focusing on: Bar Codes &

No longer relegated to the shipping dock, today’s bar codes play an essential role in helping manufacturers speed products to market. Today’s top companies use bar codes to track product flow, streamline operations, and improve quality.

Zebra Technologies Bar Codes & Manufacturing January 2002 Bar Codes & Manufacturing

Bar Codes in the Manufacturing Process Compliance Labeling

Ever since the put a Universal Manufacturers’ shipping labels are often Product Code (UPC) label on a pack of gum, bar codes designed to meet the needs of their customers. have been a key component of the industry. Retailers like Wal-Mart and K-Mart require More recently, the industrial sector has applied bar compliance labels on all incoming packaging. Today, compliance labeling is mandated by coding solutions to the manufacturing, warehousing industry groups such as: and distribution of goods. • AIAG (Automotive Industry Action Group) • EIA (Electronic Industries Association) The most recognized use of bar code symbologies in or by regulatory/ safety bodies such as: industry is for compliance labeling (see sidebar). This • DOT (Department of Transportation) document takes you further into a manufacturing facil- • NFPA (National Fire Prevention ity and provides an overview of the many, growing Association) for the chemical industry applications for bar coding in the manufacturing Compliance requirements also are useful process. within a manufacturer’s own facility. Bar codes on compliance labels identify the Two Types of Manufacturing product serial number and other important

There are two basic types of manufacturing: discrete product information. Bar code scanners or data collection terminals read this information and process. Discrete manufacturing (e.g., automobile and communicate with a computer host that manufacturing) relies on a Bill of Materials to identify processes the data. Bar code scanning the large number of specific parts or subassemblies improves the accuracy and the timeliness of and their quantities. Process manufacturing (e.g., the data. chemical processing) is formula-based. It relies on weights and measures (pounds or gallons) of raw ingredients. In both cases, bar coding is used to iden- tify component parts or containers of ingredients, work-in-process, finished goods inventory and prod- ucts packaged for shipping.

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Bar Codes in the Manufacturing Process...... Two Types of Manufacturing ➁

Manufacturing and the Supply Chain

Manufacturing businesses depend on a well-coordi- nated chain of events to make their operations work effectively. Many companies initiated bar code label- ing at the shipping dock to support their customers’ compliance requirements. Today’s business software packages (Enterprise Resource Planning [ERP] solu- tions from SAP, JD Edwards or Baan) depend on bar coding and data collection systems to provide infor- mation crucial to the entire manufacturing operation. improves readability from fork trucks up to 30 feet As more companies turn to enterprise-wide software away. Bar codes are necessary because the operator for process improvement and cost reduction, there is a scans both the package and the new storage location significant opportunity to help these companies add to complete the transfer operation and record it in the bar coding throughout their manufacturing facilities. system.

What follows is a step-by-step journey through a Step ➂3 : Picking typical manufacturing facility. At each step, we’ll A work order from the factory floor signals the picking explain how and why bar coding is used. operation to retrieve raw materials or parts from inventory. The fork truck operator is directed to the Step ①1: : Receiving exact inventory location where the material is located Raw materials or sub-assemblies arriving at a manu- and told how many of each part to pick. Bar codes are facturer’s receiving dock have bar code labels on their scanned again to complete the transfer operation. In packaging to meet the company’s requirements. some cases, inventory labels may need to be updated Otherwise, the receiving department logs in the item or corrected in the warehouse to replace damaged and generates a 4” x 6” or smaller bar code label to labels or to identify a change in quantity. Mobile identify the material before it is moved to an inventory printers mounted to lift trucks simplify this operation. location or inspection station.

Step ➁2: : Raw Material Inventory A warehouse operator transfers the material to an inventory location. These sites often are identified with bar codes printed on reflective labels. The reflective material (such as Zebra’s RetroScan 4000 labels)

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Manufacturing and the Supply Chain...... ➂ ➃

Step ➃4 : Work-in-Process (WIP) ucts, labels with UL/CSA logos or content are unique The picked materials are checked to confirm the right because only specific label supplies tested by UL or parts and quantities were picked. Bar codes on each CSA are approved. More than 300 combinations of item are scanned for confirmation. As the parts are Zebra labels and ribbons are tested and UL/CSA- used in the assembly process, bar codes enable part approved for this purpose. Pre-approved label and rib- tracking throughout the process — showing that it was bon combinations from Zebra can save manufacturers consumed in an assembly, or was set aside due to a extensive paperwork and product delays when they defect or other issue. As parts become assemblies, need a new type of label or one for a new application. additional bar code labels can be added to identify and Contact a Zebra supplies specialist when regulatory track the assembly by its new part number. requirements exist for a label application.

In some process manufacturing, bar code labels are used to identify transitions between lots or batches. For example, in paper, film, or coatings manufacturing, splices can be required between batches used to com- ➄ plete a master roll of material. The splice point is identified with a bar code label that identifies the time and batch number of the new material.

Step ➄5 : Product Identification Thermal transfer printing also is used to print name- plate identification labels on-demand with serial number information and/or UL/CSA regulatory con- tent. Synthetic label materials ensure the durability of the image and the label’s longevity. For electrical prod- ➂ ➅

Step ➅6 : Finished Goods specific compliance formats. Compliance formats may At the completion of the packaged assembly in include 2D symbologies such as PDF-417 found in the discrete manufacturing, or the packaging of the prod- latest GM 1724A Compliance Label Mandate or UPS’ uct in process manufacturing, bar codes are used to Maxicode. identify the package contents. If no sales order for this product exists, the fork truck operator collects the If a number of labeled packages are combined on a package and takes it to a finished goods warehouse pallet and shrink-wrapped, a larger, master label is location for inventory. Bar codes on the product and at often required for the pallet. Paper labels are com- the warehouse location are scanned to complete the monly used for these applications, but synthetic mas- transfer operation. ter labels should be specified if the shrink-wrapping is recyclable (such as Zebra PolyO™ 2000). A customer’s sales order signals the picking operation to retrieve the product from finished goods inventory. Other regulatory or environmental requirements may Thanks to the information retrieved from the bar code, impact the label format and content, or the label the operator knows the precise inventory location and materials. Local and federal U.S. Department of picks the inventory for shipping. Bar codes are Transportation (DOT) and National Fire Protection scanned to confirm the correct item was picked and to Association (NFPA) regulations, for example, mandate record the transfer to the shipping department. the labeling of chemical packaging and containers used in transportation. Although many of these labels Step 7 : Shipping contain fixed information, on-demand, thermal trans- The bar code on the package is scanned in the ship- fer printing onto preprinted label materials can provide ping department to acknowledge receipt. New labels a substantial cost savings by reducing the storage of are printed with shipping information. These labels are expensive label inventory and waste that occurs when typically 4” x 6” paper labels with customer- or carrier- adhesive backings degrade.

➃ Manufacturing Trends and Bar Code Labeling

E-Commerce inventory and more room to manufacture product cost-effectively. The impact of e-commerce has reached far beyond consumers purchasing books and compact discs ERP and WMS Systems online. Business-to-business online purchasing now accounts for the bulk of e-commerce transactions, and Major manufacturers have implemented or at least it is steadily increasing. Today, instead of a small num- initiated an ERP warehouse management systems ber of large, infrequent product shipments to a distrib- (WMS), or related software system to manage their utor, manufacturers often are asked to drop-ship indi- enterprise. These systems allow JIT purchasing to vidual packages directly to the end-users. As a result, work by tracking process components throughout the the number of shipments (and shipping labels) Supply Chain. By knowing what is required by when, required is dramatically higher. and what is available from where, the ERP system optimizes the timing and efficiency of the purchasing, JIT Purchasing production, and fulfillment components of its business. To reduce inventory levels and overall inventory carry- ing costs, resellers are pushing much of their earlier This system investment completely depends on the stocking levels of inventory back to the manufacturer ability to track each component part, subassembly, and demanding faster response to their orders. and finished product from the raw material supplier to Manufacturers are responding similarly with their the end-user. Data collection for each transaction is parts suppliers. To avoid stock-outs or production critical in providing the ERP system with continuous downtime, manufacturers and other supply chain par- status updates. Likewise, the necessary data collection ticipants are investing heavily in methods that deliver steps are not possible unless bar code printing is inventory Just In Time (JIT)—the precise quantity of provided for each component part, subassembly, and the specific product required, at precisely the time it is finished product. Bar codes are the keystone of the needed. As a result, JIT purchasing and enterprise ERP system. The result: both the parts labeling vol- system demands rely on bar code reading and printing ume and the number of locations that perform bar to track products efficiently. code printing within a manufacturing plant increase.

This improvement in tracking lowers Economic Order A large number of manufacturers have initiated the Quantity (EOQ) requirements by notifying part implementation of an ERP system, although it is likely suppliers earlier about inventory replenishment that they have not yet determined their label printer requirements (EOQ levels alert purchasing to reorder hardware requirements. That’s because it often takes parts). The result is lower inventory carrying costs, up to two years before these companies have the higher inventory turnover rates, reduced misplaced

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Manufacturing Trends and Bar Code Labeling...... budget available to select their printing solutions. Thermal Transfer Printing Preferred Only in a project’s second phase will middleware ven- for On-Demand Applications dors specify the data collection and label printing hard- Of all the methods available for printing bar ware for the selected ERP solution. Enabling printers codes, thermal transfer technology is pre- to connect to many ERP systems without expensive ferred for on-demand applications. Thermal modifications or custom programming. This is a key transfer printing consistently generates crisp, selling point when talking to a manufacturer about clear lines and spaces for the highest read their bar code printing needs. rates with today’s scanning technologies. Unlike laser or dot matrix printing, which Wireless Communication and wears over time, thermal transfer printing is Network Administration long-lasting.

Wireless communication in manufacturing is growing Thermal transfer printing also is the best rapidly because it allows real-time data collection in choice for immediate, on-demand printing. It is remote portions of the plant. With wireless techno- fast (up to 12 ips), inexpensive, and offers the greatest flexibility for placing bar codes on logy, label printers can operate on location, eliminat- different kinds of labels, or on products and ing the need for an employee to run back and forth packages of different sizes and shapes. between a centrally located printer and the point requiring a label. For example, mobile printers with Thermal Dot Matrix Laser Transfer wireless RF communication capabilities are mounted on warehouse forklifts to provide on-demand printing whenever and wherever a label is needed. The infor- mation is uploaded immediately to the ERP system instead of synchronizing at a shift change. This 70 DPI 400 DPI 200 DPI increases productivity and reduces errors.

The growing use of networked peripherals, such as printers within ERP and other systems, increases the importance of network administration. Managing the network by remotely configuring or monitoring printers, or updating label formats, will become increasingly valuable in the future. Communication by the printer of situations requiring attention, such as the completion of a roll of labels, will be more critical to the efficient operation of the plant. ➅

Glossary

Activity-based costing system: A system that tracks costs based on the analysis of test results and operating parameters, or a combination of activities that are responsible for driving costs in the production of man- the above. ufactured goods. Computerized maintenance management: Software-based systems that Agile manufacturing strategies: Tools, techniques, and initiatives that analyze operating conditions of production equipment-vibration, oil enable a plant or company to thrive under conditions of unpredictable analysis, heat, etc. and equipment-failure data, and apply that data to change. Agile manufacturing not only enables a plant to achieve rapid the scheduling of maintenance and repair inventory orders and routine response to customer needs, but also includes the ability to quickly maintenance functions, thus preventing unscheduled machine down- reconfigure operations—and strategic alliances—to respond rapidly to time and optimizing a plant's ability to process product at optimum vol- unforeseen shifts in the marketplace. In some instances, it also incor- umes and required quality levels. porates "mass customization" concepts to satisfy unique customer Computerized SPC: See "statistical process control." requirements. And, in the broadest sense, it includes the ability to react Constraint: Anything that restricts a system's ability to reach its goal. quickly to technical or environmental surprises. Continuous-replenishment programs: Arrangement with supplier com- Annual inventory turns: A measure of asset management that is calcu- panies in which the supplier monitors the customer's inventory and lated by dividing the annual cost of goods sold (for the most recent full automatically replaces used materials, eliminating the need for pur- year) by the average on-hand total inventory value at plant cost. Total chase orders and related paperwork. inventory includes raw materials, work in process, and finished goods. Core competency: The processes, functions, and activities in a plant or Plant cost includes material, labor, and plant overhead. company that are its "life blood"—typically those activities for which the Bar coding: A coding system used to identify products or packages by enterprise derives the greatest return for its investments or those that encoding identification data in a printed pattern that is then placed on intrinsically align the enterprise with its core market. an object. Data is retrieved with an electronic scanning device linked to Cross-functional teams: Teams of employees representing different a computer. Bar coding is frequently used by manufacturers for inven- functional disciplines and/or different process segments who tackle a tory control. specific problem or perform a specific task, frequently on an ad hoc Bottleneck: Any point in manufacturing operations at which movement basis. is slowed because demand placed on a resource is equal to or more Cross-training: Skill-development practices that require or encourage than capacity. production workers and other employees to master multiple job skills, Cellular manufacturing: A manufacturing approach in which equipment thus enhancing workforce flexibility. and workstations are arranged to facilitate small-lot, continuous-flow Customer leadtime: The time elapsed from receipt of an order until the production—often in a U-shaped cell. In a manufacturing "cell," all oper- finished product is either shipped or delivered to the customer. ations necessary to produce a component or subassembly are per- Cycle time: See "manufacturing cycle time." formed in close proximity, thus allowing for quick feedback between Discrete manufacturing: The production or assembly of parts and/or operators when quality problems and other issues arise. Workers in a finished products that are recognizable as distinct units capable of manufacturing cell typically are cross-trained and, hence, able to per- being identified by serial numbers or other labeling methods—and form multiple tasks as needed. measurable as numerical quantities rather than by weight or volume. Competitive benchmarking: Formal programs that compare a plant's Downsizing: A reduction in the number of employees that occurs due to practices and performance results against "best-in-class" competitors management decision, not associated with natural attrition. or against similar operations. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) links: Information-system linkages, Computer-aided design (CAD): Computer-based systems for product based on communication protocols and document formats, which per- design that may incorporate analytical and "what if" capabilities to opti- mit intercompany computer-to-computer communications. EDI links not mize product designs. Many CAD systems capture geometric and other only speed communication, but also eliminate rekeying of information product characteristics for engineering-data-management systems, and reduce the opportunity to introduce errors. A typical EDI application producibility and cost analysis, and performance analysis. In many might speed information exchange between a customer and supplier cases, CAD-generated data is used to generate tooling instructions for company for purchase orders, invoices, or other transactions. EDI com- computer-numerical-control (CNC) systems. munications often are facilitated through "electronic mailbox" systems Computerized process simulation: Use of computer simulation to facili- on third-party value-added networks. tate sequencing of production operations, analysis of production flows, Empowered work teams: Empowered teams share a common work- and layout of manufacturing facilities. space and/or responsibility for a particular process or process segment. Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM): A variety of approaches in Typically empowered teams have clearly defined goals and objectives which computer systems communicate or "interoperate" over a network. related to day-to-day production activities, such as quality assurance Typically, CIM systems link management functions with engineering, and meeting production schedules, as well as authority to plan and manufacturing, and support operations. In the factory, CIM systems may implement process improvements. Empowered work teams typically do control the sequencing of production operations, control operation of not assume traditional managerial responsibilities. automated equipment and conveyor systems, transmit manufacturing instructions to equipment or operators, capture data at various stages of the manufacturing or assembly process, facilitate tracking and Enterprise resource planning (ERP) system : An extension of MRP II throughput, and reduce manufacturing cycle time. JIT production typi- software. ERP systems typically claim the ability to achieve tighter (or cally involves use of "pull" signals to initiate production activity, in con- "seamless") integration between a greater variety of functional areas, trast to work-order ("push") systems in which production scheduling typ- including materials management, supply-chain management, produc- ically is based on forecasted demand rather than actual orders. In many tion, sales and marketing, distribution, finance, field service, and human "pull" systems, a customer order/shipment date triggers final assembly, resources. They also provide information linkages to help companies which in turn forces replenishment of component WIP inventory at monitor and control activities in geographically dispersed operations; upstream stages of production. and, in a fully deployed mode, ERP systems facilitate capture of trans- JIT delivery: Delivery of parts and materials in small lots—and on a fre- actional data into data warehouses to support executive decision- quent basis—timed to the needs of the production system. making systems. Kanban signal: A method of signaling suppliers or upstream production Extranet: A seclusionary Internet-like network that securely connects operations when it is time to replenish limited stocks of components or customers and suppliers to a corporate or plant intranet in order to subassemblies in a just-in-time system. Originally a card system used in access information deemed shareable by the intranet operators. , kanban signals now include empty containers and even elec- Finite-capacity scheduling: Software-based systems that enable simu- tronic messages. lation of production scheduling (and determination of delivery dates) Labor turnover rate: A measure of a plant's ability to retain workers, based on actual unit/hour capacity at each step in the production rout- expressed as a percentage of the production workforce that departs ing. Finite scheduling systems, running on desktop computers, often annually—or an annualized rate of employee departures. High turnover compensate for the "infinite capacity" assumptions built into capacity- rates often indicate employee dissatisfaction with either working condi- planning modules in traditional MRP II systems. tions or compensation. Finished-goods turn rate: A measure of asset management that typical- Manufacturing cost: Includes quality-related costs, direct and indirect ly is calculated by dividing the annual cost of goods sold (for the most labor, equipment repair and maintenance, other manufacturing support recent full year) by the average on-hand finished-goods inventory value, and overhead, and other costs directly associated with manufacturing at plant cost. Plant cost includes material, labor, and plant overhead. operations. It typically does not include purchased-materials costs or Finished-product first-pass yield: The percentage of finished products costs related to sales and other nonproduction functions. that meet all quality-related specifications at a final test point. In Manufacturing cycle time: The length of time from the start of produc- process industries, yield often is calculated as the percentage of output tion and assembly operations for a particular (finished) product to the that meets target-grade specifications (excluding saleable "off-grade" completion of all manufacturing, assembly, and testing for that product product). or specific customer order. (Does not include front-end order-entry time Focused-factory production: A plant configuration and organization or engineering time spent on customized configuration of nonstandard structure in which equipment and manpower is grouped to create items.) essentially self-contained "mini-businesses," each with a specific prod- Manufacturing execution systems (MES): Software-based systems that uct line or customer focus. A single plant may be divided into several provide a link between planning and administrative systems and the focused-factory units, designed around process flows, each of which shop floor. It can link MRP II-generated production schedules to direct has control over such support activities as maintenance, manufacturing process-control software. An element of computer-integrated manufac- engineering, purchasing, scheduling, and customer service. turing, MES encompasses such functions as planning and scheduling, Forecast/demand management software: Software that provides front- production tracking and monitoring, equipment control, maintaining end input to master production scheduling systems and helps to opti- product histories (verifying and recording activities at each stage of mize inventory planning. Such software not only takes into account his- production), and quality management. torical demand trends, but also may calculate the impact of planned MRP II: Software-based Manufacturing Resources Planning systems sales promotions, price reductions, and other factors that cause spikes that translate forecasts into master production schedules, maintain bills in demand levels. of material (lists of product components), create work orders for each Inventory turn rate: A measure of asset management capability (see step in the production routing, track inventory levels, coordinate materi- "annual inventory turns"). als purchases with production requirements, generate "exception" Intranet: A secure, internal corporate Internet-based network. reports identifying expected material shortages or other potential pro- ISO 9000: An international quality-process auditing program, based on a duction problems, record shop-floor data, collect data for financial series of standards published by the International Standards reporting purposes, and other tasks depending on the configuration of Organization in Geneva, Switzerland, through which manufacturing the MRP II package. plants receive certification attesting that their stated quality processes On-time delivery rate: The percentage of time that ordered products are are adhered to in practice. received by customers by the specified time or date. Some plants will ISO 14000: Standards and guidelines defined by the International base this calculation on the date "promised" to customers, but better Standards Organization for environmental-management systems. facilities typically will calculate it against dates "requested" by cus- JIT/continuous-flow production: Implementation of "just in time" tech- tomers. niques to reduce lot sizes, reduce setup times, slash work-in-process Outsourcing: Shifting of production work or support activities to an out- inventory, reduce waste, minimize non-value-added activities, improve side (third-party) supplier. Planning and scheduling technologies: A variety of software-based tions, safety "days," safety training, and setting of continuous-improve- advanced planning, scheduling, and optimization systems. ment goals targeting safety metrics, such as OSHA reportables or lost- Predictive maintenance: Practices that seek to prevent unscheduled workday rates. machine downtime by collecting and analyzing data on equipment con- Self-directed work teams: Nearly autonomous teams of empowered ditions. The analysis is then used to predict time-to-failure, plan mainte- employees, including hourly workers, that share a common workspace nance, and restore machinery to good operating condition. Predictive and/or responsibility for a particular process or process segment. maintenance systems typically measure parameters on machine opera- Typically such teams have authority for day-to-day production activities tions, such as vibration, heat, pressure, noise, and lubricant condition. and many supervisory responsibilities, such as job assignments, pro- In conjunction with computerized maintenance management systems duction scheduling, maintenance, materials purchasing, training, quali- (CMMS), predictive maintenance enables repair-work orders to be ty assurance, performance appraisals, and customer service. released automatically, repair-parts inventories checked, or routine Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code: A coding system of the maintenance scheduled. U.S. government used to identify specific economic sectors. Coding for Preventive maintenance: Maintenance activities, often performed by manufacturers encompasses the two-digit numbers of 20 through 39. machine operators at regularly scheduled intervals, to keep equipment Statistical process control (SPC): Use of variation analysis, with manu- in good working condition. al or computerized control charts, to detect irregular variations in a Process manufacturing: The manufacture of products such as chemi- process as quickly as possible. Often, SPC charts display upper and cals, gasoline, beverages, and food products that typically are produced lower limits for part characteristics or process parameters and show in "batch" quantities rather than discrete units. Many process operations trends over time, indicating when the limits are exceeded (or are about require inputs such as heat, pressure, and time (for thermal or chemical to be exceeded) and corrective actions are needed. In some closed- conversion). Such products typically are measured by weight, volume, loop systems, adjustments are made automatically when readings indi- or length rather than by distinct numeric quantities. cate that a control limit is being approached. Product data management (PDM): Software-based systems that link, Supplier JIT deliveries: See "JIT delivery." manage, and organize product-related data from various sources : both Total quality management (TQM): A multifaceted, company-wide internally and externally (from suppliers)—across various computer approach to improving all aspects of quality and customer satisfaction- platforms, divisions, departments, and geographic locations. PDM including fast response and service, as well as product quality. TQM incorporates CAD files, manufacturing data, and documents to reduce begins with top management and diffuses responsibility to all employ- engineering design times; ensures timely access to consistent up-to- ees and managers who can have an impact on quality and customer date product information; and improves information flow, cross-func- satisfaction. It uses a variety of quality tools such as QFD, Taguchi tional communications, and support services. methods, SPC, corrective-action response teams, cause-and-effect Productivity: The primary definition here is annual dollar value of ship- analysis, problem-solving methodologies, and fail-safing (or "poka-yoke" ments per employee. methods). Pull system: A system for controlling work flow and priorities whereby Work-in-process inventory (WIP): The amount or value of all materials, the processes needing materials (or attention) draw them from the feed- components, and subassemblies representing partially completed pro- ing processes or storage areas as needed, typically using "kanban" duction; anything between the raw material/purchased component signals—in contrast to "push" systems in which material is processed, stage and finished-goods stage. then pushed to the next stage whether or not it is really needed. WIP turn rate: A measure of the speed at which work-in-process moves Quick-changeover techniques: A variety of techniques, such as SMED through a plant. Typically calculated by dividing the annual cost of (single-minute exchange of dies), which reduce equipment setup time goods sold (for the most recent full year) by the average on-hand WIP and permit more frequent setups, thus improving flexibility and reducing value at plant cost. lot sizes and manufacturing cycle times. -class manufacturer: A somewhat arbitrary designation that can QS 9000: A common quality certification program for auto industry sup- be supported by performance results related to various manufacturing pliers. Developed by the Big Three automakers, it includes ISO 9000 as metrics. (World-class metrics may vary from one industry to another.) a baseline. Typically, it denotes "best in class" producers on a worldwide basis. In Raw-materials turn rate: A measure of asset management that typical- the broadest sense, world-class manufacturers are those perceived to ly is calculated by dividing the annual cost of goods sold (for the most deliver the greatest value at a given price level. recent full year) by the average on-hand raw-material value at plant cost. Plant cost includes material, labor, and plant overhead. Real-time feedback: Instantaneous (or nearly instantaneous) communi- cation of electronically captured data (typically quality data) to process operators or equipment to enable rapid or automated adjustments to keep production processes operating within quality parameters. Safety-improvement programs: Practices intended to constantly improve safety within a plant or across a company, including, but not limited to, safety teams, safety awareness programs and communica-

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