2010)
Fostering cultural training is considered a very important part of the Haida Gwaii
Watchmen Program; providing meaningful opportunities for personal growth and empowerment and a means to reconnect youth to the land and family values.
Before you didn’t need that [training], you just went down, but now you have to get the training, there’s capacity building, there’s more young people than ever. (Interview, Nicole, June 1, 2010)
It’s a more traditional area of living as opposed to living in Skidegate … it’s an opportunity to connect with a more traditional way of life–self-sufficiency and that kind of thing …. (Interview, Robert, May 17, 2010)
Cultural barriers to training also emerged from the data. Some study participants noted the frustration Haida can feel at having to take a course to operate a boat when they’ve been in boats their entire lives and yet can’t work if they fail to obtain certification (Field
Journal, July 3, 2010). Similarly, Christine noted how counterproductive it is to hire unqualified staff to do a job and then not train them. She feels this negatively affects
Haida who end up coming away from such experiences far from empowered.
The lack of trained and educated staff is a critical to barrier to success (Field
Journal, July 4, 2010). “We don’t have people who are trained and we don’t have people who fully understand accountability and integrity” (Interview, Christine, July 4, 2010).
Several professional and business managers I spoke to felt they just didn’t have the people to do the work: “They didn’t have the people in my opinion who knew what they
70 were doing … they just didn’t operate consistently.” For some, the need to build expertise is clearly linked to community-based planning in that,
As we build capacity I think we’re going to see less differences in the planning and the implementation of the plans and growth [where] cultural and ecotourism actually come together at some point and being somewhat ignorant of the issues I think it will–it’s a natural evolution and its got to blend–it will be in the long stretch. (Interview, Rose, June 16, 2010)
Capacity building and building expertise is clearly linked to the visitor experience in positive and negative ways. Those involved in conducting tours and actively engaged in learning about their culture saw their efforts as directly affecting that experience, “It
[ecotourism] could inspire us to learn because a lot of times tourists have–what they want to see is culture–what they call a legitimate Haida experience” (Interview, Brad,
June 5, 2010). Others see the lack of expertise as negatively affecting that experience,
There are very few professional businesses on the islands that can cater to them [wealthy]. In other words if you need food, you have to supply it every day–if you need flour you need to supply it every day and there isn’t that mentality here yet. (Interview, Nathan, June 11, 2010)
Of the three core issues identified, the analysis supports the finding that fostering opportunities for cultural training is central to building expertise and improving service delivery.
2.4 Barriers to Visitor Growth
Haida Gwaii has been somewhat blessed by its relative isolation from the mainland of British Columbia as this has likely contributed to the low population and
71 fewer numbers of tourists able to travel to the islands. However, while the islands have not experienced mass tourism the low visitor numbers are a concern to many residents.
Two key issues emerged from the data that negatively impact the ecotourism industry on the islands and are critical issues that need to be addressed through planning. These are the high cost of amenities and the high cost of travel. These two issues affect islanders as they are faced daily with the reality of paying the high prices associated with living in
Haida Gwaii. Residents and those involved in planning see these two issues as the main barriers to ecotourism development.
Haida and non-Haida described the problems related to BC Ferries and the limited, high cost, transportation services they provide. Comments such as, “It’s expensive and it takes a lot of time and money to get here” clearly indicating the negative impact on visitor travel to the islands (Field Journal, June 1, 2010). Nathan, who has been involved in ecotourism for years, considers it one of the key issues to be resolved by planners, “A big issue that has to be overcome is how do you get people to the island at a reasonable price. BC Ferries is absolutely horrible” (Interview, June 11,
2010).
The high cost of living in Haida Gwaii is felt by residents who pay more for food on a monthly basis than they do for housing (Field Journal, June 17, 2010). “Everything here is more expensive.” Even having arrived in Haida Gwaii and obtained lodging, visitors are faced with the high costs and “people complain about the cost to get down to
SGang Gwaay” (Interview, Shannon, 2010). Chelsey, a long-time resident, knows through her work that Haida Gwaii is known internationally as “an expensive place to
72 visit”. This is a critical issue for Haida Gwaii, however, study participants were not able to provide any solutions but were very concerned about the long-term impact of this issue.
Summary
Study participants are keenly aware of the complex economic issues that must be addressed by community-based planners in developing Aboriginal ecotourism in Haida
Gwaii. Key funding issues include access to core funding in the interests of long term planning and the need to further develop and improve local entrepreneurship. Key issues related to human resource development include the implementation of training initiatives to support cultural development, which will improve visitor experiences. Finding the means to reduce barriers to visitor growth are critical, for example working with the
Northern BC Tourism Association to bring pressure to bear on BC Ferries in order to improve service and price issues.
Theme 3: Role of Continuity17
Closing the Circle: History is a circle. After more than ten millennia of harmony with the Earth, our culture was almost lost a century and a half ago. We need to retrieve that which we are in danger of forgetting. We need to draw our youth to learn … and then to teach. They will become the models for the next generations to build THEIR history on. What industrial civilisation has stolen from us, we need to find again and, in turn to give back to the world as a gift the values,
17 As an observer participant within the Haida community this is an area of my research and fieldwork where I was truly aware of my lack of epistemic privilege as an outsider having never experienced any of the things the Haida have experienced. It is my hope that reporting the facts of my own perceptions herein is reflective of the importance of continuity to the Haida people.
73 which have made the Haida culture strong. (Communications Committee, Needs Identification, 1998.)
The broad concept of continuity within the Haida community is expressed frequently. It reflects a state wherein the Haida struggle to hold onto their cultural, traditional, and spiritual past while at the same time living in the present day. The Haida have a clear understanding of the need to transition to a future in which they have a voice and control over development. Ecotourism plays a role in that transitioning through their cultural stewardship of art and language and their environmental stewardship of the land and waters.
3.1 Respect For All That Is Haida Gwaii
The use of the word “continuity” by Haida is noted 18 times in the field journal notes alone and is indicative of the importance the concept holds within the community.
Foundational to the concept is that the Haida describe themselves as the caretakers of
Haida Gwaii. Lynn expressed this during our interview, but it is a belief held by many of the people with whom I spoke,
In the whole grand scheme of things I mean really we’re a speck in the big universe and we’re a speck on the earth–on this tiny little island–we’re just the Haida’s–and now it’s a diverse island community–wonderfully diverse island community, but I think our job is to be stewards of Haida Gwaii to make sure that Haida Gwaii is here forever … it’s our job is to look after our tiny little part of the world.
Aside from this, what emerged most strongly from the data was that many people saw the value of ecotourism as supporting the continuation of their culture and as a tool for transitioning between old and new.
74 If more of our population were to go back to traditional ways, our nation as a whole would become strong and people just realizing that that’s what the tourists are into and that there’s money there [and] it might inspire them to become interested in the culture. I believe … money is an issue, but I don’t think it’s our greatest problem–I think our nation needs to get back with the traditional ways and get into our art and our language and revive what we’ve lost. It’s on the comeback trail but we have a long way to go. (Interview, Randy, June 5, 2010)
As a non-Haida, Rose sees this transition as affecting all islanders,
I hear a lot of people in Port Clements and Sandspit–my way of life is gone. I see the Haida people resurrecting so much more and bringing their old way of life into the present day–it’s an interesting juxtaposition [the tables have turned] definitely–it’s a given. [So one of the benefits would be re-building their culture?] Oh yes, definitely–absolutely! (Interview, June 1, 2010)
Haidas are aware that “people don’t come here to visit the island–95% come up here to visit the Haida and the island, but most come to see the culture …” (Interview Randy,
May 18, 2010). The connection between cultural development and ecotourism development was made by Christine who sees it as a symbiotic relationship; one that strengthens her community culturally yet allows them to reap the rewards of the outcome,
Combine that with the tourism potential then we will have something that will keep the people strong, that will keep the people learning …it will keep them learning about the language and the culture and all those other things that could come out of the educational side and the tourists could be paying to have those experiences. (Interview, July 4, 2010)
The function of the Haida’s concept of continuity might be thought of as expressing itself most fully through cultural and environmental stewardship. These two concepts,
75 although discussed separately below, are truly inextricable to the Haida people and no one made this more clear to me than Randy who described their use of the cedar tree:
The cedar tree is the most important part of our culture, it clothed you, it housed you–the long houses are made of cedar and will last 100 years in the rain, it made all our berry picking baskets and things, it made our canoes–there are countless things that are made from the cedar. Of course the Sitka Spruce for making baskets as well, but the main thing was the cedar right down to pampers [for babies] from shredded cedar bark which would get softer every time you washed it, right down to the day you died when we put you in the cedar chest and put you on top of a pole. (Interview, Randy, May 18, 2010)
3.2 Cultural Stewardship Through Art & Language
The Haida culture is a living thing … it is not static … and expresses itself in relation to whatever is in the current environment and this is especially important in a place where we are trying to show continuity … but we are really promoting a culture that is strong and full and growing in its expression. (Interview, Julia, May 19, 2010)
Art.
The Haida express themselves culturally in many ways. In attending potlatches, events, and ceremonies I was able to take in the songs, the dance, the history, family heritage, and clan affiliations of the people. I was shown the many connections between the land and water and the stories and gained insight into the importance of art and language as the unifying factors between all these things.18 Many Haida readily describe the cultural significance of art to the people. Lynn, conveyed art as a unifying factor
18 The Haida’s concept of art is broad and includes dance, song, stories, weaving, and language. These in turn are intrinsically tied to the forests, the lands, the sea and as a whole are important materially, politically, spiritually, and culturally. Adapted from, Summer Program Themes for the Haida Heritage Centre at Kaay Illnagaay, 2009.
76 linking their culture’s past to their present day identity and on which the foundation of their future will be laid:
The art is what identifies us–it’s who we are–an expression of being Haida–it’s time honoured. We’ve been doing it since the beginning of time–if you’re doing what your great great grandfather did there is a certain amount of satisfaction in that–if he was a great canoe maker or a great pole maker–following in his footsteps there is obviously a connection to the future–it keeps us–it identified us–things we do identifies us–if we didn’t have the art we’d be kinda like everybody else–if we weren’t the food gathers–the artists–the caretakers of Haida Gwaii then…. (Interview, June 1, 2010)
What emerged from the data from my first day in Haida Gwaii was the importance of art to ecotourism development on the islands and the relevance art has to community-based planning. Artists are seen as being highly impacted by ecotourism planning,
It supports an economy for artists … it’s part of the health of the community … supporting the artists in their community–it’s not just part of the economy it’s part of the culture–artists are part of the Haida culture. (Interview, Julia, May 19, 2010)
The need for and role of planning is based on the nature of trade on the islands. Brad addressed this as someone who “grew up in an arts supported family and the tourist season was always when we were more prosperous and we made more”. His concerns for the industry and for the families are based on the following,
It [ecotourism] could wreck the market for art by buying for low prices and changing the status quo. [That affects families?] Yes, families and artists because a lot of people do rely on their art for income and cash flow and if we were to lose our market our economy would go down even more than it is. Tourism is the only growing industry on Haida Gwaii and that has its pros and cons. Yeah it brings in a lot of money every year but it makes the rest of the year a lot more unbearable for some people. Because they–rather than having a steady income over the whole year by establishing a market, they rely on the tourism to bring the money in the summer and that kinda makes it harder for them in the winter and spring if they don’t budget their money properly. (Interview, June 5, 2010)
77 Community-based planning takes on an even greater role when one considers that art, as a micro-industry, has a greater reach than just ecotourism,
[The art] … that’s not just here–a lot of the very good art is sold on the mainland and in Vancouver and all the other galleries from around the world. It’s not just the tourist industry that has helped the artists, but there is also a gallery movement that has helped. [What do you mean by gallery movement?] Well you know the galleries help the high-end collectors they are not tourists, they are collectors–it’s not just tourist driven–the art market is far from tourist driven. In comparing its like apples and oranges–the people who cater to the gallery market are different that those who cater to the tourism market. (Interview, Lynn, June 1, 2010)
Art makes a significant cultural and economic contribution to the Haida community. It is an integral and inextricable part of their community. It is also one of the most tangible expressions of the Haida’s history and rich heritage and as such is highly sought after by visitors as illustrated by the high number of artists, gift stores and galleries on the islands.
Art in its various forms is foundational to the interpretation of cultural displays at the Haida Heritage Centre and the Haida Gwaii Museum and everywhere else on the islands. What emerged from that data is that community-based planning has a significant role to play in arts development. Not only is art critical to the health and wellbeing of the community, but it also forms the basis of the ecotourism product.
Language.
One of the first things I observed on arriving in Haida Gwaii were the signs in
Skidegate that named not just the streets, but places of importance to the community
78 (Field Journal, May 19, 2010). These signs represent action on the part of the community to bring the Haida language into the daily lives of the people, but are also representative of how the Haida choose to interact with the world and visitors, as suggested by the following quote:
Pride: There is a renewed pride in our culture. The Haida have much to teach the world about understanding how to live and relate with the Earth in a respectful way. Because we are proud of our culture, we will not be anonymous in how we share it with others. We will put our own faces to it, and we will invite people to learn about our culture with us. We will build on the pride that welled up in many of us as we put our voices to our language and recalled words we thought we had lost. We have a need to hear our own voices. (Communications Committee, Needs Identification, 1998)
The following photos are examples of the unique signage to be found in the villages of
Skidegate and Old Massett.
Figure 3. Signage in Skidegate and Old Massett.
Figure 3. Source, Author, 2010.
The Haida language is central to issues of continuity and the community is actively engaged in working to preserve and conserve the language. The language is integrally
79 linked to cultural stewardship and an understanding of “place names” provides evidence of not only the historic use of the language, but also how the language interconnects to other aspects of the Haida culture. Brenda illustrated the connection between their identity, the language, and the land:
Yes, my father said that if we don’t learn our language and speak it how can we call ourselves–what will we call ourselves and so a part of that is showing our affiliation with our land because some of the names are thousands of years old. (Interview, June 28, 2010)
In drawing attention to the fact that some of the “names are thousands of years old”,
Brenda explained further the purpose of place names and how the land, the language, and culture come together. Place names signify more than a location to the Haida. As an oral language, place names imparted knowledge. The example used by Brenda was in reference to an area at the south end of Burnaby Narrows,
[This was] … a place where when the tide was out it was probably just a little lake and and yet when the tide came in again it became a bay so it’s called ‘sou- katlie’, ‘sou’ meaning lake and ‘katlie’ meaning inlet–so if you look at the old names and you look at the language–[it’s] not a language that can be generalized–everything is specific. If you are looking for a place there would be a name and it would be very specific to the area and describe it–when you have no written directions of where you are going, you have to know the names of the area so ‘place names’ were the driving force of keeping people safe and knowing where to look for and find food. (Interview, June 28, 2010)
More recently ‘place names’ have taken on great importance in regard to their title claim to Haida Gwaii. Place names have become critical as a means of proving “historic use and occupation of the land”, which is a criteria of the Supreme Court of Canada in establishing Aboriginal title. (Field Journal, May 16, 2010).
80 The Haida Heritage Centre, the Haida Gwaii Museum, and the Skidegate Haida
Immersion Program have been instrumental in language development. As a result of their efforts, the Haida are using ecotourism as a means of bringing the language into greater everyday use. In addition to the signage, examples would include the development of an introduction/welcome to be used by tour guides, staff training in language use, the development of an orthography, and even CD’s on language instruction for use by Watchmen while posted in Gwaii Haanas.19 The majority of these efforts were not developed specifically with ecotourism in mind, but the connection was made that there is a dual benefit to Haida and visitors alike. Most Haida I spoke with felt that the use or development of the language was for their benefit alone, however Brenda did point out that the use of the language on the local signage and elsewhere “does make us seem exotic” (Interview, June 28, 2010).
Not everyone has made the connection between ecotourism and the potential it has to support and foster language development. A few study participants initially asserted that there was no relationship between ecotourism and language development,
“that the one had nothing to do with the other”. However, in discussing the issue further the realization was made that while there may be no economic value in it, it was a critical piece in language development (Field Journal, May 19, 2010). What emerged from the data is that language development is very much a part of cultural stewardship and is becoming an integral part of community-based planning for ecotourism development.
19 There are two Haida dialects: Skidegate Haida and Old Massett Haida. The signage in Skidegate is in Skidegate Haida and English, however, in Old Massett the signs are in Old Massett Haida only.
81 3.3 Environmental Stewardship
I see tourism as a non-extracting resource–it’s gonna be the opportunity for Haida Gwaii and forests and the ocean to just rest a little bit while we do other things. Mostly just show off our natural beauty and maybe cut down the annual allotment in the forests. Fishing is taking care of itself just because there’s just not enough of it out there anymore. I see it helping the economy to get through these times as we’ve done a lot to the island’s resource and it’s time to slow it down. (Interview, Lynn, June 1, 2010)
The land and the Haida are inextricably linked. The Haida still collect spruce roots, harvest cedar bark to make baskets, and gather foods such as “kaaw to make gilgii”, seaweed, and razorback clams.20 The field journal, interviews, and other documented sources contain many examples of this relationship. Trevor confirmed,
People talk about the land–even at funerals–even the non-Haida know how important fishing was. All is related to the way of life. Not too many people have that. It comes to gathering the food thing. There might be different–people might be more or less respectful to gathering food, but the fact that they are gathering food is a pretty cool thing compared to just buying the stuff in the store your entire life. You can’t separate any of those things out–they are there all the time. (Interview, June 21, 2010)
As suggested by the above statements, what emerged from the data was that the Haida see ecotourism as providing a means to protect and conserve the land–environmental stewardship. The data also strongly suggests that ecotourism is creating opportunities to recapture their connection with the land through work and other activities that the resulting economic and other opportunities bring. The Haida Watchmen Program is the example used most often and Joe, who was a Watchmen for several years, shared his
20 “Kaaw” (G’ouuw) is herring roe on kelp and is served dried, fried, boiled, or smoked. It is called “Gilgii”, pronounced (Gil-gee). It is harvested annually as a renewable and sustainable resource. (Field Journal, May 18, 2010)
82 personal experience, “It opened me up and you pay attention to the land and the sea and to the weather and reading up on the culture and getting involved–I learned how to weave down there” (Interview, June 3, 2010). An Elder explained their role,
We tell our young people that they are our ambassadors and that they have a responsibility to be the very best that they can be so we have an opportunity to hold our kids up so that they see the value of being good people and the money’s not good–the money’s terrible [it’s not about the money though] no it’s about looking after our land–it’s about being seen as looking after our land and being respected for that.
The Haida are highly involved with environmental management on the islands, especially in regard to the park and recreation areas and the various nature reserves and conservancies. In speaking of their involvement, Rose noted the Haida have a different approach to planning or at least a different idea about what is important when it comes to environmental stewardship:
In our management planning processes we have created tables of allowable uses for recreation and it’s more–a lot of conversation and thought from the Haida nation side is on seaweed gathering/harvesting type materials–botanical uses of lawn forest products in the conservancy like mushroom and berry picking there’s a definitely a keener interest in that than ‘should people be mountain biking here … well whatever’. That recreational element in fairness doesn’t really exist here as much as it would elsewhere. (Interview, June 16, 2010)
In this respect the Haida have a different perspective about the purpose of the land than a non-aboriginal. The field journal recounts a discussion with Randy where he speaks about the land–that the connection to the land and ocean is expressed more clearly in the purpose that it serves. To the Haida the land has a purpose–a function. The example provided was that of the woven hats, which come from the bark of the cedar tree or spruce roots. These hats have the family and clan designs woven into them, but also
83 serve a very functional purpose–to keep one dry (Field Journal, June 2, 2010).
Essentially, the land is the source of their survival not a source of pleasure and it is this that drives their input in land management planning and even their own cultural and traditional harvesting practices.
Examples of harvesting practices noted in the field journal included: (a) taking only a strip off a cedar tree for weaving so the tree will survive, (b) using all parts of an animal, (c) knowing which plants are successional for the purpose of renewable harvesting, (d) harvesting spruce roots from a number of trees to reduce the impact, and
(e) covering the roots with moss and sand to promote new growth after harvesting.
Environmental stewardship has not always been a priority for the Haida. In discussing his long involvement in the forest industry, Randy explained his and other’s participation,
[If the Haida people were so conservationist why did they participate in killing all the sea otters at that time.] We started to value the goddamn white man’s money and we had to have money to throw the potlatches and it costs a lot of money to do that–and why did I log all my life–why did I cut down the monumental cedar all my life–because I had a family to feed–I’m not a strict environmentalist, but I’m not proud of the years I logged. You have clothes to buy, a family to feed–you can’t just sit around and say I’m not going to do that because you have to eat. (Interview, Randy, May 18, 2010)
In describing the current role of the Haida in environmental stewardship, Brad was able to convey his belief that their values are reflected in ecotourism planning, confirm the efforts being made to recapture their connection to the land, and provide evidence of how they protect and conserve the environment.
I think that our values are taken into account–at the very least our environmental values are taken into account when it comes to tourism–that’s the reason for the
84 development of Haida Fisheries and the Watchmen Program, to regulate–no matter how much people come through here and how much of an industry tourism is for our island it’s still our island and we want to take care of it because this is the place where we have to live for the next fifty years and where our kids are gonna have to live for the next hundred. [Could you explain how you take environmental aspects of your culture into account in regard to tourism?] There are certain places where you can’t stay, we restrict areas–there are certain areas that could be traditional property of the clan–there are places that are important to us like an area where they harvest a lot of roots or cedar bark and these are protected area. (Interview, Brad, June 5, 2010)
The data provided many examples of environmental stewardship within the context of ecotourism planning and development initiatives, and the role the Haida have as stewards of Haida Gwaii. One of the workbooks used for instruction in the Haida
Watchmen Program includes the following statement as one of five fundamental truths,
“We are the stewards of the land and sea from which we live, knowing that our health as a people and our society is intricately tied to the health of the land and the waters
(Brown & Brown, 2009).21
Summary
The data reflect an understanding that the Haida see ecotourism as supporting the continuity of the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the people. Ecotourism also provides rewards related to cultural development in addition to economic benefits. Art and language are seen as key to driving continuity, as they are intrinsic expressions of the culture and the Haida’s relationship with the land. Environmental stewardship is supported by ecotourism in that it provides additional means to protect and conserve the
21 Permission to use the workbook was provided by an Elder. The workbook is entitled Staying the Course, Staying Alive–Coastal First Nations Fundamental Truths: Biodiversity, Stewardship and Sustainability.
85 land and oceans through parks and recreation management planning and the continuation of traditional harvesting practices.
Theme 4: Stakeholder Impact
The importance of stakeholder impact broadly relates to the internal and external factors that come to bear on ecotourism planning. The impact on the community is direct as the outcome of this higher level planning can improve or restrict development. For example, regulatory and policy decisions that establish the number of viable tour operators able to work in the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve.
4.1 Key Agreements
While it is beyond the scope of this thesis to examine in detail the agreements in place between the Council of the Haida Nation, Canada, and the Province of British
Columbia, it is necessary to have a basic understanding of the key agreements and the impact they have on Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development. The following table provides an overview of the agreements and their relationship to planning, and are the agreements referred to by study participants. Historically, the agreements follow the standoff on Lyell Island in 1985 and the establishment of the
Haida Heritage Site by the Council of the Haida Nation in 1986 (CHN).22
22 Lyell Island: The Haida proposed a park for south Moresby Island in the mid 1970s, however Lyell Island was threatened by logging in 1984 and the Haida organized and put up a blockade. A total of 71 people were arrested including Elders and 9 Haida were eventually charged. A second blockade was erected in 1986 but removed before the police arrived. The Haida then took their issue on a cross Canada tour seeking support to stop logging on Lyell Island and had widespread support. The article notes that the Haida’s resistance and resulting park was successful as it did not threaten colonial society contributed to it through tourism. (see article at http://www.anti-politics.net/distro/2009x/bc_blockades-imposed.pdf)
86 Table 4. Key Stakeholder Agreements
Agreement Parties Date Purpose Impact on Tourism
South -Canada 1987 -stop logging in -agreement to establish national Moresby MoU -BC Gov South Moresby park -transferred ownership from province to Canada
South -Canada 1988 -agreement to -funding to establish national Moresby -BC Gov protect Gwaii marine and terrestrial areas Agreement Haanas as -development of regional designated park economic development fund*
Gwaii Haanas -Canada 1993 -establish Gwaii -establish objectives for care, South -CHN Haanas National protection/use Moresby Park Reserve & -establishment of management Agreement Haida Heritage board** Site -consensus management of the archipelago area -protection of environment, Haida culture -priority hiring of Haida people
Naikoon -BC 1999 -establish land use -establishes local advisory group Management Parks -establish -cooperative Mgmt with Council Plan recreation uses of the Haida Nation -establish conservation role
Strategic -BC Gov 2007 -establish new -reflects cultural conservation, Land-Use -CHN protected areas spiritual and recreational Agreement 254,000 hectares purposes -collaborative management arrangement
Reconciliation -BC Gov 2009 -establish protocol -commitment to renaming Queen Protocol -CHN for land use Charlotte Islands to Haida Gwaii management -shared Mgmt. by joint council
Gwaii Haanas -Canada 2010 -extends Gwaii -focus on conservation Marine -CHN Haanas 10km -traditional activities to continue Agreement offshore -recreation activities meet conservation objectives
* What is now the Gwaii Trust Society. ** What is now the Archipelago Management Board
Note. Agreements impacting ecotourism planning. Adapted from Parks Canada (2010),
Province of British Columbia (2010), Gwaii Trust (2009).
87 The above agreements have had an enormous impact on ecotourism planning and development. While these agreements are area specific and not islands-wide, regions such as the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site and the
Naikoon Provincial Park are major visitor attractions. The role of the Council of the
Haida Nation in these agreements is unique and had a significant impact on planning as they directly negotiated all but the earliest agreements with the Government of Canada and the Province of British Columbia. In regard to the overall impact of this on community-based planning, one Haida Elder stated,
In Haida Gwaii, everything is linked and tourism planning needs to mesh with the over-arching work of the CHN or the anticipated end results of most types of planning stand a good chance of not succeeding. (Interview, Joanne, July 4, 2010)
The priority of the Council of the Haida Nation for many years has not focused specifically on ecotourism development; however, Joanne considers the recent development of the land-use plan, marine-use plan, and the designation of additional protected areas as critical,
There are too many other things that have required the time and attention of community leaders … how smart would it be to develop a tourism strategy without first helping to put in place an Islands’ land use plan, marine use plan, and designating more protected areas? That said, the Council of the Haida Nation (CHN) has for many years been working hard to negotiate co-management agreements with the provincial/federal governments (Gwaii Haanas Agreement, a land use plan that includes many protected areas, marine use plans, revenue- sharing, etc.) while at the same time preparing the Haida Title Case. (Interview, June 28, 2010)
The role of ecotourism has more recently taken on greater significance and a representative confirmed that the Council of the Haida Nation now has a specific
88 portfolio within the organization for ecotourism development, but that within the communities of Skidegate and Old Massett, the village councils take the lead role
(Interview, Ken, May 17, 2010). Collectively, these agreements will continue to have a major impact on how community-based ecotourism can be planned and developed.
These agreements are central to establishing and setting precedents between the parties, but will also impact planning at the local level as many non-Haida do not feel they have a voice at the table (Interview, Rose, 2010).
4.2 Key Stakeholder Agencies
Flowing out of the agreements, are two key stakeholder agencies that have had a major impact on ecotourism development in Haida Gwaii. These agencies are the Gwaii
Trust Society and the Archipelago Management Board (AMB).
The Gwaii Trust Society/Fund was established through the 1988 South Moresby
Agreement as a regional development fund. The significance of the organization was brought to my attention while compiling a database of grant and funding agencies for the
Haida Heritage Centre. A reference to a Gwaii Trust funding program included the following:
Culture as it Relates to Tourism23
23 $150K was allocated in the 2009/2010 fiscal year “for cultural project applications that develop the interplay between tourism and the experience of culture, and which are demonstrably beneficial to the culture continuing and expanding. Tourism infrastructure and planning feasibility studies are of special interest” (Gwaii Trust Society, Culture as it Relates to Tourism Program. Retrieved from http:// www.gwaiitrust.com)
89 [This is a direct reference to a mandated item in the 1988 agreement: the Gwaii Trust defines it as] the interplay between tourism and the deliberate or incidental experience of culture:24
-the values of this interplay will be measured by the benefits to the culture -the benefits to tourism are assured by the continuing and expanding culture (Gwaii Trust, 2009)
Further, while the Gwaii Trust Society supports and funds a variety of island programs and initiatives, it was responsible for providing seed money to start up the Misty Isles
Economic Development Society and in-directly the Haida Gwaii Tourism Advisory
Committee. The society is community-based and is representative of the Haida culture and values,
[The] board is made up of four Haida and four [non-Haida] and so we have–our chair is Haida–so in all our discussions we bring a strong Haida perspective to every decision that we make. And their values culturally, spiritually, and economically are considered in every decision on the table. On top of that we have our programs are built around Haida principles–our investment strategy is seven generations–100 years that’s what we’re looking for. (Interview, John, June 17, 2010)
Of interest to me was the fact that one of the difficulties the organization faces is finding ways to measure and evaluate the stated outcomes and objectives of some proposals they receive. “We are actually struggling with that [measuring/evaluating] a little bit because we do have programs that are more esoteric like arts, culture, language” (Interview,
John, June 17, 2010). There does not seem to be a great deal of awareness as to the potential of the “Culture as it Relates to Tourism” program to fund planning initiatives
24 The 1988 agreement referred to is the South Moresby Agreement.
90 and projects within the community. Applicants unable to demonstrate how their project will meet the program’s criteria may not be able to get the funding needed to startup or maintain existing ecotourism initiatives in the community.
The Archipelago Management Board was established to oversee all operations in
Gwaii Haanas. This includes, for example, the provision of all permits and licenses for tour operators, leading to the establishment of an allocation for user-days and user-nights within the reserve and regulations affecting cultural resources and the harmonization of visitor use (Gwaii Haanas Agreement, 1993). Membership on the board consists of two representatives from the Government of Canada and two representatives from the
Council of the Haida Nation. The Management Plan for the Terrestrial Areas guides the work of the Archipelago Management Board and considers issues such as protection, respecting cultural heritage, continuity of culture, and providing appropriate tourism opportunities.
In speaking with people in the communities and even while touring Skedans in
Gwaii Haanas I heard mixed reviews about the impact of the AMB on ecotourism development. One non-Haida tour operator thinks that everyone should be treated the same in regard to the number of day trips and multi-day trips allowed into Gwaii Haanas and that issues around the allocation slowed or halted development of ecotourism into the park (Field Journal, June 18, 2010). However, the counter-argument suggests a rational basis for the decision. Chelsey explained,
The reason that the AMB set it up that way is that they did not want the allocation for tourism use in GH to become like the fishing quota where you have arm chair fishermen who sold their quota for big bucks. They never actually did the fishing and the quota became a commodity. The AMB didn’t want it to
91 become a commodity–they wanted to retain control of that allocation. (Interview, May 20, 2010)
Aside from the issue of the Haida’s “non-use” of the allocated user-days and user-nights, study participants were very supportive of the work of the Archipelago Management
Board.
4.3 Importance of Autonomy and Trust Building
Trust is foundational to the relationship between Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development. Historical and more recent events, such as those at
Lyell Island negatively impacted the Haida’s trust of outside agencies. However, progress is being made as demonstrated by the work of the AMB and other agencies.
Community-based ecotourism development is directly affected by the work of the AMB not only because it controls the allocation of user nights/days in the reserve, but because it serves to protect and conserve the cultural environment within the reserve, establishing a standard of involvement and input that has become critical to the Haida.
[T]here is an attempt to protect sites that are specifically noted as having spiritual importance … they have some awareness of the kinds of things that are important and places like Gwaii Haanas have worked very hard to respect and be aware of those types of things, but trust is such a huge part of it–learning that people have integrity and are not going to abuse the knowledge that they learn. We see what’s happened in the past–we are very guarded because we don’t want that to happen again … we don’t know if we can trust them. It takes time and Gwaii Haanas is getting there. (Interview, Brenda, June 28, 2010)
Representation on the AMB and other ecotourism organizations such as Parks BC and
Gwaii Trust Society (noted previously) is extremely important as one of the formal ways
92 in which the Haida bring their values to bear on planning decisions. Many respondents I spoke with referred to the importance of their involvement,
We have a board that’s 50/50–we have a board that works on consensus–a board that listens and hears and that makes such a huge difference … Gwaii Haanas reflects the values of the Haida nation. (Interview, Brenda, June 28, 2010)
Others felt strongly that it was important to include Haida at the table:
We make sure they are represented in any tourism planning … make sure the Haida are central to the planning process–because if they are not it’s not a true reflection of what this place is about–they have to be a big part of it. (Interview, Julia, May 19, 2010)
Equal representation and participation in planning initiatives is seen as integral to collaborative planning wherein the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the Haida can be discussed. Rose felt that this was something that was always talked about in planning sessions and an important part of the success of their planning (Interview, June
16, 2010).
4.4 Historic Agreements and Local Politics
Of concern to several study participants was the effect of historic agreements, local practices, and politics that hinder the ability of the Haida to begin private businesses or improve existing community-based ecotourism initiatives. These concerns are grounded in issues related to the impact of living on reserve and the involvement of local politics in management.
93 Many study participants believe that living on-reserve is a barrier to the Haida’s ability to develop small ecotourism businesses. The issue is that Haida people living on reserve often have limited private income and difficulty accessing funding in order to bankroll ecotourism or other businesses (Interview, Jack, May 20, 2010). Chelsey agreed stating,
From my experience trying to encourage Haida tourism in Gwaii Haanas is that there are business and financial barriers and then there are cultural barriers. If you live in the village you don’t own your property so you can’t get a mortgage so you can’t use it as collateral to get a loan for a boat. There are ways to work around that though–there’s an office in Prince Rupert that funds First Nations business (can’t remember the name), so there are those opportunities if they are really keen to do it. (Interview, May 20, 2010)
Some study participants felt the Band Councils were part of the problem:
Something that really hamstrings the native communities is that the federal government owns the reserves. Make no mistake they own the reserves. The natives on them have certain rights, but the Band Council controls many of those rights. So consequently to put a business in is a real hurdle. I know a few small tourism businesses proposed for Skidegate like accommodation that have not flown because of the politics and the problem with not being able to own your own land. (Interview, Nathan, June 11, 2010)
Frustration was also expressed over what some perceive as management issues on the part of the band. Nicole was concerned that micro-managing on the part of some councillors hindered or slowed progress, “A lot of it has to do with interference from the band council–they have changed prices … taken over negotiations … and we’re trying to run a business the way it should be run” (Interview, June 1, 2010). Jack saw the differences in policy between the village councils as impacting on the ability of individuals to start businesses,
94 There’s tons of room for Haida independent enterprise, but … if you look at Skidegate vs Old Massett village, Old Massett Village has all these mom & pop places right out of the back–little tiny corner stores and stuff like that–you don’t see that in Skidegate because the band council does not (my opinion) want to share things like the cigarette allocation I mean I’m just saying that it’s a consistent policy over a number of Band Councils that they are keeping the revenues–not saying it’s an inappropriate decision but it leads to other things–it’s why you don’t see a lot of other businesses–you don’t see a lot of private endeavours. (Interview, May 20, 2010)
There is no question that the band’s bureaucracy has a significant impact on the development of private and corporate businesses in Haida Gwaii. Christine concedes that part of the problem stems from the fact that council members are voted in for a short, two-year term.25 Christine believes that this should be increased, providing sufficient time for on-going training and support and the gaining of experience before the political landscape changes again. “We have such a dynamic governing structure and because of that it makes it very difficult to plan anything long term” (Interview, July 4,
2010). These issues are rooted in systemic practices originating in historic agreements such that established the reserve system in the first place. The impact of this and that of local practices will continue to impede community and individual entrepreneurship.
Summary
The key agreements in place with the Council of the Haida Nation are central to ecotourism development in Haida Gwaii. These agreements provide parameters to development and formalized mechanisms through which the Haida are able to impart their spiritual, traditional, and cultural values into planning processes. Key agencies,
25 Indian Act, Section 78(1). Retrieved from http://laws.justice.gc.
95 flowing from these agreements have also provided community-based support and involvement in ecotourism planning and collectively the agreements have lead to a high standard of involvement of the Haida wherein trust has been built and relationships established. At a local level, historic agreements such as the Indian Act, which regulates reserves and local band practices, have negatively impacted ecotourism development as they can hinder the ability of individuals and the collective community to build ecotourism businesses.
Theme 5: Role of the Haida Heritage Centre and Haida Gwaii Museum
The Haida Heritage Centre at Kaay llnagaay and the Haida Museum play a significant role in community-based ecotourism development. The development and presence of these two cooperating facilities has influenced community-based development in Skidegate, Old Massett and the broader island communities. The two facilities are significant in terms of ecotourism planning, as key island attractions, cross cultural and visitor experiences, and the protection and preservation of the Haida culture.
5.1 Cultural Significance of the Facility
The dream of building the Haida Heritage Centre at Kaay llnagaay was envisioned over 30 years ago by the community of Skidegate and opened to the public in
2007 in conjunction with the new and expanded Haida Gwaii Museum. One of the planning documents housed at the Centre recalls the original vision of the community for the Centre as,
96 A world-class educational and cultural facility that [would] benefit the community directly through services provided and through job and other related economic opportunities [it was also recognised that] as commercial fishing and logging resources [were] in decline, there [was] a focus on developing community projects that [would] improve the quality of life on the islands and provide a base for an increasing tourism market (Nairne, 1998).
That vision has not changed and there are many things that make the facility very special to the Haida community. Robert described some of what makes the Haida Heritage
Centre special from the perspective of how the physical structure emotes the values of the people:
That’s how the Centre was created–how it was conceived … it was recognized from day one [that] the spiritual, cultural, and traditional values–those are the core values that went into the planning. Right from the start, in the design of the buildings they were going to make something traditional and make it look like an old Haida village. [That] was the start of the vision–we’re going to use local materials, local construction, monumental cedars, beams that were found and milled on Haida Gwaii so that’s the traditional / cultural part of it. Spiritually, we built on an ancient village site and that was known from the start–it’s an old village site and it had been left undeveloped … as we understood the spiritual significance of the site and the beauty of the site–so that planning and foresight was there 30 years ago. (Interview, May 17, 2010)
The cultural and spiritual significance of the facility was something I was made aware of from my first visit to the Haida Heritage Centre when given a tour of the grounds by a staff member. Their pride and joy in the facility was apparent and well before Robert had had an opportunity to explain the background of the facility’s construction, Kate drew attention to two burial mounds to the rear of the building (Field Journal, May 13, 2010).
Robert later explained the cultural significance of the burial mounds and the effect their presence had on the construction project:
97 And spiritually too, in the archeological phase and environmental reviews–it’s in the building and it’s in the land; even in the way it’s designed–remains were actually unearthed here at some point before it was built and the remains were disturbed from their resting place and they had to be properly laid back to rest and the building was re-designed to avoid burial mound areas, and a mortuary house was created to place remains in so from that point of view even the design and a willingness to compromise on things like that–even where you could build. (Interview, May 17, 2010)
There is no question that the protection and preservation of the Haida culture is of great importance to the people working at the Haida Heritage Centre. Housed within the facility one can find an Exhibitions Gallery, a Performing House, a Savings Things
House, a Canoe House, and the Bill Reid Teaching Centre in addition to a number of classrooms and meetings rooms. One of the most significant things to occur was the work undertaken to have artefacts returned to Haida Gwaii. This historic process was a reclamation of their past and an important contribution to future generations of Haida.
When people started dying we went into the forest to hide. We left everything behind, bowls, jewellery, blankets we ran in the bush and hid. So every ship that landed trying to trade–they didn’t realize that smallpox [had] whipped us out so they thought the villages were abandoned–so they would help themselves and took things with them. At first I was mad about it, but now I’m not because 25 years ago when we decided we were going to build a museum we decided to send people to England and other places to ask if we could get our artefacts back which were scattered all over the world. So we started building it and having bake sales to build a tiny museum. We sent out delegations to places that had taken artefacts from the islands and people donated their artefacts. We got back hundreds and hundreds of artefacts and we had to expand the museum plan. (Interview, Randy, May 18, 2010)
The importance of the Haida Heritage Centre to protect and preserve the Haida culture is most exemplified through their work to support the Haida’s title claim. Their claim is well founded and supported by the Supreme Court of Canada whose decisions indicate
98 Aboriginal title exists through (a) historic use and occupation, (b) exclusive use and rights to the land, (c) means of financial resources, and (5) sustainable management of the resource (Williams-Davidson, 2010). Teri-Lynn Williams-Davidson is the lawyer for the Council of the Haida Nation and outlined these criteria as a guest speaker at a meeting of the Haida Gwaii Museum Society. Ms. Williams-Davidson links these criteria directly to the work of the Haida Gwaii Museum as the research conducted by staff serves to prove occupation through stories and place names, establishes events and historic traditions, and cultural practices as proof of economic benefits and effective resource management of the land (Field Journal, May 16, 2010).
5.2 Support and Integration with Community
The Haida Heritage Centre plays an important role within Skidegate and the broader island communities. I observed community members, young and old, attending ceremonies, community events, stopping by for lunch or dropping by to see what was going on in the Canoe House (Field Journal). I observed that the Haida Heritage Centre was not just an ecotourism centre,
So from the start of it I guess the idea was tourism or a place for culture and tourism, but culture was always placed above it so it was always–although it was created as … a tourism place and a place for economic development it was also seen more as a community venue and a community place [rather] than a tourism place. (Interview, Robert, May 17, 2010)
The Haida Heritage Centre works hard to connect with the community and actively refers visitors and clients to area businesses to support the local economy. Staff track and report the number of referrals to these local businesses on a regular basis (Field Journal,
99 May 13, 2010). Christine shared with me the various ways the Haida Heritage Centres works to support the community: art classes, free room rentals, classrooms for visiting school groups, canoeing, drumming, weaving classes, the provision of space to hold dance practices, and the Haida pay not entrance fees (Field Journal, Christine, May 13,
2010). The role of the Haida Heritage Centre has always been seen as central to the growth and development of the Haida culture and the community,
Continuity: A passing of one life creates a void of sadness and loss. A passing of many from a community weakens the very fabric, which wraps that community’s culture within its folds. With the loss of so many elders over the past two years, the threads of our fabric are fraying, and we need new hands to take up the threads and weave a strong fabric that will endure through the generations. The Haida Heritage Centre will be a dynamic place, where knowledge continues to be uncovered or re-born between Haida elders and youth. Continuity between past and present will be the hallmark of all the activities at the centre. It will be a place where we can read about, touch and discover and to share these with others. (Communications Committee, Needs Identification, 1998)
There are many community events and ceremonies held at the Centre on a regular basis, most of which are open to the public. While conducting my field research, several such island-wide events were held. For example, a Science Fair, a Multi-Cultural Event, and an Aboriginal Days school extravaganza where every primary school child in the district was able to participate in and experience a number of traditional and cultural Haida activities (Field Journal, June 21, 2010). Judy, a non-Haida stated “As a local person I love going to them [events at the HHC], and it’s really entertaining and culturally aware for a local person to get involved and just watch” (Interview, May 26, 2010).
I found that not everyone was supportive of the Haida Heritage Centre as a result of the high cost to build and operate the facility, however, everyone I spoke to praised
100 the nature and purpose of the facility (Field Journal, June 27, 2010). Despite concerns over the costs, the Haida Heritage Centre plays an important role in community development in Skidegate and Old Massett as the two main Haida centres but also within the non-Haida island communities. Robert explained the influence and broad appeal of the facility,
Having such a large physical venue that displays that pride and culture … it gives you a meeting place for it all. It shows that there is a value in it and gives a place where it can be nurtured and it can be used in more contemporary ways as well and fun ways. It doesn’t have to be like a school. It shows that it’s of value and kids who are coming here now, basically grew up with it as a way of life in comparison to their elders and people who grew up in a time when it was a negative to speak your language and negative to be practicing your culture and now it’s a positive thing. (Interview, May 17, 2010)
5.3 Role in Island Ecotourism
As one of the island’s anchor attractions, the Haida Heritage Centre has an important role in ecotourism planning. In speaking with residents and those working in the ecotourism industry, I found several reasons for the facility’s importance (a) eminence of the museum, (b) geographic location, (c) proximity to amenities, and (d) gateway to the national park and ancient village sites. The Haida Gwaii Museum provides world class exhibits on the Haida’s history, traditions, and culture. Julia spoke to me about the role of the Haida Heritage Centre and Haida Gwaii Museum,
Well, I mean this–part of the idea in building this place was to really present a gateway to the whole of the islands through the museum and the Haida Heritage Centre so this … building it was kind of like a symbol of the new economy on– the shift from logging and fishing to tourism based and arts and culture based economies. So this was–I always envisioned this place as being a gateway ... whatever you want to call it–a place that would really bring the level of tourism– the presence of tourism higher. (Interview, May 19, 2010)
101 The facility is centrally located geographically on the islands and all visitors arriving on the Graham Island by ferry must embark and disembark in nearby Skidegate Landing, which is in fairly close proximity to amenities and services.26 Anyone planning to travel into the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site are required to obtain permits from the park offices, adjacent to the Haida Heritage Centre. Those not being escorted into the park reserve by a licensed guide/outfitter are also required to attend a formal orientation on the park. Park orientations are two hours in duration and held on a daily basis at the Haida Heritage Centre throughout the peak season (Field
Journal, June 30, 2010). This funnelling of visitors to the site naturally increases the exposure of the Haida Heritage Centre to the travelling public.
As a result of these factors, the Haida Heritage Centre plays a central role in planning for ecotourism development. In relaying the experience of a recent, but failed attempt to bring the island’s stakeholders together, Robert confirmed,
We [Haida Heritage Centre] were featured as one of the anchor attractions with Gwaii Haanas and we were given a spot directly on the board–not because it’s Skidegate or because it’s First Nation, but because of the scope [and] the size of the project–it is a key attraction. (Interview, May 17, 2010)
Although past planning initiatives may have failed there is a clear connect between the
Haida Heritage Centre and community-based and islands-based ecotourism development. Currently, representatives of the Haida Heritage Centre sit on the Haida
26 The majority of visitors arriving by air must also funnel through Skidegate Landing if they wish to visit Graham Island. Sandspit, the site of the regional airstrip, is located to the south at the northernmost tip of Moresby Island. It should be noted that amenities and services are minimal on the islands and can be impossible to access at 6:00a.m. when the ferry arrives. (Interview, Jack, May 20, 2010).
102 Gwaii Tourism Advisory Committee for the stated reasons: the eminence of the museum, geographic location, proximity to amenities, and as a gateway to the national park.
5.4 Key Priorities
Although a key priority of the Haida Heritage Centre is to share their culture and heritage with visitors, more importantly the Centre envisions itself as a tool to support their own efforts to recapture their culture and heritage. To this end, the Haida Heritage
Centre is in a good position to foster opportunities for learning by virtue of the increased exposure to their history, their stories, their artefacts, their art, their dance, and their language. Ecotourism has provided a mechanism for this to occur,
[I was told] the best way to recapture your culture … is to have economic opportunities associated with it. So–it isn’t clear the best way to do that, but it happens naturally, organically. You can’t force it overnight but the more that we know about ourselves, the more language that we use …. (Interview, Robert, May 17, 2010)
This exposure affects staff members greatly as they come into almost daily contact with all that the facility has to offer. Staff are encouraged to learn Haida words in order to greet visitors, conduct tours, interpret displays, and respond to questions in a culturally relevant manner. The canoe tours are especially important as they expose staff and community members to their cultural and historic roots. While on such a tour, one of the young Haida men who helped launch the craft told me that he had never actually been in a traditional Haida canoe before that day. Another stated the following and then immediately broke into a traditional song written by his father,
103 I really like my job as I’m able to get out in the canoes …I don’t make too much money, but that’s okay. I get a chance to sing the traditional songs for people. It’s the best job ever and I wouldn’t get a chance to do this anywhere else. (Field Journal, Brad, July 2, 2010)
It is evident that providing these learning opportunities to staff is a priority for the Haida
Heritage Centre. For example, one of the staff became very excited after reviewing a book on traditional Haida fishing methods and was encouraged to undertake one of the projects not only as a cultural learning opportunity, but also as a means of interacting with visitors who might have questions (Field Journal, June 6, 2010). The opportunities for this type of cultural engagement are endless. I found many examples such as the development of the ecological tour and carvers tour. The preparation to establish these tours required guides to learn about marine plants, food gathering, the history of Haida clans, and representation of design and stories on the totem poles.
Summary
The Haida Heritage Centre is the physical embodiment of the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the Haida. The Centre houses those things that are special to the people and was built with respect for the past, regard for the present, and a clear vision of the future to which they aspire. The Centre provides a venue for community activities and events and clearly supports cultural development through classes and instruction and exposure to cultural practices. It is a key attraction to visitors and a gateway to a renowned national park system. The Haida Gwaii Museum is world class in its presentation of the Haida culture, but also eminent in its protection and
104 preservation of the artefacts and history of the people. The Haida Heritage Centre plays as central role in community-based ecotourism planning and development. Key priorities relate to recapturing their culture and heritage and providing a unique venue at which the Haida can take part spiritually and physically in their own cultural practices.
Summary of Themes
This chapter presents the analysis of the five major themes to emerge from the data. Each of these major themes, supported by sub-themes, detail the communities’ response to ecotourism development and demonstrate how the spiritual, traditional, and cultural relationships are embodied within ecotourism initiatives. The data support the finding that the level of commitment to the community and to planning is foundational to the current state of community-based ecotourism development in Haida Gwaii. This commitment is greatly impacted by a number of economic factors that come to bear on decision-making, however the community is working to overcome barriers to entrepreneurship and human resource issues that impede development. The role of continuity is tied more closely to ecotourism development than that of simply planning for the future. The Haida’s concept of continuity is represented through the stewardship of their art, their language, and their environment. As the cornerstone of their culture, these three components form the basis of Haida Gwaii as an attraction to visitors. More importantly it supports their own efforts to develop community and culture and is critical to the survival of the Haida Nation.
105 Stakeholder involvement is central to developing ecotourism in Haida Gwaii.
Agreements such as those regulating the management of the Gwaii Haanas National
Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site have set in place parameters that cannot be changed or easily affected by other interests. These early agreements lead to the establishment of mechanisms through which the Haida are able to infuse their spiritual, traditional, and cultural values into planning processes and outcomes. Although these agreements and mechanisms have had a positive impact on development, other older historic agreements and local practices continue to impact negatively on development at the community and local levels.
The role of the Haida Heritage Centre is crucial. The data support the belief of many that the Centre is vital to continued community-based ecotourism development. It is where Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development come together. The community sees the Centre as a physical representation of the Haida–the Centre sees its role as recapturing and preserving the cultural heritage of the people. This collaborative purpose and intent places the Haida Heritage Centre in the middle of development initiatives. The Centre encourages community participation and supports cultural development not only in Skidegate, but to Old Massett and the broader island communities. As a major attraction and gateway to the national park system the Centre is integral to community and island-wide planning for ecotourism.
The following chapter reflects on the key findings to emerge from the results.
These findings further illustrate the purpose of the study in understanding of the relationship between Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development. The
106 discussion builds on existing knowledge and explores what lessons and insights can be shared with scholars and professionals in this field.
107 CHAPTER 6
Discussion
The purpose of this research was to explore the relationship between aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development. The results demonstrate that the basis of the relationship between aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development in
Haida Gwaii rests on the five themes that emerged from the data. These themes are: 1)
Commitment to Community and Planning; 2) Economic Factors; 3) Role of Continuity;
4) Stakeholder Impact; and 5) The Role of the Haida Heritage Centre and Haida Gwaii
Museum. This chapter presents a detailed exploration of the effect of these broad themes on Haida community development. The research findings are considered in relation to the current literature and reflect the ways in which Aboriginal ecotourism contributes to community-based development as follows:
1. Comprehensive Approach to Community-Based Development 2. Role of Art in Community-Based Development 3. Role of Language in Community-Based Development 4. Continuity of the Haida Culture 5. Demonstrating Aboriginal Ecotourism
Each section includes an introductory overview.
1. Comprehensive Approach to Community-Based Development
The two Haida communities of Old Massett and Skidegate share a deeper meaning of community as described by Blesse (as cited in Bell, 1999a) who suggests
108 aboriginal communities have a sense of the intimate relationship with all things, both animate and inanimate. Aboriginal communities are also described as having clan affiliations, common ancestry, common language, and work within social and political networks (Brizinski, 1993). These definitions reflect the nature of community in Haida
Gwaii. This discussion explores, the approach to community development and how the principles of community-based development are being met through ecotourism.
Approach to Development
In developing an understanding of how to build aboriginal community through ecotourism initiatives, the literature suggests there are two standard approaches to community development: 1) traditional or needs-based approach; and 2) capacity- focused approach (Kretzman et al., 1993). A third, Aboriginal approach is suggested as an alternative as it supports relationship building within communities (Bell, 1999a).
Other approaches are addressed in the literature such as the “jobs & income” or “nation- building” approaches posited by Cornell and Kalt (1998).
These and other scholars acknowledge that Aboriginal communities are often found somewhere between these states of community development (Cornell et al., 1998;
Weaver, 2010). In keeping with these observations this research found the Haida are using a blended or comprehensive approach to development (Cornell et al., 1998; Elias,
1991). Table 5 demonstrates the Haida’s comprehensive approach to community- development by detailing activities that fall within the parameters of each of the three approaches.
109 Table 5. Community Development Activities by Approach
Parameters Haida Gwaii Activity Excerpts Relationships in -I am Haida and I am Raven. community -it’s interacting with one another that’s fun -I get to spend time with the people, my family members, and clan Land and -ownership/entitlement to the islands; welcome to my islands; familiarity of place environment -their connection to land, continuity and art is invaluable to staff Heritage -all Haida can trace their roots back at least 150 years -setting restrictions to protect/preserve; end goal of planning is support heritage Traditions -ecotourism ... closely linked to cultural development; culture above ecotourism -watchmen program supports return to traditional way of living on the land Spiritual / -you shouldn’t tell people about our medicine - it’s spiritual
Aboriginal Approach Holistic -supports initiatives that are important; traditionally or spiritually -the art unifies us - it’s an expression of who we are; connection to land Language and -share not only the history and culture...but of home and family historic roots -ecotourism is helping to bring language into the daily lives of people -language ties history to their identity and the land; names thousands of years old Needs based -who’s affected by planning - all of us; jobs/future; understand/need development -band control of certain resources; band interference in business decisions Service based -funding for HHC* provided on basis of service delivery; economic development -some think the government shouldn’t put more money into the HHC -everything is expected to be band planned; hand over opportunities Program -some feel the Haida get preferential treatment specific / -issues around allocation of user days/nights restricted siloed delivery -frustration of external training criteria/standards i.e. operators licensing for boats Singular -restrictions and parameters around applying for grant funding purpose -easier to apply for capital funding for new projects Traditional Approach -key stakeholder agreements limit input from non-Haida communities Externally -belief in consultant reports as to revenue estimates for HHC driven / focus -external agencies drive visitor access issues i.e. bc ferries -historic laws drive conditions on reserve / related issues: inability to obtain loans Asset based -the people are very resourceful; intuitive; think outside the box -people understand the need to change -Council Haida Nation has a tourism representative now Capacity -ecotourism fosters cultural training; there are cultural barriers; see it as menial building -need to expand perception of what ecotourism might be -need to build expertise; need for improved service delivery Associations -planning must mesh with that of the Council Haida Nation -aware planning must become increasingly cooperative and island-wide -establishment of ecotourism planning associations Community -communities are finally pulling together - all coming together now building -the community provides parameters to guide ecotourism -the strategy reflects the island’s values - it doesn’t have to be trendy/grass roots
Capacity-Focused Approach Internally -several documents guide ecotourism development initiatives driven / focus -Council Haida Nation working to create awareness of opportunities relationship -Gwaii Trust long established relationship with community
Note. Source: Excerpts from results section. (* HHC means Haida Heritage Centre)
110 In developing Table 5, a review of the activities and practices in the communities was undertaken to populate the table. The placement of these excerpts in the table highlighted that where failures or deficiencies were experienced they tended to originate within the traditional or needs-based approach to community development. A good example of this is the systemic problems arising from the restrictive parameters in applying for grant funding. This situation has undermined the ability of the community to implement sustainable initiatives due to the lack of operating or core funding (Field
Journal, May 29, 2010). More importantly, this siloed approach has undermined the potential to build capacity, strengthen relationships, or create additional associations and networks within the community.
Combined, this comprehensive approach to community development has its strengths as the community has more tools and options on which to draw. For example, where training (capacity-focused) initiatives in the community have taken longer to carry out than originally anticipated, the program funding (traditional) has remained constant. Conversely, the weakness of this comprehensive approach encourages or sustains certain activities or practices that impede or slow development. For example, where the band councils choose to retain control over the cigarette allocation
(traditional), it has hindered the development of entrepreneurship (capacity-focused) in the community. Returning to Cornell and Kalt’s (1998) observation that Aboriginal communities are most often between states of development, the results of this research clearly indicate this to be the case in Haida Gwaii. Currently, the communities tend to move between the three approaches situationally and contextually.
111 Principles of Community-Based Development
Many scholars believe that the community is the critical component in ecotourism development (Harris, 2009; Notzke, 2006). Community-based ecotourism is seen as the point at which development takes root in the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the people (Harris, 2009; Nepal, 2009; Nyamweru et al, 2008).
Hipwell (2007) posited that there are six principles of community-based development, which are considered critical to the success of ecotourism initiatives. This research suggests that Haida Gwaii meets these principles as follows:
Small in scale.
Currently, the majority of ecotourism enterprises in Haida Gwaii would be considered small in scale. Small, family owned and operated businesses provide needed visitors services and amenities. Band or corporately owned business are also small and service the local population and visitors. The exception to this would be the Haida
Heritage Centre and Haida Gwaii Museum, however, as key attraction on the islands these facilities reflect the needs of the island.
Active participation.
The results clearly demonstrate the high level of commitment and participation by community members in ecotourism planning. The Haida see ecotourism development as supporting their cultural aspirations first and foremost (Interview, Robert, May 17,
2010). This level of participation is strongly rooted in historical events involving the
112 Haida in negotiations resulting in the establishment of the national park. This is particularly true of their collaborative management of the park through the Archipelago
Management Board.
Provides tangible benefits.
Ecotourism development in Haida Gwaii has brought about many tangible benefits to the Haida. The development of a growing arts community and micro-industry has benefited many islanders (Interview, Lynn, June 1, 2010). This micro-industry has driven the development of a number of small businesses started in response to the increased demand for services. This has benefited locals and visitors to the islands
(Field Journal, May 18, 2010). The spinoff from this micro-industry has lead to improved infrastructure and services on the islands. For example, the development of a regional “Art Route” for visitors. Other tangible benefits would include the Haida
Heritage Centre, the Haida Gwaii Museum, and the Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program.
Provides equitable benefits.
The results indicate some discrepancy in the equitable distribution of tangible benefits within the community. Not everyone benefits directly from the sale of artwork or other ecotourism products and services. The majority of artists work independently selling direct to buyers or on commission through the local coffee shops, gift shops, and art galleries. Similarly, many of the small local businesses are family owned and operated and benefit the community indirectly through spinoff activities. However, the
113 cultural practice of sharing contributes significantly to the distribution of wealth in the community (Field Journal, 2010).
Maintains values of conservation.
The Haida community has been very successful in maintaining values of conservation. Their continued use of successional plants for harvesting food is a good example. The results illustrate that ecotourism is being used as a means to protect and conserve the land. This is especially evident in regard to the learning opportunities provided youth and families who work as Watchmen at the ancient village sites
(Interview, Joe, 2010). Their efforts conserve not only the environment, but preserve their spiritual connection to the land.
Maintains the cultural environment.
The Haida have a strong sense of identity, which is the basis for maintaining the cultural environment in Haida Gwaii. Expressions of their individual, family, and clan identity are seen in their art, dance, language, songs, and stories. Programs such as the
Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program, the Haida Gwaii Singers, and Dance Groups serve to keep cultural traditions alive. The prolific amount of art in the communities and the use of the language are sufficient evidence that the cultural environment is being maintained.
Assessing the Haida in light of these principles provides evidence that the community is at the centre of development initiatives, which serves to ensure that ecotourism initiatives reflect their spiritual, traditional, and cultural values.
114 2. Role of Art in Community-Based Development
Art is a fundamental expression of cultural identity to the Haida–forming tangible links to the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the people. Their art creates tangible links to a shared history and a shared experience. The results of this research indicate the Haida are using ecotourism to develop art to encourage continued cultural development in their community and is very relevant to community-based ecotourism planning. There are many art forms enjoyed by the Haida including, carving, painting, drawing, dance, music, and stories. These art forms are clearly linked to their culture, heritage and customs and form the basis of many relationships within the community. In terms of ecotourism and community-based planning, arts development in
Haida Gwaii is critical for several reasons; as a commodity, as a community, and as a form of cultural stewardship.
Art as a Commodity27
Scholars have noted the use of art and crafts in terms of generating economic benefits and the development of associations within communities (Mitchell et al, 2001).
In this, Haida Gwaii is similar as the community has seen the development of three distinct art markets through sales to (a) locals, (b) visitors, and (c) collectors (Interview,
Lynn, June 1, 2010). What is unique to Haida Gwaii is the worldwide renown and calibre of art available. The fame and interest created by Haida artists such as Bill Reid,
27 Art as a commodity would refer specifically to the creation, display, and sale of art to visitors, collectors, or outside associations such as museums. It would include carvings, artwork, and weaving etc.
115 Robert Davidson, and Norman Price has fostered a long line of visitors in search of these cultural treasures.28
Art is a major commodity on the islands, driving local and other markets and community-based ecotourism planning plays a significant role in supporting and creating sustainable markets. This is illustrated by the number craft stores, art galleries, carvers tours, and artists who sell exclusively to outside museums and collectors.
However, the results indicate that the lack of an umbrella organization to guide development has limited the growth of this micro-industry to external markets
(Interview, John, June 17, 2010). It has also left artists more vulnerable to swings in demand caused by the visitors looking for lower priced items, which in turn can affect quality (Interview, Brad, June 5, 2010). Alternative models, such as artist cooperatives provide a mechanism wherein groups can establish pricing based on quality and labour and avoid competition within the available market (Mitchell & Eagles, 2001).29
Arts Community
Artists are highly impacted by ecotourism development in Haida Gwaii and Julia noted that art is part of the health of the community (Interview, May 19, 2010). The nature of trade on the islands demonstrates the role and need for community-based ecotourism planning. Brad described his own experience in a family impacted by the
28 Bill Reid is one of Canada’s foremost artists whose works are displayed around the world. One of the most well known is the “The Spirit of Haida Gwaii”, a sculpture which resides in the Vancouver International Airport. Norman Price is well known for his work as a carver of argillite, cedar, and silver. Robert Davidson is a respected contemporary artists who apprenticed with Bill Reid and is best known as a master carver, painter, and jeweller. (See, www.robertdavidson.ca) 29 The example referred to here is that of Taquile, Peru wherein 270 cooperative members worked to ensure stability for the purpose of benefiting the whole community.
116 boom and bust cycles of the seasonal market (Interview, June 5, 201). He describes other families as being negatively impacted by seasonality as they would only have an income for part of the year. Price fluctuations, quality control, and a seasonal market impact these families. This, in turn has a direct impact on other island communities as they too are affected by changes in the local market.
Cultural Stewardship30
“Art is what identifies us–it’s who we are–an expression of being
Haida” (Interview, Lynn, June 1, 2010). Effectively, art brings together the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the Haida people and merges it with the social and economic potential through ecotourism. Julia describes Haida culture as,
A living thing … it is not static … and expresses itself in relation to what is in the current environment and this is especially important in a place where we are trying to show continuity … we are really promoting a culture that is strong and full and growing in its expression. (Interview, May 19, 2010)
Art epitomizes cultural stewardship for the Haida. The results provided evidence of the connection between cultural stewardship and the role of community-based ecotourism development in several ways: (a) as a representation of heritage, (b) as a cultural connection, and (c) as a means of transitioning through ecotourism.
30 Art as culture would refer to all forms of art and artistic expression with the community including dance, music, song, weaving, carving, painting etc.
117 Representation of heritage.
The Haida retained knowledge of their heritage in two ways; through their language and through their art (Interview, Brenda, June 28, 2010). There are two remaining Haida clans, the Eagles and the Ravens–a fact that is displayed on representative house totem poles and repeated within the design of woven cedar bark hats, blankets, and ceremonial items. The six clans are honoured by the totem poles erected at the entrance to the Haida Heritage Centre31. Art forms represent the heritage of the Haida, through their stories, their dance, and their songs. As suggested by Bell
(1999a), the relationship of the Haida to the land, to the ocean, and to each other is mirrored back to themselves and the world through their art.
Cultural connection.
Art is a physical record of the Haida’s connection with the past providing tangible evidence of their culture, history, and shared experiences. Totem poles, a mainstay of visitor attractions, represent the art and stories of their ancestors depicting scenes and styles that are prevalent to this day. The community is keenly aware of its history and recognizes that “We need to retrieve that which we are in danger of forgetting–to draw our youth to learn–and then to teach.” Present day relationships within the community are inextricably linked through their cultural connections to the past–through their art.
31 There were six original clans of the Haida people. Two remain, the Eagle Clan and the Raven Clan. (Field Journal)
118 Transitioning through ecotourism.
As an intrinsic part of the Haida culture and heritage, ecotourism is supporting the cultural stewardship of art. Further, the economic opportunities associated with art make it one of the primary sectors for development. Cultural learning in relation to art and ecotourism development provides an opportunity to recapture traditional ways, but is also a means of bringing those practices into a modern context. For example, learning about the art and totem poles to guide tours.
3. Role of Language in Community-Based Development
There are two dialects of the Haida language; the Skidegate dialect and the Old
Massett dialect. These dialects represent approximately 40 remaining fluent speakers
(Interview, Trevor, June 21, 2010). Collectively, these and other endangered languages represent a unique cultural perspective whose loss embodies “historical, spiritual, and ecological knowledge” considered essential, not only to the survival of the speakers, but also to other cultural groups (UNESCO, 2010).32 The cultural stewardship of Aboriginal language and the role of community-based ecotourism development is not fully addressed in the literature. In Haida Gwaii, Skidegate is using ecotourism to support
32 Statement: United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Relevant to this discussion is the fact that UNESCO advocates the creation of favourable conditions for speakers to use the language to teach it to their children … and educational systems that support mother-tongue instruction. This information can be viewed on line at: www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?pg=00206.
119 initiatives aimed at conserving and preserving this critically endangered language.33 This discussion of language development and ecotourism will address: (a) the relevance of the language to the culture, (b)preserving the language as proof of occupation, and (c) the growing role of community-based planning in ecotourism development.
Relevance of Language to the Culture
The results of this research provide evidence that the Haida language, forms an inextricable link to their individual and collective identity. The statement, “How will we call ourselves in the absence of our language”, clearly shows that the Haida see the language as an expression of their collective identity (Interview, Brenda, June 28, 2010).
This view was expressed in terms of clan affiliation, but most obviously inferred from the word Haida, meaning “The People” (Communications Committee, 1998). Similarly, the language is representative of how the Haida want to be seen by the world, which is integrally related to how the Haida see themselves–personal pride and a choice to “put our own faces to [our culture]” (Communications Committee, 1998).
As the findings of this research suggest, language is a tangible link to the history of the Haida and a means of connecting the past to the present. As noted by other scholars, Aboriginal peoples traditionally imparted knowledge from Elders to youth through the language in the form of stories (Nyamweru et al., 2008). The results indicate
33 UNESCO categorizes languages as 1) vulnerable, 2) definitely endangered, 3) severally endangered, 4) critically endangered, and 5) extinct. Within these categories, language loss or endangerment is also negatively impacted by larger groups and external language forces such as globalization, a military presence, religion, and educational subjugation. The two Haida dialects are considered critically endangered as there are only 40 fluent speakers still alive, they are impacted by larger groups and globalization through tourism, there was a military presence on the islands up until approximately 20 years ago, and the institution of residential schools is considered educational subjugation.
120 that the Haida also do this as evidenced by Joe, who recalls learning the stories from his
“Nanna” as a child and youth (Interview, June 3, 2010; Field Journal, May 16, 2010).34
In the past, ecotourism created opportunities to connect Elders and youth through programs such as the Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program.35 More recently, the Haida
Heritage Centre has taken on the role of providing these types of cultural learning opportunities and work in collaboration with the Skidegate Haida Immersion Program for this reason (Interview, Trevor, June 21, 2010).
The results also provided evidence of how the historic use of the language (place names) served to draw together the people, the land, and the culture (Interview, Brenda,
June 28, 2010). The example used in the results chapter refers to the use of the language to pass on information about the land (location), safety (people), and food gathering
(culture). Other examples include the use of signage to identify place and not simply a location. A modern example is the unique signage being used in Skidegate. Figure 3 (p.
79), illustrates one such sign that captures the cultural reflection of the language in terms of place: “GuuhlGa Siiwaay K’yuu” or “Together Lake Trail”.
Proof of Occupation
Language development also plays a significant role in supporting the Haida’s title case wherein “place names” are being used to prove the historic use and occupation
34 “Nanna” is the Skidegate word for grandmother (Field Journal, June 3, 2010). 35 The ability to include Elders in the Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program has diminished over the years due to their age, the impracticality of transporting them to the remote village sites, and concerns over their health (Interview, Shannon, June 2, 2010). The efforts of some Elders in regard to conserving the language and leaving a record of the language is now done largely through the Skidegate Haida Immersion Program (Interview, Trevor, June 21, 2010).
121 of Haida Gwaii.36 The Haida Gwaii Museum is working collaboratively with the Council of the Haida Nation’s legal counsel in support of the legal proceedings by gathering and providing evidence of historic use and occupation through artefacts and traditional language forms. The Haida Heritage Centre is working to encourage the use of the traditional language by the staff by presenting the culture to the public in ways that incorporate the language. They are encouraging the use of the language by members of the community by increasing exposure to the language. In doing so, they are showing continuity of the culture–laying claim to the islands through their language (stories and place names) and other art forms by keeping the culture alive (Field Journal, May 16,
2010). Indirectly, ecotourism works in support of this as it creates incentives for the
Haida to learn more about their culture and the language, which is encouraged and supported by the economic benefits to be gained.
Growing Role of Ecotourism
The community is using ecotourism to bring the Haida language into the daily lives of the people. Ecotourism organizations such as the Haida Heritage Centre, and the
Haida Gwaii Museum are working in conjunction with the Skidegate Haida Immersion
Program (SHIP) to establish standards for the use of the language in its written form.
Interpretive signage and displays in these facilities and within the provincial and
36 The Haida title case was filed by the Council of the Haida Nation in 2002 and covers all the land of Haida Gwaii; the seabed, and ocean surrounding the islands. Canada and BC filed statements of defence claiming the Haida were not there at contact and the social structure was such that they could not hold title as their was no understanding of ownership. (T. Williams-Davidson, personal communication, May 16, 2010). Ms. Williams-Davidson presented on this subject as a guest speaker at the Annual General Meeting of Haida Gwaii Museum Society. Ms. Williams-Davidson is part of the legal council for the Council of the Haida Nation.
122 national park systems are encouraging the use of, and exposure to, the language.
Currently, there is a growing awareness that the Haida language can also be used to improve experiences in Haida Gwaii. For example, tour guides are trained to greet visitors and introduce topics in their traditional language–contributing to a sense of “the exotic other” and “authenticity” (Interview, Brenda, June 28, 2010). These and many others uses of the language in developing ecotourism product and services illustrates the growing role of community-based planning to support these and other language-based initiatives.
4. Continuity of the Haida Culture
Similar to language development, continuity is seen as a main driver of culture and supports Aboriginal concepts of religion, worldview, and identity (Fonda, 2009).
Fonda’s research intimates that activities and polices can improve personal and cultural continuity and increase wellbeing (Fonda, 2009). In light of this, developing an understanding of continuity is critical to examining the relationship between aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development.
The standard definition of continuity reflects the idea of unbroken and consistent existence in the absence of disruptions–a way of life (Collins, 1990). However, considering the context of this discussion and the history of the Haida people, continuity will be defined on the basis of the 1988 South Moresby Agreement as:
Continuing their traditional way of life as they have for countless generations. In this way the Haida will sustain the continuity of their culture while allowing for the enjoyment of visitors. ‘Haida’ means all people of Haida ancestry. It is an objective [of this agreement] to sustain the continuity of the Haida culture … by
123 providing for the continuation of cultural activities and traditional renewable resource harvesting activities.... (Sections 1.1 and 3.2)
Haida Continuity
“We are the People.” “We are not frozen in time”
Historical events have had an appalling impact on the Haida. The most significant being the fur trade, the loss of lives through disease, the legislated management of First Nations people, and the residential school system (Elias, 1991;
Long & Dickason, 1996; McMillan & Yellowhorn, 2004). Effectively, the impact of these and and other events caused, if not a total break in the continuity of the Haida culture, certainly a “… weakening of the very fabric that wraps a community’s culture in its folds” (Communications Committee, 1998). The results indicate that the Haida see continuity as a reflection of identity, proof of existence, and as an act of rebuilding the culture.
The Haida know who they are. Study participants expressed this in many ways.
“I am Haida and I am Raven.” An Elder shared that they know intimately who they are
(Interview, Brenda, June 28, 2010). Continuity in terms of core values and worth are not at issue. Rather, the results suggest that Continuity, as a reflection of identity, relates more to recapturing what has been lost to them. In this sense, the Haida are working to gain a greater understanding of who they were and who they are “We have to know what being Haida is all about before we can share it with others” (Interview, Brad, 2010).
Chelsey described the impact of this loss. “Honestly because of the lack of continuity because of the epidemics a lot of the people [Haida] still don’t know exactly why did the
124 carver, carve the pole that way” (Interview, May 20, 2010). It is this loss of knowledge they seek to recapture, the loss of which places holes in their individual and collective memories.
Proving one’s existence is not a challenge faced by the average person. Yet, the
Haida are faced with this task for two reasons: (a) to prove use and occupancy in relation to the Haida Title case and (b) in terms of assuring one’s self of their existence.
The bulk of this discussion will focus on the later. We’ve all done it–written “I was here.” on some obscure item in passing. The Haida have also done this. Through their art, the language, and their visceral connection to and reliance on the land. The Haida express Continuity in this sense as a need to lay claim to the islands by virtue of their presence - I am here. “It is our job to be stewards of Haida Gwaii to make sure that
Haida Gwaii is here forever” (Interview, Lynn, June 1, 2010). The underlying connection is that the Haida seek to protect their identity, by protecting Haida Gwaii as their home and a place where you keep what is precious to you … where you reflect on your past and your future” (Communications Committee, 1998).
The Haida are working to rebuild their culture. Land and areas of significance to the Haida are being protected, arts development is growing, and an extensive effort has gone into preserving and conserving their traditional language. Study participants conveyed an awareness that rebuilding their culture would require a blending of the past with realities of the modern world (Communications Committee, 1998). Decisions are being made about what the Haida want to share with the world and what they choose not to share. Randy sees the Haida returning to the old ways - reviving what was lost
125 (Interview, June 5, 2010). Rose sees it as “Resurrecting so much more and bringing their old way of life into the present day” (Interview, June 1, 2010). Rebuilding the culture–maintaining continuity is seen as a process of discovery and finding new ways to hold onto the past yet move toward their future. The community has been active for an extended period of time in their efforts to revive and maintain their culture.
This is evidenced by long-term programs like the Haida Gwaii Watchmen
Program, the Archipelago Management Board, the Haida Heritage Centre, and the Haida
Gwaii Museum. On the basis of this research, it can be argued that the Haida Heritage
Centre and Haida Gwaii Museum have been tasked with carrying out the community’s aspirations in regard to continuity. This responsibility is twofold: rebuilding the culture and presenting a public face to the world. This is being accomplished, in part, through the development of Aboriginal ecotourism. The Haida’s concept of continuity is integrally linked to the work of the Haida Heritage Centre and the Haida Gwaii
Museum. These facilities exemplify Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development, working in support of the continuity of the Haida culture.
5. Demonstrating Aboriginal Ecotourism37
The current literature suggests there are core principles to which Aboriginal ecotourism initiatives can aspire. The results indicate that the Haida Heritage Centre and
Haida Gwaii Museum uphold these core principles including: (a) Ownership, (b) Culture as the Main Attraction, (c) Environmental Ethics, (d) Sustainability, and (e) Appreciation
37 “HHC” and “HGM” may be used in place of the “Haida Heritage Centre” and the “Haida Gwaii Museum”, to ease readability. The majority of statements regarding the HHC are made inclusive of the HGM.
126 of the Natural Environment and Meaningful Engagement. These facilities make a unique contribution to Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development through the activities and purpose they serve.
Principles of Aboriginal Ecotourism
Ownership.
Currently, the HHC is owned and operated by the Skidegate Band Council.
While there is a significant amount of debt associated with the facility, administrative and operating decisions are the responsibility of the Band Council via the Operations
Manager. The HGM is owned and operated as a community-based non-profit organization. Management and operations is overseen by the Haida Gwaii Museum
Society. These organizations have broad community support and island-wide representation on their boards. Control over product and service delivery are under the control of the community and island as represented by the board’s membership. Further, the results indicate that the work of these facilities support the Haida Title case, which is directly linked to the Haida’s means of regaining control.
Culture as the main attraction.
There can be no question that the Haida culture serves as the main attraction at the HHC and the Haida Gwaii Museum. Notzke (2004) considers this in terms of cultural tourism or ecotourism that showcases their heritage and modern achievements.
The level of Aboriginal content can also vary from “present to absent” as a reflection of
127 the level of control (Butler et al., 2007). The HHC exhibits the highest degree of
Aboriginal content as the facility is totally focused on aspects of the culture for the community of Skidegate.38 For example, public and private ceremonies, culturally based tours, and the availability of traditional foods at community and multi-cultural events are all grounded in the Haida culture (Field Journal, June 21, 2010).
Environmental Ethics.
The HHC and HGM reflect the ethics and intrinsic values of the Haida people, which is foundational to the relationship between Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development. Historical exhibits in the museum document the
Haida’s presence and use of the land and environment for over 10,000 years. The HHC is in the process of developing onsite ecological tours where visitors can learn first hand about the types of seaweeds harvested and how these items were used by the Haida in the past and present day. The concept of environmental ethics requires that ecotourism
“be consistent with a positive environmental ethic, fostering preferred behaviour”
(Butler, as cited in Weaver, 2001). While this research did not assess visitor perceptions in this way, the results confirm that it is the Haida who are reaffirming their own environmental ethics in this regard. The cultural learning opportunities provided at the
HHC help to teach traditional skills to youth wherein they are reconnecting with the land.
38 As a community facility the focus of the organization is on the needs of Skidegate. However, all Haida are included and welcome. Old Massett Haida are in the process of developing a similar facility.
128 Sustainability.
The contribution of the HHC and HGM to sustainability stems from the generation of revenues through ecotourism initiatives, environmental education, and the protection of natural areas (Ross et al., 1999). The national park and ancient village sites generate revenues resulting from the appeal and draw of these areas to visitors. These revenues benefit the broader community directly through sales, services, and spinoff economic activities. Environmental education is provided through the orientation of visitors, which is a requirement for those wanting to enter the park system.
Other educational components centre on the services provided by the museum and the exposure to Haida culture through tours and services at the Haida Heritage
Centre. Local involvement is provided formally through representation on the HHC and
HGM boards, but also more broadly through the work of the Archipelago Management
Board. Informally, local involvement is provided through traditional forums: open meetings, direct communication, participation, and use of the HHC and Haida Gwaii
Museum (Interview, Robert, May 17, 2010.
Appreciation of the natural environment and meaningful engagement.
Visitors to these facilities have the opportunity to learn firsthand about marine and terrestrial environments (Nepal, 2004; Zeppel, 2007). They are also able to take part in cultural experiences involving the environment in the form of traditional canoe tours.
These tours provide information on the purpose and value these crafts held for the Haida such as fishing and harvesting practices. Visiting school groups are often taken out on
129 such tours to reaffirm what they have learned in class–connecting the learning to the culture and to the environment.
Weaver (2001), speaks to this as an opportunity to incorporate an appreciation of the natural environment, “transforming the ecological awareness of people raised in the environmentally destructive Western environmental paradigm”. The level of engagement in this and similar activities provides meaningful experiences for Haida and visitors alike (Butler et al., as cited in Weaver, 2001). While the level of cognitive engagement is highly situational, the style and presentation of exhibits and activities at the Haida Heritage Centre and Haida Gwaii Museum provides a number of ways for visitors to interact and engage.
Benefits of Aboriginal Ecotourism
Flowing from the core principles of Aboriginal ecotourism, communities derive benefits from ecotourism through the associated activities resulting from development
(Bell, 1999a; Colton & Harris, 2007; Harris, 2009; Nepal, 2004). Pursuant to the literature, these benefits have been categorized into six broad groups and include: (a) cultural ecology, (b) environmental stewardship, (c) cultural awareness, (d) economic values, (e) social values, and (f) cultural independence. The activities of the Haida
Heritage Centre and Haida Gwaii Museum effectively provide direct and indirect benefits to the Haida community. By demonstrating the benefits of ecotourism through the activities of these facilities, the results provide evidence of their role in community- based development. Table 6 provides examples of these community-based benefits.
130 Table 6. Activity Examples by Benefit Category
Description Examples
Reflects principles of 1. The Haida have unwritten rules around what is appropriate and guardianship in human inappropriate in regard to sharing with visitors. Members of the relations with nature community will consult others in the community as required. (Stewart-Harawira, as cited in Higgins- 2. Some areas of cultural significance within protected areas of the Ecology Cultural Desbiolles, 2009). park system are identified within the management agreements, but never disclosed to the public to lessen the risk of tampering at unattended sites.
Businesses and 1. The Haida produce and sell woven articles for sale in the local craft communities stores and the Haida Gwaii Museum. Harvesting of cedar bark and incorporating ways of roots for weaving hats and basket is done using traditional practices. sustaining natural resources (Pye-Smith 2. Classrooms are available to members of the community. et al., 1994). Instruction is provided on traditional weaving, carving, and art forms Stewardship
Environmental such as casting and carving.
Opportunities for cross 1. The HHC and Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program provides training cultural exchange for for staff members. Watchmen are provided an opportunity to hosts and visitors reconnect with the land, the ocean, and their heritage. (Clarke, 2009; Nyamweru, et al., 2. Visitors are able to visit the Haida Gwaii Museum wherein they
Cultural have access to a wealth of information on the history, culture, and
Awareness 2008). traditions of the Haida people in addition to culture tours.
The use of economic 1. The Haida Heritage Centres hires Haida staff to conduct tours. The strategies unique to the majority of positions are staffed by Haida personnel. The benefit of culture and underlying learning outweighs the low pay. values (Mitchell et al., 2. The HHC provides referrals to visitors in regard to the availability Values 2001). of community services and amenities. The number of referrals are Economic provided to local business on a regular basis. Aspects of social 1. The long term and high level of participation by community structure (trust, norms, members on planning committees involved in ecotourism initiatives is social networks) reflective of social networking. facilitate collective 2. Informal social networks influence and guide the development Social Capital action (Green et al., initiatives. For example, seeking input and the involvement of Elders 2002). in developing coursework materials for Haida Watchmen. Visitor and host 1. The Haida use the public’s awareness and interest in Haida Gwaii to actions that foster foster ecotourism development, leading to increased cultural cultural independence independence. For example, the construction of the Haida Heritage in the community Centre and infrastructure. (Curtin, 2003; Colton, 2. Arts development in the community has fostered increased cultural Cultural et al, 2007; 2010). independence. The role and importance of art has put the Haida in a Independence position of power. The HHC and HGM play a significant role in supporting arts development.
Note. Source: Adapted from the results section.
131 CHAPTER 7
Conclusions and Recommendations
The study provides meaningful insight into the relationship between Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development. The initial analysis of the data determined there were five foundational components that form the basis of this relationship. These components are: 1) Commitment to the Community and Planning,
2) Economic Factors, 3) Role of Continuity, 4) Stakeholder Impact, and 5) Role of the
Haida Heritage Centre and Haida Gwaii Museum.
The results of this research suggest that the Haida’s commitment to the community and to planning is the central relationship. This is illustrated by the involvement of the community in ecotourism development which is rooted in their passion for their islands and culture. This central relationship drives planning initiatives, and maintains a measure of balance in the relationship. More importantly, their commitment ensures that the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the Haida are reflected in ecotourism initiatives.
Continuity provides the context in which ecotourism is developed by providing a higher purpose to cultural and environmental stewardship. The results illustrate this by the value and importance attributed to art, language, and land to the community. The role of the Haida Heritage Centre and the Haida Gwaii Museum are significant to the relationship as these facilities work to protect, preserve, and promote the culture. They are also a key interface between the visiting public and the community.
132 Stakeholder impacts drive the legal and organizational frameworks within which the Haida must operate and deliver ecotourism products and services. These stakeholder agreements have been a boon and a bust for the Haida in terms of managing community- based ecotourism initiatives. The results suggest that the Haida have benefitted from the relationships these agreements represent as it has given them a strong voice in how ecotourism is developed. However, some historic agreements have and will continue to hinder ecotourism development. Economic factors consider aspects of the relationship dealing with the reality of maintaining a community. However, it is not what drives the relationship, it is a necessity of the relationship. Culturally, the Haida struggle to deal with the challenges of building capacity and learning how to take advantage of the economic opportunities that are available to them through ecotourism.
The community’s response to ecotourism development has been greatly affected by the signing of the historic agreements that provided them with the right to collaboratively manage the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage
Site. (see Table 4, Key Stakeholder Agreements) The results illustrate that this placed the Haida in a position of power in decision-making and was pivotal to the role the
Haida have today in informing ecotourism development. The signing of these and subsequent agreements provided the Haida with the ability to guide ecotourism initiatives at an early stage of development. This afforded the Haida with the time necessary to consider ecotourism more fully and implement measures that fully supported the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the community. These values are embodied within existing agreements and ecotourism organizations and are
133 foundational the relationship that now exists between Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development in Haida Gwaii.
Key Insights
Approach to Community-Based Development
The Haida’s approach to community development, situationally incorporates aspects of the aboriginal, traditional, and capacity-focused approaches. The value of this comprehensive approach is that it provides extensive tools and options to draw upon for a community faced with myriad issues and challenges. Community-based ecotourism initiatives are being positively impacted as the approach enables and supports relationships within the community and fosters greater capacity building. In contrast, the approach can impact negatively on ecotourism initiatives as it encourages the community to rely on methods and systems that may no longer work. Worse, the traditional approach can have an inadvertently negative affect on the aboriginal and capacity-focused approaches, hindering or slowing ecotourism development initiatives.
Role of Art and Language
Art and language are essential expressions of Haida identity. Art plays a significant role in the context of ecotourism as a commodity, as part of the community, and as a form of cultural stewardship. In terms of cultural stewardship it is foundational to connecting their history to the present and future. Art takes on the role of helping the community transition into the future, as it remains one of the few constants in their lives.
134 Language has great relevance to the community as it expresses their collective identity, is used to impart knowledge, and is a tangible expression of their connection to the land.
Ecotourism plays a role in the cultural stewardship of the language by providing a means of bringing the language into the daily lives of the people. Similar to art, language development is a constant across time for the Haida. Ecotourism increases exposure to the language, thereby helping to preserve and conserve this critical part of the culture.
Continuity and Demonstrating Aboriginal Ecotourism
Continuity is a main driver of culture in Haida Gwaii. The consideration of continuity in relation to ecotourism development has not been researched fully, however, its intrinsic value and relevance to the community makes it a critical component for consideration. The Haida see continuity as a reflection of their identity, as proof of their existence, and as an act of rebuilding their culture. The significance of continuity to
Aboriginal ecotourism is through the process of rebuilding their culture. Development initiatives such as the Haida Heritage Centre and Haida Gwaii Museum exemplify the culmination of the Haida’s expressed belief in their own continuity. These facilities also demonstrate the principles of Aboriginal ecotourism as foundational to development initiatives. Their purpose in preserving and conserving the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the people is reflected in the provision of community-based activities.
In this, Aboriginal ecotourism demonstrates that development initiatives can support meaningful cultural development.
135 Recommendations to the Community
The analysis of the results and subsequent discussion highlighted a number of opportunities and recommendations to emerge from the data. An in-depth executive summary will be provided to the Haida Heritage Centre at Kaay llnagaay upon concluding this study.
Opportunity #1: Focus on fund raising, rather than applying for grant funding. The potential for fund raising through the arts community is significant. The value of this approach is that the funds can be used to support the on-going operating and maintenance needs of the Haida Heritage Centre and not be tied to the restrictions and conditions of grants.
Opportunity #2: Take advantage of the Haida Gwaii Tourism Advisory Committee.
This committee provides a means to work cooperatively with local, non-Aboriginal, residents of the community. It is an opportunity to address the diverse perspectives that come with tourism and ecotourism development and to initiate strategies that balance the needs of all the island’s stakeholders.
Opportunity #3: Increase the use of the Haida allocation of user days/nights. The opportunity to operate tours into the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida
Heritage Site should be pursued. Entering into an agreement to work with an outside
136 interest for a set period of time would provide an opportunity to build capacity and expertise in the community.
Recommendation #1: Revisit the development of an arts cooperative for the islands. The importance of the arts community to economic development is substantial.
The development of a cooperative would establish pricing and create opportunities to expand into new markets. A cooperative could also help to alleviate the boom and bust cycles for local artists and their families, benefiting the entire community.
Recommendation #2: Petition the Gwaii Trust Society for core operating funds.
There is sufficient evidence to indicate that the provision of core operating funds to sustain the viability of key attractions would support community-based development. It would also provide sufficient time to build capacity and provide long-term incentives for community engagement in development initiatives.
Recommendation #3: Develop a “Doing” plan to operationalize initiatives.
Community members indicated the importance of getting past ‘planning’ and consider the implementation of projects in order to get initiatives off the ground. There is an awareness that this level of planning has not been sufficiently addressed.
137 Recommendations for Future Research
This case study was a unique opportunity to assess Aboriginal ecotourism in a community that has been involved in development for an extended period of time. The
Haida have found a significant amount of success in community-based ecotourism development. As a result of their long involvement and the high level of participation several new aspects of the relationship between Aboriginal ecotourism and community- based development arose.
Aspects of the relationship that need to be explored and researched further include: (a) The relevance of art to ecotourism initiatives, (b) The role and use of language in ecotourism initiatives, (c) The role of continuity in driving ecotourism developments, (d) Approach to community development as a factor in success.
The relevance of art to ecotourism initiatives.
The role of art within the Haida culture and as a major commodity in the ecotourism industry highlights the need to understand how relationships in the community are affected. These relationships include art as a micro-industry and the role of the arts community in development initiatives. The use of art and other cooperatives by Aboriginal communities is noted in the literature, however a comparison of communities with and without cooperatives would prove valuable to communities considering implementation (Mitchell et al., 2001).
138 The role and use of language in Aboriginal ecotourism initiatives.
The Haida’s purpose in language development is grounded in cultural stewardship and continuity. However, their efforts highlight the use of language in the ecotourism product and services to support language development. Scholars understand language as crucial to human existence and its loss negatively impacts our cultural and environmental knowledge and the identity of cultural groups (Binion & Shook, 2007).
Researching the extent to which Aboriginal communities are using language in their ecotourism products and services may provide support for initiatives in other communities. Related issues such as the benefits to be derived from the increased use of traditional languages in ecotourism include cultural sustainability, cultural identity, and visitor experiences.
The role of continuity in driving ecotourism developments.
The role of continuity as a driver of culture and therefore as a factor of cultural stewardship and sustainability needs to be explored. Exploring the effect of continuity on community-based ecotourism may shed light on how relationships in the community are affected. The relationships affected include ecotourism institutions, community participation, external agencies such as parks, and as contributing factor to land claims.
Approach to community development as a determinant of success.
This research highlighted the fact that it may be possible to measure the level of success of Aboriginal ecotourism initiatives on the basis of their approach to
139 community-based development. Making a correlation between successful Aboriginal ecotourism initiatives and the approach to community development may encourage communities to incorporate approaches that more closely reflect the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values into planning initiatives. Considering to what extent the Haida’s relative success in developing ecotourism is attributable to their use of the Aboriginal
Approach to community-based would be valuable to other communities.
Final Word
The opportunity to work with the Haida throughout this project has been an incredible learning experience. I am truly grateful for their time and patience. Their willingness to share so much with me during my time on the islands is an honour. My greatest joy was being able to embark from the Haida Heritage Centre in the Loo Taas canoe and experience the thrill of paddling in one of Canada’s great works of art. My understanding of Aboriginal ecotourism and community-based development has increased greatly as a result of my experiences in Haida Gwaii. The issues faced by the
Haida in continuing to develop ecotourism on the islands are considerable. However, despite all the challenges the Haida Heritage Centre and Haida Gwaii Museum are working to support a vibrant and growing community. I am hopeful that life will bring me back to the islands.
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151 Appendix A: Interview Guide Questions
152 Interview Guide Questions
1) What is your position here and how long have you worked at the Haida Heritage
Centre?
2) What training and educational background do you have?
3) How have your experiences here at the [insert name/organization] involved you
with ecotourism in Skidegate and Haida Gwaii?
4) How is ecotourism planned by the community of Skidegate?
5) What groups do you feel are the most/least impacted by ecotourism planning in
the community? Describe how they are impacted?
6) How does the [insert name/organization], reflect the spiritual, traditional, and
cultural values of the Haida community into the tourism planning strategies and
processes?
7) What more could be done to integrate the spiritual, traditional and cultural values
of the Haida community into ecotourism planning strategies and processes.
8) How does the [insert name/organization] measure and evaluate the level of
success achieved through existing planning strategies and process? What exactly
is being measured and how?
9) What aspects of Haida ecotourism does the community benefit from the most?
How does the community benefit? What other benefits can you think of?
10) What do you see as the major barriers to tourism/ecotourism planning in the
community?
153 11) How does the community of Skidegate benefit from ecotourism?
12) How important is it that the spiritual, traditional, and cultural values of the Haida
community be included in any plans for ecotourism development? What aspect
of ecotourism does the community benefit from the most? How does it benefit?
13) Do you feel you personally have input into the community’s ecotourism planning
processes? Please explain.
154 Appendix B: Informed Consent
155 Acadia University Faculty of Professional Studies Recreation Management & Community Development
INFORMED RESEARCH CONSENT FORM
Date of Research Ethics Board Approval: April 5, 2010
Research Project Title: Exploring Aboriginal Ecotourism and Community-based Development
Supervisor: Dr. John Colton, Associate Professor, School of Recreation Management and Kinesiology (Em: [email protected])
Researcher: Kelly Whitney-Squire, Master Candidate (Em: [email protected]) ______
The purpose of the research is to understand how Aboriginal communities and businesses are using planning methods to develop and manage successful ecotourism initiatives. The researcher will look at how management strategies and processes are developed and applied in the community and whether or not the goals and values of the community are reflected in ecotourism projects.
You have been identified as someone who can contribute to this study. Your participation is completely voluntary. If you agree to participate you will be interviewed between one and two times and asked to share your knowledge and views about the planning methods used by the community to develop ecotourism projects. Photographs may be used to supplement the research. Interviews will be from a half hour to one hour in length and audio taped. The interviews will be transcribed at a later date and a pseudonym used in any reports or published and/or presented materials resulting from the research.
There are no risks to you other than a disruption in your routine. There are no potential benefits to your participation and no payment will be made for expenses or time spent. All information obtained from the research will be kept by the researcher. No other person will have access to the data and the records will be kept secure by the researcher for a period of seven years at which time they will be destroyed by incineration.
You have the right to refuse to participate in this research and the right to stop the interview at any time.
Consent: I ______,
1) have read and understand the above information, 2) understand that I might be asked more questions in the future, and 3) indicate my free consent to participate by signing this form.
Signature: ______Date: ______
156 Acadia University Faculty of Professional Studies Recreation Management & Community Development
INFORMED CONSENT FORM: PHOTOGRAPHS
Date of Research Ethics Board Approval: April 5, 2010
Research Project Title: Exploring Aboriginal Ecotourism and Community-based Development
Supervisor: Dr. John Colton, Associate Professor, School of Recreation Management and Kinesiology (Em: [email protected])
Researcher: Kelly Whitney-Squire, Master Candidate (Em: [email protected]) ______
The use of photographs taken by the researcher may be used to supplement the research and used in community, professional, and academic presentations and publications.
The photographs will not be used for any other purpose and will not be sold or duplicated for any reason. The photographs (digital or printed) will be kept on record for a period of seven years at which time they will be destroyed by incineration.
You can revoke the permission to use the photographs at any time for any reason.
Consent: I ______,
1) have read and understand the above information, 2) am aware that the photographs may be used in academic presentations in the future, and 3) indicate my free consent to release the photographs by signing this form.
Signature: ______Date: ______
157 Appendix C: Haida Gwaii Tourism Strategy
158 159 Printed with permission of Operations Manager, Haida Heritage Centre at Kaay llnagaay, dated October 12, 2010.
160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170