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Oases in the Sahara Desert – Linking Biological and Cultural Diversity

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Oases in the Sahara Desert – Linking Biological and Cultural Diversity 1Oases in the Sahara Desert – Linking Biological and Cultural Diversity 2Laura Tydecks1,2, Jonathan M. Jeschke1,2,3, Christiane Zarfl4, Katrin Böhning-Gaese5, Brigitta Schütt2, 3Vanessa Bremerich1, Klement Tockner6,7,* 4 1 – Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries. Berlin 12587, Germany. 5 2 – Freie Universität Berlin. Berlin 14195, Germany. 6 3 – Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), 14195 Berlin, 7 Germany. 8 4 – Center for Applied Geosciences, Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Hölderlinstr 12, 9 72074 Tübingen, Germany. 10 5 – Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F). 60325 Frankfurt (Main), 11 Germany and Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute for Ecology, Evolution & Diversity, 12 Biologicum. 60439 Frankfurt (Main), Germany. 13 6– Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung. 60325 Frankfurt (Main) 14 7– Faculty for Biological Sciences, Goethe Universität Frankfurt. 60439 Frankfurt (Main), 15 Germany. 16 17 18*Correspondence author: 19Klement Tockner: [email protected] 20 21 22 1 1 2 23Abstract 24The diversity of life sensu lato comprises both biological and cultural diversity, described as 25“biocultural diversity”. Similar to plant and animal species, cultures and languages are threatened by 26extinction, too. Since drylands are pivotal systems for nature and people alike, we use oases in the 27Sahara Desert as model systems for examining patterns and trends of biocultural diversity. We 28identify both the underlying drivers of diversity and the potential proxies that are fundamental to 29understand reciprocal linkages between biological and cultural diversity in oases. In the case of oases 30in Algeria, we test current indices describing and quantifying biocultural diversity, and identify their 31limitations. Finally, we discuss follow-up research questions to better understand the underlying 32mechanisms that control the coupling and decoupling of biological and cultural diversity in oases. 33Keywords 34Africa, biocultural diversity, biodiversity, conservation, oases, drylands, global change 35Introduction 36Since the last 20 years, it has been broadly discussed that the diversity of life comprises both 37biological and cultural diversity (Maffi, 2018, and references therein). Cultural diversity is tightly 38related to the resilience of social systems, while biological diversity is pivotal for the resilience of 39natural systems (Pretty et al., 2009), and vice versa. Many peoples hold in-depth knowledge about 40species requirements and ecosystem dynamics (UNESCO & UNEP, 2002; Pretty et al., 2009); 41therefore, their knowledge is seen as a cultural insurance for biodiversity, supporting the sustainable 42management of natural resources (Pretty et al., 2009). At the same time, natural resources are the 43basis for the formation of human societies and civilizations, supporting the development of manifold 44cultures and languages (UNESCO & UNEP, 2002). Similarly to genes, species and ecosystems, cultures 45and languages undergo cycles of formation, expansion, transformation and extinction. Cultural 46extinction is particularly common in regions where ecosystems are degrading and people 47marginalized by globalization (de Groot & Ramakrishnan, 2005). Hence, a conservation approach 48integrating both biological and cultural diversity is urgently needed, as already postulated by global 49organizations such as UNESCO and UNEP (UNESCO & UNEP, 2002; MEA, 2005). 50 The co-evolution of biological and cultural systems has been examined from various points of 51view. For example, the concept of gene-culture co-evolution means that organisms, particularly 52humans and other key ecosystem engineers (Jones et al., 1994) shape their environment, but also 53drive evolutionary processes (Laland et al., 2010). Indeed, cultural processes may cause genetic 54adaptations such as the development of lactose-tolerance through the inception of farming (Laland 55et al., 2010). Also, urbanization affects the behaviour of organisms (Grimm et al., 2015). Birds, for 3 2 4 56example, may shift from migratory to sedentary behaviour (Partecke & Gwinner, 2007), and artificial 57light at night may reduce the foraging activity of selected bat species despite high food availability 58(Kuijper et al., 2008). 59 The biocultural diversity approach encompasses the linkages between biological and cultural 60diversity, examines whether cultural diversity exhibits patterns and processes similar to biological 61diversity, and focuses on the co-evolution between human populations and natural plant and animal 62assemblages (Posey, 1999; Collard & Foley, 2002; Clark, 2004; Elands et al., 2015; Buizer et al., 2016). 63Originally, the concept of biocultural diversity focused on traditional and indigenous human societies 64– particularly in developing countries, and their role in conservation (Buizer et al., 2016). Today, it 65also includes the concept of biocultural creativity in urban contexts, e.g. the formation of novel 66biodiversity due to agriculture and cultural activities (Elands et al., 2015; Buizer et al., 2016). The 67methods to describe biocultural diversity are still in its infancy and often applied on a country level 68(e.g. the Index of Biocultural Diversity by Loh & Harmon, 2005). 69 Drylands are home to unique farming systems, diverse nomadic cultures and a quarter of all 70languages globally (Safriel et al., 2005; Stafford Smith et al., 2009). Oases play a fundamental role in 71drylands: they form distinct locations of tight interactions between humans and nature (Li et al., 722007; Qi et al., 2007) and thus create and maintain biological (Zhang et al., 2012) and cultural 73diversity. Further, they often contain a unique agro-biodiversity (Allam & Cheloufi, 2012) and are 74described as “in situ conservation centers for ancient germplasm” (Buerkert et al., 2009). 75Consequently, this unique agro-biodiversity facilitates biocultural creativity. At the same time, oases 76exhibit a long history of human civilization, forming pivotal stepping stones along trade-routes and 77supporting social and economic innovations (Zhang et al., 2012). They thereby bridge economies and 78cultures across geographic and political boundaries (e.g. the Silk Road in western China; Zhang et al., 792012). 80 Due to their characteristics, oases can be considered as ideal model systems for the 81investigation of drivers of biocultural diversity. Saharan oases show distinct gradients in size, human 82population density and connectivity. At the same time, the Sahara Desert, encompassing different 83countries, exhibits a distinct environmental development (e.g. changing climatic conditions). Thus, 84the status of biocultural diversity of oases in the Sahara may provide key insights into the underlying 85mechanisms controlling patterns and changes in biocultural diversity. 86 In the present paper, we discuss – from a natural scientific perspective – potential linkages 87between biological and cultural diversity by identifying relevant drivers and proxies, using oases in 88the Sahara Desert as model systems. In the first part, we provide a general definition of oases, 89propose a biocultural concept for oases in the Sahara Desert and discuss the underlying drivers, and 90the potential proxies, of changing biological and cultural diversity. In the second part, we examine 5 3 6 91Algerian oases as a case study in more detail to partly test our conceptual framework and investigate 92the biocultural diversity of the oases by referring to and adapting existing methods. Finally, we 93identify follow-up research questions to advance our understanding of the mechanisms that control 94the coupling and decoupling of biological and cultural diversity in oases. 95Oases in the Sahara Desert 96In deserts, groundwater is recharged by erratic rainfall mostly occurring hundreds of kilometres 97away. In addition, most Saharan groundwater resources are fossil (Ward, 2009). Springs carry this 98fossil ground water to the surface, are forming and feeding oases (Faure et al., 2002; Selmi & 99Boulinier, 2009) and determine their distribution and development in space and time (Kamel, 2013). 100 The dependency on (fossil) groundwater often creates a clustered distribution of oases – 101similar to an archipelago. Oases appear along geological features such as escarpment ridges and fault 102lines (e.g. Suegedim-Dirkou-Bilma/Niger), foothills and wadi riverbeds, where groundwater reservoirs 103accumulate close to the surface. Fault oases are formed and fed by springs, where groundwater hits 104an impermeable rock at a fault and ascends to the surface by hydraulic pressure. Basin oases, on the 105other hand, typically lie in depressions fed by groundwater flows from the surrounding uplands 106(Ward, 2009). Due to their endorheic character, they may form playa (i.e. dry) lake systems under the 107prevailing arid conditions, locally fed by ephemeral streams (Faure et al., 2002). 108 Based on an extensive literature review – including scientific literature, project reports, maps 109and information derived from sources of international organizations (e.g. UNESCO) – we identified 110oases and oasis groups in countries located in the Sahara Desert: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, 111Egypt, Sudan, Chad, Niger, Mali and Mauretania (Fig. 1, Table S1). However, the information available 112for oases in the Sahara Desert is highly variable: While we were able to gather detailed information 113on oases in Tunisia and Mauretania,
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