UNRAVELLING the WORKINGS of PLANET EARTH SCIENCE PLAN for 2014–2019 Edited by Horsfield, B., Knebel, C., Ludden, J

INTERNATIONAL CONTINENTAL SCIENTIFIC DRILLING PROGRAM

UNRAVELLING THE COMPLEXITIES UNRAVELLING OF PLANET EARTH THE WORKINGS OF PLANETSCIENCE EARTHPLAN FOR 2014–2019 SCIENCE PLAN FOR 2014–2019

We invite you to think about why Earth Science matters, and the often surprising ways in which it affects our lives.

UNRAVELLING THE WORKINGS OF PLANET EARTH SCIENCE PLAN FOR 2014–2019 edited by Horsfield, B., Knebel, C., Ludden, J. and Hyndman, R. 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ICDP

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Earth science goals The programme Modern earth science has two basic ICDP boasts a strong and active partici- Through the unique goals: seeking to unravel the histori- pation of twenty-two member nations. capacities of scientific cal archives that are locked up in rocks It has undertaken more than 30 drilling drilling to provide formed over the entire history of the projects and run 75 workshops. Its cur- exact, fundamental, Earth, and understanding the structure rent budget of $3.5 million a year is a and dynamics of the active planet on small fraction of that of the Internation- and globally significant which we live. To realise both goals sci- al Ocean Discovery Program ( IODP ) or knowledge of the entific drilling is essential: it uncovers other large earth science infrastructure composition, structure, rock archives containing the records of projects. ICDP—already lean and mean and processes of the tectonic, climatic and biological cycles, with a minimum of bureaucracy—is Earth’s crust. and impacts from extraterrestrial bod- making important ongoing changes to ies, from the present day, back into its operations to build an even stronger deep time. Targeted scientific drilling technical base and reshaping its man- allows us to sample, measure and moni- agement structure to be more effective. tor the Earth to help develop sustain- Networking with other major earth sci- able resources. Drillhole observatories ence programmes is being strengthened, give key insights into Earth’s internal and bridges with the private and gov- dynamic activities, such as fluctuations ernment sector built, thus strengthening in heat and the magnetic fields or earth- ICDP’s economic and societal portfolio. quakes and volcanoes. The spectrum It would be impossible to undertake ICDP has a broad portfolio centred on modern earth science research with- scientific drilling. Firstly, it provides a out scientific drilling. The International strategy for successful science deliv- Continental Scientific Drilling Program ery by funding workshops, leading and ( ICDP ) has played a primary role over supporting technological innovation, the past two decades, uncovering geo- conducting outreach and teaching pro- logical secrets from beneath the conti- grammes and actively cooperating with nents. It has enabled first-class science programmes such as IODP. It provides to be pursued, numerous targets to be co-funding for coring as well as exper- probed and hypotheses to be tested, tise and advice on all matters technical with the result that fundamental dis- and logistical. It offers technological coveries about ‘System Earth’ have been support for geophysical logging and data made, often bringing important socio- management. ICDP is able to mobilise economic benefits. multiple drilling platforms in diverse 5 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ICDP

environments: from lake sediment drill- understanding spatial and temporal ing for records of climate change over variability, and the interconnectivity of the past thousands of years, to special systems. This is an organisational chal- technology for drilling into high-tem- lenge facing all drilling organisations. perature hydrothermal systems and micro-sampling for fluids using steri- The science plan lised drill-core sampling systems. Public This document, the third ICDP Science outreach and teaching are strong com- Plan, came about by engaging the inter- ponents of ICDP's profile, and is being national science community around the We cordially invite you expanded further. ICDP is making theme of ‘Unravelling the workings of to read this White Paper. significant difference in educating the Planet Earth’. It lays out some of the big You will discover why public about our subsurface, providing questions that confront the earth sci- earth science matters, confidence that we know enough about ences and suggests ways to answer them the upper kilometres in order to provide that can be achieved by scientific drill- and uncover the many resilient solutions to infrastructure and ing. Some of these questions are funda- surprising ways in resource development. A strong edu- mental, for instance, the origin of life which it affects your cation programme will inspire young on Earth, whereas others use the past everyday life. people and help create the next genera- history of the Earth to imagine what a tion of scientists who will be needed to future Earth might look like. Some drill- specialise in geology, geophysics, geo ing applications are highly specialised, chemistry and geomicrobiology. such as that for developing sensor networks in underground observatories to Process scales monitor earthquakes and volcanoes, the Scientific drilling must deal with the latter underpinning geothermal energy Earth's fundamental processes that production. To varying extents, these work on timescales from microseconds, scientific programmes have objectives exemplified by stress transfer during that are shared with the energy, water, a fault rupturing, to hundreds of mil- insurance, mining and other industries, lions of years for plate tectonic cycles. and with many government objectives, The same is true of length, breadth and but ICDP is firmly directed as a research depth, from sub-micron bio-films and enabler focused on cutting edge science mineral defects, to thousands of kilo- questions and innovations. metres in fault movements, basin-filling The main themes in this document are: and mountain-building processes. The • active faults and earthquakes interconnectivity of processes, including • heat and mass transfer feedbacks, amplifications and degrees • global cycles, and of organisation between them, is stag- • the hidden biosphere geringly complex, involving chemical, • cataclysmic events physical and biological components. These will underpin societal challenges in: Scientific drilling has made many fun- • water quality and availability damental discoveries with individu- • climate and ecosystem evolution al drill holes, but the coordination of • energy and mineral resources and targeted activities is a key element in • natural hazards.

7 CONTENTS ICDP

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 4 ICDP—WHO WE ARE AND WHAT WE DO ...... 8 QUO VADIS, ICDP ? ...... 10 CONFERENCE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 11 CHALLENGES FOR SCIENCE AND SOCIETY ...... 12 SCIENTIFIC DRILLING ...... 14 MORE THAN SIMPLY DRILLING HOLES—A STRATEGY FOR SUCCESS 16 PREAMBLE ...... 18

PAVING THE WAY FORWARD—THE SCIENCE PLAN

ACTIVE FAULTS AND EARTHQUAKES ...... 24 GLOBAL CYCLES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ...... 32 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER ...... 42 THE UBIQUITOUS HIDDEN BIOSPHERE ...... 56 CATACLYSMIC EVENTS —IMPACT CRATERS AND PROCESSES ...... 66

LINKS WITH OTHER ORGANISATIONS ...... 74 ROLE OF INDUSTRY...... 78 EDUCATION AND OUTREACH ...... 80 EPILOGUE—ICDP IN ACTION ...... 86 8 ICDP—WHO WE ARE AND WHAT WE DO ICDP

ICDP —WHO WE ARE AND WHAT WE DO

Figure 1. ICDP’s commingled funding principle.

Our mission the drilling programme itself, and not ICDP is the international platform for for the scientific investigations that fol- scientific research drilling in continents. low. Commingled funding is the name Founded in 1996 at GFZ in Potsdam, of the game—we encourage and assist Germany, its mission is to explore the the scientists in gathering funding, but Earth’s subsurface so that its structure do not take on full financial sponsor- and workings are unfolded. ship. A key element provided by ICDP in addition to financial support, is oper- What we provide ational support—the sharing of tech- ICDP is an infrastructure for scientific nical and logistical know-how and the drilling. It provides financial and logis- provision of operational personnel and tical assistance for leading international equipment is critical to scientific drill- teams of earth scientists to investigate ing organisations. ICDP is an enabler, sites of global geological significance. committed to putting excellent scientific The financial assistance on offer is for ideas into best practice. 9 ICDP—WHO WE ARE AND WHAT WE DO ICDP

The base The science plan ICDP brings together scientists and ICDP is not a science funding body but funding agencies from 22 nations will try to lay out the key research chal- and one international organisation lenges in the coming years by commis- ( UNESCO ) to work together at the sioning a science plan. This plan acts as a highest scientific and technical level to roadmap for the international earth sci- collectively grant funding and imple- ence community and at the same time ment logistical support. More than 30 serves as a docking station for national drilling projects and 75 planning work- funding initiatives. This White Paper, shops have been supported to date. ‘Unravelling the workings of Planet The programme has an average annual Earth’, is a strategy document laying budget of $3.5 million from member- out the major scientific challenges that ship contributions. may be addressed by continental scientific drilling for the period 2014-2019. Benefits It is the third for ICDP: the first was What are the benefits of the programme published shortly after the foundation of for its international sponsors? To secure the program in 1996 by M. D. Zoback Figure 2. ICDP at the COSC drill site, Sweden. ICDP funding, all projects must fulfil and R. Emmermann, entitled ‘Inter- rigorous selection criteria, one of which national Continental Scientific Drill- is addressing modern societal challenging Program’ and in 2007 the second es, be it the protection against natural ‘Continental Scientific Drilling, A dec- disasters (‘natural hazards’), unravelling ade of Progress, and Challenges for the past climate change ( ‘climate and eco- Future’ by U. Harms, C. Koeberl and systems’ ), or serving an ever-growing M. D. Zoback. In parallel to the cur- population with natural resources ( ‘sus- rent science plan is a special issue of the tainable georesources’ ). ICDP projects International Journal of Earth Sciences always have this element of added value. that provides a snapshot of the scientific investigations currently underway that are directly tied with drilling investigations. 10 QUO VADIS, ICDP ? ICDP

QUO VADIS, ICDP ?

Figure 3. On-site participants, ICDP Science Conference 2013

The ICDP science conference ‘Imag- The conference’s aim was to debate ing the Past to Imagine our Future’, the way forward for ICDP over the was convened in Potsdam, Germany, next five years. The science plan 11–14 November, 2013. One hundred took shape by dovetailing scientific and sixty-four invited attendees from goals with societal (socio-economic) 29 countries took part on-site—from challenges. The conference was also early career dynamos to acknowledged used to strengthen and expand ties experts—representing the full palette among member countries, consider of earth science disciplines, with many how to best incorporate industry inter- more participating via live streaming ests into ICDP (a science-driven organ- from the geoscience world at large. isation). There also is the objective to instigate new measuress for a better gender balance in its panels and com- mittees. 11 CONFERENCE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ICDP

CONFERENCE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our sincere thanks go out to those who White Paper contributions have contributed their valuable time, Nicholas Arndt, boundless energy and creative ideas to Keir Becker, the conference and the White Paper. Marco Bohnhoff, Achim Brauer, Presenters, discussion leaders Philippe Claeys, Flavio Anselmetti, Andrew Cohen, Jean-Philipp Avouac, Georg Dresen, Keir Becker, William Ellsworth, Marco Bohnhoff, Guðmundur Ómar Friðleifsson, Figure 4. Scientists debating at the poster session. Eduardo de Mulder, Ulrich Harms, Donald Dingwell, Brian Horsfield, William Ellsworth, Hans-Wofgang Hubberten, Guðmundur Ómar Friðleifsson, Ernst Huenges, Ulrich Harms, Roy Hyndman, Steve Hickman, Jens Kallmeyer, Brian Horsfield, Tom Kieft, Roy Hyndman, Carola Knebel, Jens Kallmeyer, Christian Koeberl, Tom Kieft, Achim Kopf, Christian Koeberl, Ilmo Kukkonen, Ilmo Kukkonen, Ralf Littke, Steve Larter, John Ludden, Ralf Littke, Volker Lüders, John Ludden, Stefan Luthi, Stefan Luthi, Jim Mori, Jim Mori, Karsten Pedersen, John Shervais, Bernhard Prevedel, Lynn Soreghan, Judith Schicks, Jim Russell, Lynn Soreghan, Alexander van Geen, Joanna Thomas, Jim Whitcomb, Robert Trumbull, Thomas Wiersberg Jim Whitcomb, Thomas Wiersberg, Maarten de Wit 12 CHALLENGES FOR SCIENCE AND SOCIETY ICDP

CHALLENGES FOR SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Integrating the needs of science and Cycles society is a cornerstone of the new sci- Then there is climate change … We All in all, the workings ence plan … need to distinguish the change inflict- of planet Earth are ed by man, for instance by combusting far from understood; The challenge fossil fuels, from the natural cycles that a great many frontiers Preparation for and minimising the risk are part and parcel of Mother Earth. of natural disasters, supplying an ever Records of what has gone before in await modern-day growing world population with indus- Earth history are preserved in sedimen- explorers. Scientific trial raw materials, energy, clean water, tary rocks at surprisingly high resolu- drilling provides and addressing the threats posed by glo- tion, that help to unravel the puzzle. key insights into all of bal change; these are some of the fun- these processes. damental challenges facing mankind in The origins of life itself and the evolu- the 21st century. All of these challenges tion of species lie preserved in the sed- are inextricably linked with the work- imentary record awaiting discovery. ings of planet Earth, namely the chemical Unravelling the links among human reactions, physical movements and bio- habitat, climate and palaeogeography is logical interactions taking place within already underway. the solid Earth and at interfaces with the hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. The deep biosphere When we think of life on present-day Warning and preparation Earth, we think of the diversity that is Events such as earthquakes dramati- displayed in rain forests and oceans, and cally impinge upon our lives in seconds, in the types of micro-organisms (want- minutes and hours, but the root cause ed and unwanted) which live in and is a build-up of stress over thousands amongst us. Intriguingly, there also is a of years deep within the crust, often at biosphere within the pores and cracks of distant locations. Predicting exactly rocks (recognised so far to about 2 km) where and when such natural hazards that is roughly the same size as the bio- will occur is a daunting task, but key sphere we know and love. We are only advances have already been made by just beginning to understand how this monitoring the stress and strain and deep biosphere is involved in the natural fluid flow in the Earth’s subsurface using cycling of elements, and exploring the sensitive instrumentation, and by issu- ways in which we can understand and ing early warnings via integrated earth put this underground system to good science infrastructure. use. THE EARTH BENEATH OUR FEET— THE DARK UNDERGROUND

Brian Horsfield GFZ—German Research Centre for Geosciences, Germany

We think we know our planet, the underworld and to verify our models ‘We want to bring Earth. Detailed maps, aerial pictures of Earth is to recover samples from scientific drilling on and satellite images give us the im- depths and to obtain data in the dyna continents within pression—albeit false—that no place mic downs. the reach of every on our planet remains unexplored. But who knows what it is like within Drilling is an expensive proposition member of the earth the earth beneath our feet and how that rarely a single country can afford science community.’ can we gain information about this? due to the enormous costs associated with the logistics. How can researchers Geologists study every road cut, justify such costs to a funding agency, where machines and dynamite have if the results are merely scientific and exposed the layers of rock normally do not gush out a wealth of resources? hidden beneath soil and vegetation. This is exactly where ICDP comes Geophysicists use seismic rays and in. The goal of this programme is to electromagnetic waves to figuratively encourage earth scientists considering peel away the layers of the earth. drilling as a tool for their research Geochemists study the rocks which and to make drilling the reality check they believe were once part of the for the models and ideas developed. interior of the earth. But the plethora of information gathered by all these The scientific focus of ICDP for the means leads at best to models and forthcoming years is laid out in this hypotheses about the Earth’s interior. White Paper to serve as a guideline for The best way to enlighten the obscure continental scientific drilling.

Figure 5. 3 D structural model of the Central European Basin System. 14 SCIENTIFIC DRILLING ICDP

SCIENTIFIC DRILLING

Figure 6. The build-up of stress.

Scientific drilling is an indispensa- ICDP is not alone in conducting sci- ble and unique tool for exploring and entific drilling on a global scale. We are unraveling the myriad natural and building stronger links between the ter- anthropogenic processes that are part restrial ( ICDP ) and marine ( IODP ) and parcel of ‘System Earth’. The pre- realms for the development of con- cious relicts and living systems it concerted actions, extending from involve- tains need to be probed, collected, mon- ment in respective science plan defini- itored and analysed at key sites around tion, through individual project design, the globe. to the joint publication of the magazine 15 SCIENTIFIC DRILLING ICDP

Scientific Drilling. There are further links with ANDRILL, whose focus is the Antarctic, and the Deep Carbon Observatory, which studies the deep carbon cycle, are also under development. The pooling and coordinating of our respective actions, whether it be on land, sea or ice, is impera- tive. The White Paper revisits these issues.

Scientific drilling has objectives that are broadly shared with the oil and Figure 7. Drill bits at the Alpine Fault drill site, New Zealand gas, water, insurance, mining and other industries. All are seeking to better understand the workings of ‘System Earth’. In the commercial world the objectives are to secure new resources, exploit known ones, and minimise risk associated with natural hazards and resource development. Scientific drilling remains science-driven, seeking to understand the chemistry, physics and biology in time-space coordinates. It makes sense to explore areas of common interest with industry, for example selected data and sample acquisition. When managed astutely, pure and applied research go hand in hand to achieve common objectives. The White Paper considers these issues. 16 MORE THAN SIMPLY DRILLING HOLES—A STRATEGY FOR SUCCESS ICDP

MORE THAN SIMPLY DRILLING HOLES —A STRATEGY FOR SUCCESS

Scientific drilling relies heavily on lead- • Provide operational support for ing edge technology. But it is way more drilling activities, downhole logging than that. The ICDP portfolio covers tools, and sample- and data- finances, logistics and operational sup- management software systems. port, and all with minimal administra- • To ensure appropriate monitoring tive and bureaucratic fuss. Here is a of the programme and accountability list of tasks and challenges that are part to sponsors in terms of scientific and parcel of that portfolio: effectiveness and financial efficiency; • Identify world class drilling • Ensure effective application sites to probe geological targets and dissemination of the results. Also of global significance. to inspire young scientists. ICDP • Fund workshops to assemble the best makes substantial effort to encourage science teams, define scientific earth science education and facilitate objectives and mesh scientific ideas knowledge transfer. with practical drilling concepts. • Provide accountability for sponsors We are striving to improve upon the for the programme as a whole, way we do business by ensuring that in terms of scientific effectiveness each task is conducted efficiently and and financial efficiency. effectively. The closing chapter of • Arrange commingled funding this White Paper looks into how the concepts for the effective planning, organisation can be managed better. implementation and execution of a viable strategic programme which meets scientific objectives of socio-economic relevance. • Identify sites for international cooperation in scientific drilling, and thus to provide cost effective means of answering key scientific questions, in close collaboration with other scientific drilling organisations. • Ensure that appropriate pre-site surveys are carried out at an early stage in planning, including required permits, environmental and local social issues. 17 ICDP

Modern technology for scienti c drilling: the basic elements

Geophysical pre-site surveys are needed to map out the lay of the land. This means accurate target deﬁnition as well as avoiding potential drilling hazards such as unstable rock formations.

Blowout preventers are used to control the ﬂuid and gas pressure inside the well. They consist of several valves to close the well if overpressure occurs.

Steel casing, cemented into place, is used to seal the borehole along its length. Large diameters are used at shallow depths, and succeeded by casing of progressively lower diameter at depth. That way unstable zones can be stabilised and diﬀerent ﬂuid horizons can be isolated (e.g. groundwater from salt water).

Active control systems behind the bit help to ensure exact vertical drilling. Thereby friction between the drill string and the borehole wall can be minimised and the borehole wall stays stable.

The drilling mud serves many purposes. It discharges cuttings from the bit to the surface and stabilises the borehole. It also constantly cools the drill bit, reduces friction, Cement drives the downhole motor, and balances diﬀerences in pressure. The drilling mud must therefore be monitored and its chemistry and rheology adjusted continuously.

Borehole measurements and tests help to characterise rocks and, fluids, thereby maximising safety. ICDP projects address a whole host of geological targets from deep to shallow, from tectoni- cally simple to complex, and under very different pressure and temperature conditions. Controlled drilled horizontal wells with up to 10 km of deviation and multiple re-entry protocols allow access to Modern technology ensures all these targets distant formations. When drilled along the bedding of a can be reached, even if they lie at 12 km depth! formation, gas and crude oil production efficiency is enhanced. Having said that, costs rise exponentially with depth and degrees of difficulty, so detailed and careful planning is prerequisite.

Figure 8. Drilling scheme 18 THE SCIENCE PLAN—PREAMBLE ICDP

THE SCIENCE PLAN — PREAMBLE

Maarten de Wit Africa Earth Observatory Network, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

Earth processes proceed at variable of Earth and life systems: the connectiv- Unearthing palaeo- speeds, from steady and slow, to fast, ity between black smokers and ecosys- complexity through con- sometimes showing gradual change, tems; or that of global changes emerg- tinental scientific drilling sometimes sudden, and sometimes ing out of the atmospheric ‘symphony’ for the benefit of impinging catastrophically on ecosys- of fluctuating palaeotemperatures and tems. In rock systems these changes palaeo-gas concentrations, as recorded future generations. are recorded as stratigraphical inter- in ice cores. These, and similar discov- ference patterns that geoscientists con- eries forced a relatively rapid shift in vert with ever-greater precision into a focus from closed-system solid-Earth narrative full of complexity and sur- geodynamics to its symgeosis with the prises. We do not fully comprehend external gas–fluid envelope, the exo- the system (Ager, 1973; Rudwick, 2005; sphere. The solid Earth’s ‘leaky’ systems, Blackburn et al., 2013), but progress each evolve whilst interacting with each has been made: geoscience has self- other, recycling through non-linear, organised into earth systems science positive and negative, slow and fast, enabling more complex questions to be feedback reactions forced by seemingly addressed about systemic interdepend- unpredictable fluctuations in energy encies and connectivity of palaeo-proc- and mass exchange. But, this ubiquitous esses; about how oceans that opened connectivity is poorly understood. and closed affected palaeo-global cur- rents, climates, weathering, seawater Complex systems are comprised of chemistry, and biodiversity. And when many interactive parts with the abil- it became clear that such hyperconnec- ity to generate a new quality of collec- tivity is vulnerable to failure through tive behaviour through self-organisa- rapid external forces, such as extrater- tion (Prigogine, 1984; Odem, 1988; Bak, restrial impacts or large mantle plumes, 1996; Camazine et al., 2001; Ben-Jacobs, earth systems science suddenly stumbled 2002). Petrologists have long docu- into a new era of exploring Earth as a mented evolving patterns and phase complex interactive adaptive system. changes (solid–liquid–gas as a function of pressure, temperature and composi- Fundamental insights into how the tion) in mineral and rock systems at the Earth functions as a complex auto- edge of chaos (fluids). At such special catalytic and adaptive system emerged phase boundaries self-organisation is at the end of the 20th and early in spontaneously constituted, and further the 21st century, following exciting evi- complexity evolves through dissipative dence, for example, of the co-evolution processes. Scale-invariant earth systems 19 THE SCIENCE PLAN—PREAMBLE ICDP

Figure 9. Complexity word cloud somehow all appear to acquire the abil- maintains homeostasis through cause ity to hover between order and cha- and effect (Lovelock, 1972). Which sys- os. Ongoing ICDP projects which are tem dominates the Earth is still open to looking into the supercritical zones of debate, but can be tested with new high- hydrothermal and magmatic complexes resolution data and disruptive thinking. are already providing new and needy observational data to test for conditions Increasingly, ecosystem studies have of instability at mantle scales. Similarly, generated concepts that may apply to fast response drilling into fault zones all complex systems when appropriately can test for critical states in the crust. generalised with network models, energy, and information. High-fidelity strati- Self-organisation in natural systems graphical studies may recognise such emerges from a dynamic hierarchy of signals in geosystems too. The ICDP information. Self-organisation of earth community and their IODP colleagues systems reconnects its parts and proc- have unique opportunities to core dis- esses into new operating cycles through parate archives that overlap in time and evolving information between core, space to search for palaeo-connectivity mantle, crust, air, oceans, and life. No between earth systems, to reconstruct a model can yet account holistically for palaeo-interconnected world, and tease- such dynamic connectivity within natu- out local and global adaptive behaviour ral information systems (Toniazzo et al., of the past. Bringing together the obser- 2005). Some argue that the basis for this vations from time-overlapping cores is simply rooted in the second law of ther- retrieved from lakes, ice, speleothems, modynamics to maximise entropy pro- rocks and minerals, will lead to better duction unbeholding to cause and effect. understanding of palaeo-adaptive sys- Systems dissipate and reorganise, driven tems over deep time and add immense by simultaneous interactivity far from value to drilling projects. equilibrium (Kleidon and Lorenz, 2005). Others entertain the view that the entire The ability to compare overlapping planet is a self-organising system that sequences across the planet, at selected 20 THE SCIENCE PLAN—PREAMBLE ICDP

8 37 44 26 3 26 43 26 31 54 24 7 23 14 14 12 10 42 18 35 49 23 2 17 39 33 46 32 17 57 27 22 20 51 33 43 9 4 13 3 15 36 30 28 45 58 52 34 27 49 3 25 5 18 28 48 37 9 29 6 34 31 40 66 23 27 10 12 19 35 42 10 11 19 8 16 56 4 24 47 38 7 46 21 50 16 20 14 28 9 17 11 4 63 7 32 55 24 25 3 47 8 44 30 5 3 65 21 29 16 62 15 36 2 21 5 64 48 41 39 1 6 40 38 2 1 15 11 25 13 45 20 18 30 53 61

22 12 6

24 14 16 10 18 7 9, 11 4 10 17 19 20 8, 15 26, 29 1, 3, 5, 6 23 2 13,21 12 22 30 25 New proposals 27, 28

3, 12, 13, 17, 20, 24, 25, 26, 29, 37, 38, 40, 42, 43, 45, 47, 48 18 46 1 7 28 9, 10, 36 14 27 11 19 16, 31 2, 30 15, 39 22 8 23 33 49 5, 35 4, 6, 41, 44 34 32 21 Submitted proposals

2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 28, 32, 34, 36, 38, 41, 42, 47, 52, 54, 58, 65, 66 1, 15 12 13 8 6, 23, 60 37 26, 40 9 17, 35 22, 49 50 43 19 44 33, 21 61 27, 29 31, 51, 57 45 48 56, 14 59 Completed and ongoing 63 64

30, 39, 46, 53, 55, 62

precambrian phanerozoic Paleozoic Mesozoic Cenozoic Archean Proterozoic Cambrian Ordovician Silurian Devonian Carboniferous Permian Triassic Jurassic Cretaceous Paleogene Neogene Q 4000 2500 541 485 443 419 359 299 252 201 ~ 145 66 23 2.5 0

Figure 10. Decadal map of ICDP drill sites ( 2004–2014 ) showing locations of completed, planned and proposed continental drilling projects, together with their projected archival time-spans. Numbers along the chronostratigraphical timescale are in millions of years; note that out of a 145 sites, 52% of planned cores overlap within the most recent 2.6 million years [ Quaternary ( P=Pleistocene; H=Holocene ) ]; whilst 4% overlap within the earliest 1500 million years of earth history for which there is a preserved rock record ( modified from Soreghan and Cohen, 2013 ). 21 THE SCIENCE PLAN—PREAMBLE ICDP

lines of longitude across the equator to thinking to bridge the gap between the the poles provides tests for global chang- earth and social-system sciences. es. It can provide estimates of the amplification of system sensitivity caused by Today’s strongly connected global proc- positive feedbacks, to develop a general ess networks are highly interdepen set of algorithmic approaches for quanti- dent systems that we do not understand fying the way complex adaptive systems well (Helbing, 2013). These systems are interact with one another, and how they vulnerable to failure and can become get connected through nature’s incessant unstable at all scales even when external compulsion for self-organisation into shocks are absent. As the complexity of evolving patterns. In deeper time too, interactions in global networked palaeo- overlapping sequences from ancient cra- systems becomes better understood, we tons will likely link high-fidelity fluctu- may develop technologies to make the ations in biogeochemistry systems and anthropogenic systems manageable so early life. that fundamental redesign for future systems may become a reality. Understanding how complex self-organising systems respond to external We are at the threshold of new transdis- forcing is important, especially the ciplinary thinking about earth system emergence of feedbacks sometimes complexity, and there will be a long list passing ‘points of no return’ without of relevant questions that we must ask warning before approaching tipping of the cores from drilling programmes. points (‘catastrophic bifurcations’).There Inspection of the spatial and tempo- are now signs that tipping points can ral distribution of ICDP ’s archived and be predicted when critical thresholds anticipated drill-core (Figure 10) pro- are approaching, spatially as well as vides powerful argument for construc- temporally (Rietker et al., 2004; Scheffer tive engagement and efficient design et al., 2009; Carpenter et al., 2011; of time-overlapping coring across the Carpenter, 2013; Dai et al., 2013). globe through collaborative drilling projects to chart the connectomics of With more deep-spatial and deep-time our planet from core to space; and from data it may become possible then to the past into the future. make more robust predictions about a future Earth to strengthen cohesion with Acknowledgements socio-economic and political systems, and to develop a greater planetary cul- I have benefited greatly from 10 years ture to combat looming crisis (Morin interactive discourse on the ICDP Sci- and Kern, 1999; Hansen et al., 2013). ence Advisory Group, under the leader- New endeavours like earth stewardship ship of Stephen Hickman, who can create science can collate the required criti- order out of any chaos. I am grateful to cal knowledge to stimulate self-organ- ICDP for their facilitating role and gen- ised paradigm shifts in transdisciplinary erous funding and to Bastien Linol for help with Figure 10. 22 THE SCIENCE PLAN—PREAMBLE ICDP

References

Ager, D. V.: The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record, Soreghan, G. S. and Cohen, A. S.: Scientific drilling and the Halsted (Wiley), New York, 114 pp. (3rd edition 1992, evolution of the earth system: climate, biota, biogeo- 151 pp.), 1973. chemistry and extreme systems, Scientific Drilling 16, Bak, P.: How Nature Works: The Science of Self-Organised 63–72, doi:10.5194/sd-16-63-2013, 2013. Criticality, New York, Copernicus, 1996. Toniazzo, T., Lenton, T. M., Cox, P. M., Gregory, J.: Entropy Ben-Jacobs, E.: When order comes naturally, Nature, 415, 370, and Gaia: is there a link between MEP and self- doi: 10.1038/415370a, 2002. regulation in the climate system? In: Non-equilibrium Blackburn, T. J., Olsen, P. E., Bowring, S. A., McLean, N. M., thermodynamics and the production of Enthropy Kent, D. V., Puffer, J., McHone, G., Rasbury, E. T., (Eds. Kleidon, A. and Lorenz, R. D.), Springer, Berlin, Mohammed Et-Touhami, T. M.: Zircon U-Pb Geo- 223 –241, 2005. chronology Links the End-Triassic Extinction with the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, Science, 340, 941–945, 2013. Camazine, S., Deneubourg, J.-L., Franks, N. R., Sneyd, J., Theraulaz, G., Bonabeau, E.: Self-Organisation in Biological Systems, Princeton University Press, 538 pp., 2001. Carpenter, S. R.: Complex systems: Spatial signatures of resilience, Nature 496, 308–309, doi:10.1038/nature12092, 2013. Carpenter, S. R., Cole, J. J., Pace, M. L., Batt, R., Brock, W. A., Cline, T., Coloso, J., Hodgson, J. R., Kitchell, J. F., Seekell, D. A., Smith, L., Weidel, B.: Early Warnings of Regime Shifts: A Whole-Ecosystem Experiment, Science, 322, 1079–1082, doi: 10.1126/science.1203672, 2011. Dai, L., Korolev, K. S., Gore, J.: Slower recovery in space before collapse of connected populations, Nature 496, 355–358, doi: 10.1038/nature12071, 2013. Hansen, J. et al.: Assessing “Dangerous Climate Change”: Required Reduction of Carbon Emissions to Protect Young People, Future Generations and Nature, PLOS One 8, 12, 1–26, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081648, 2013. Helbing, D.: Globally networked risks and how to respond, Nature 497, 51–59, doi:10.1038/nature12047, 2013. Kleidon, A., Lorenz, R. D.: Non-equilibrium thermodynamics and the production of entropy: Life, Earth, And Beyond (understanding Complex Systems), Springer, Berlin, 260 pp., 2005. Lovelock, J.E.: Gaia as seen through the atmosphere, Atmospheric Environment Vol. 6, Pergamon Press, 579-580, 1972. Morin, E. and Kern, A. B.: Homeland Earth: a Manifesto for the new Millenium. Advances in system theory, complexity and the human sciences, Hampton Press, Inc. NJ., 153 pp., 1999. Odem, H. T.: Self-Organisation, Transformity and Informa- tion, Science 242, 1132–1139, 1988. Prigogine, I.: Order out of Chaos, Toronto, Bantam Books, 1984. Rietkerk, M., Dekker, S. C., de Ruiter, P. C., van de Koppel, J.: Self-Organised Patchiness and Catastrophic Shifts in Ecosystems, Science 305, 1926–1929, 2004. Rudwick, M. J. S.: Bursting the Limits of Time—The recon- struction of Geohistory in the Age of Revolution, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 708 pp., 2005. Scheffer, M., Bascompte, J., Brock, W. A., Brovkin, V., Carpenter, S. R., Dakos, V., Held, H., van Nes, E. H., Rietkerk, M., Sugihara, G.: Early-warning signals for critical transitions, Nature 461, 53–59, 2009. PAVING THE WAY FORWARD —THE SCIENCE PLAN

ACTIVE FAULTS AND EARTHQUAKES GLOBAL CYCLES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER THE UBIQUITOUS HIDDEN BIOSPHERE CATACLYSMIC EVENTS —IMPACT CRATERS AND PROCESSES 24 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS ICDP

ACTIVE FAULTS AND EARTHQUAKES

Jim Mori Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan William Ellsworth U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, USA

Figure 11. An automobile crushed under the third story of an apartment building in the Marina District, San Francisco — the Loma Prieta earthquake in 1989, magnitude 6,9

Lay of the land takes time and is an ongoing endeavour. However, contributions to scien- A single earthquake and associated tsu- tific knowledge, as described in the fol- nami in a populated region can kill tens lowing sections, address critical issues of thousands of people and cause huge such as establishing occurrence rates of economic losses that are a significant severe events and evaluating the inten- percentage of the GDP of the strick- sity of the damaging ground shaking as en country. The developing countries needed for seismic zoning and emer- (the 2010 M7.0 Haiti earthquake killed gency measures planning. Also, drill- over 100,000 people) and technologi- ing projects draw public attention to the cally advanced countries (the M9.0 2011 seismic hazards of a region and can be Tohoku earthquake in Japan caused sev- the catalyst for effective education and eral hundred billion dollars of damage) outreach efforts. are all prone to these disasters. A few research boreholes drilled into active Earth tremors and earthquakes can be faults and equipped with monitoring induced; with the increasing production tools is not going to immediately reduce of shale gas and shale oil, the building the damage from earthquakes; this of reservoirs for hydroelectricity, and 25 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / ACTIVE FAULTS AND EARTHQUAKES ICDP

the pumping of fluids into underground We have begun to answer some of the storage areas, it is clear that the last dec- key questions raised 20 years ago when ade has seen a dramatic increase in the the first boreholes into fault zones were earthquakes associated with human being planned, and significant progress activities (e.g. Gupta, 2002; Ellsworth, has been made in answering these ques- 2013). A better understanding of conditions. tions and mechanisms of these seismic • Why are major plate-boundary events should lead to better-informed faults like the San Andreas Fault weak? policies for the regulation and operation • How do stress orientations and of a number of human activities. magnitudes vary across the fault zone? • What are the width and structure Past accomplishments in ICDP (geological and thermal) of the principal slip surface(s) at depth? During the last two decades, deep bore- • What are the mineralogies, defor- hole drilling into fault zones has opened mation mechanisms and frictional new fields of research for a better properties of the fault rocks? understanding of earthquake process- • How is energy partitioned within es. Land-based drilling projects on the the fault zone between seismic Nojma Fault Japan, (Ando et al., 2001), radiation, frictional heating, commi- San Andreas Fault, USA (Zoback et al., nution and other processes? 2011), Chelungpu Fault, Taiwan, (Ma et al., 2006), Wenchuan Earthquake Fault, Fundamental open questions (China, Li et al., 2012), Gulf of Corinth, Greece (Cornet et al., 2004), and Alpine In the next decade, future fault zone Figure 12. The complexity of real fault zones. Fault, New Zealand, (Toy et al., 2013a) projects will continue to improve our along with ocean drilling in subduc- understanding of the structure and tion zones of the Nankai Trough (Tob- processes of active faults which result in in et al., 2009), Japan Trench (Chester large earthquakes, by focusing on these et al., 2013), and Costa Rica (Vannuc- issues: chi et al., 2013), have obtained valuable • How do earthquakes nucleate? samples and measurements from active • How do they propagate? fault zones from depths reaching several • Why do they stop? kilometres. We have obtained a much • What controls the levels of ground better knowledge of the physical prop- motion during earthquakes? erties of active fault zones that produce • What controls the frequency and large damaging earthquakes. An impor- size of earthquakes tant result is recognition of the immense • How is fluid involved and how complexity observed in the fault zone does fault permeability vary during rocks, including their varied structur- earthquakes? al and chemical characteristics, along • How does stress magnitude with the associated fluid properties and orientation vary during the (Figure 12). earthquake cycle? 26 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / ACTIVE FAULTS AND EARTHQUAKES ICDP

Future scientific targets structure of fault zones, flow paths of fluids and the role chemical reactions of From discussion at the 2013 ICDP introduced waters play in modifying the Science Meeting, we have identified permeability structure. Permeabilities research areas that can be advanced can vary by orders of magnitude across through drilling projects and have the varying geological structures and have potential for producing critical new a strong effect on the frictional proper- results for understanding earthquakes. ties of the fault during large earthquakes (e.g. Tanikawa et al., 2013). Borehole Figure 13. Start of drilling at the GONAF location in Tuzla, Turkey Induced earthquakes studies of the fluid-flow and pressure It has been recently recognised that an transmission regimes may thus produce increasing number of earthquakes are important results. associated with human activities such as reservoir filling, mining, waste-water Borehole observatories injections, and CO2 sequestration. The last decade has seen a rapid increase Induced earthquakes of small to moder- in the development and installation of ate size have caused damage throughout borehole instrumentation on the San the world (e.g. 1967 Koyna, India; 2011 Andreas Fault (Zoback et al., 2011), Oklahoma; 2006 Basel, Switzerland). In Chelungpu Fault (Ma et al., 2012), North many of the documented cases in the lit- Anatolian Fault (Bohnhoff, 2013), and erature, variations in pore fluid pressure at various other locations around the are implicated as the primary physical world (Figure 16). These instruments mechanism that triggers earthquakes record a variety of types of data such (e.g. Gupta, 2002; Deichmann and Gia- as seismic waves, deformation and rdini, 2009; Ellsworth, 2013). Major tilt, temperature, and fluid pressure. questions remain about how fluid pres- Boreholes provide unique access into sure migrates through the Earth, and the nearfield region of the earthquake how ancient faults can be reactivated source and provide extremely low noise by this mechanism. Resolution of these conditions for observing the system, and other questions requires in-situ which is not attainable at the Earth’s sur- observations in boreholes in the source face. ICDP can play an important role regions of these earthquakes. ICDP can in coordination of instrument develop- play an important role in investigating ment among different groups and sup- the physical and chemical processes and port for deployment at important sites evaluating hazard implications of such on active seismic regions. human-induced seismic events. For example, little is known about the Role of fluids source mechanisms of low-frequency The importance of the effects of water earthquakes that may occur in more for both natural and induced earth- ductile regions of the crust. Borehole quakes has long been appreciated. observations of these and other types of However there is currently only limit- seismic and deformation events can lead ed information about the permeability to a better understanding of the wide 27 ICDP DOWNHOLE EARTH OBSERVATORY

Marco Bohnhoff, Georg Dresen GFZ—German Research Centre for Geosciences, Germany

High-resolution downhole research for decades, demonstrating band as well as GPS and strain meter seismic monitoring that the effort needed for implement- measurements. Microseismicity will In order to perform high-resolution ing permanent downhole monitoring be monitored at low magnitude-detec- seismic monitoring of critical faults systems pays off on the long term. tion threshold and with high precision overdue to generate large earth- not achievable with surface record- quakes, it is necessary to place The ICDP-GONAF project ings. Using the downhole observa- geophones in low-noise environments The North Anatolian Fault Zone in tions, the driving physical processes and as close as possible to the fault Turkey has produced several large along a transform fault segment, zone. Such conditions can be met only (M>7) earthquakes in the historic past which is in the final state of its seismic by drilling boreholes located close to leaving the Marmara Sea segment cycle, will be studied prior, during the target fault. Beginning in the late as the only part of the entire fault and after a large (M 7+) earthquake. 80s in the USA and Japan, borehole zone that has not generated a major Furthermore, the role of structural installations have been successfully earthquake since 1766. Currently, heterogeneities of the NAFZ below operated throughout the last decades. there is a high probability for a major the Sea of Marmara will be investi- Much experience has been gained earthquake less than 20 km from the gated for slip distribution, nucleation from these efforts, in particular from roughly 13 million people who live process, and magnitude of the pend- the local high-resolution seismic in Istanbul. In order to monitor this ing Marmara earthquake. network ( HRSN ) on the San Andreas critical part of the fault, a borehole Fault in California and the Hi-net in Geophysical Observatory at the North Drilling holes is more than just Japan. Such installations are still rare Anatolian Fault zone ( ICDP-GONAF collecting samples. Installation of sen- but have produced unique earth- project) has been initiated. GONAF sitive instruments in boreholes allows quake waveform recordings, provid- is a joint research venture between us to directly access the underground ing state-of-the-art seismological GFZ Potsdam and the Turkish Disaster where earthquakes nucleate. This and Emergency Presidency ( AFAD ) is the key for near-source earthquake in Ankara. When completed, it will monitoring providing the base for im- comprise an eight-station earthquake proved seismic risk and also resource downhole observatory, each equipped management. with vertical arrays of seismometers in 300 m deep boreholes on the main- land and on the Princes Islands being located within 3 km to the fault.

Key challenges The principal objectives of the GONAF project are to monitor micro- seismic activity and deformation processes in the broader Istanbul region using downhole seismic observations over the entire seismic frequency Figure 14. Recordings of the Tuzla earthquake swarm of 2013 28 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / ACTIVE FAULTS AND EARTHQUAKES ICDP

range of physical mechanisms for strain Deep mines also provide a natural labo- accumulation and release in the crust. ratory for studying failure mechanisms. They provide straightforward access to Experiments on core material the locus of deformation induced by and modeling mining and can be extensively instru- Laboratory analysis of rock, fluid and mented with seismic and deformation gas samples from active faults obtained instrumentation in the extreme near- from depth provide important infor- field of the process, such as in the South mation on the physical and chemical African goldmines (e.g. Ogasawara et al., Figure 15. Affected dam after the Jiji earthquake in 1999, Taiwan properties of fault deformation mech- 2013). anisms. These mechanisms span the range from continuous creep to sudden Another potential experiment uses slip in earthquakes (e.g. Ikari, 2013). The injection of water into a fault zone to rate dependence of friction and tempo- produce small earthquakes. An experi- ral evolution of fault-zone permeabil- ment of this type was done at Rangely, ity are just two of the important para- Colorado, USA more than 40 years ago metres that can only be obtained from when an array of boreholes into a fault direct sampling of faults in-situ. Under- zone were used to modulate the rate of standing of the physical and chemical earthquakes (Raleigh et al., 1976). This processes that lead to the development experiment verified the effective stress of the fault core where the great major- mechanism for triggering earthquakes ity of the sliding occurs and surrounding by modulating the pore fluid pressure damage zone requires the retrieval of a inside the fault. Today, critical questions broad suite of samples of fault rocks and remain about the feedback between fault fluids. Such physical data is especially movement and the enhancement of per- needed to constrain dynamic modeling meability within a fault as it moves in a of earthquake ruptures (Avouac et al., series of small earthquakes, or the con- 2013) trols on the magnitude of earthquakes induced by this mechanism. In-situ experiments To bridge the gap between simulated Geological records of tsunamis earthquakes in the laboratory (milli- and earthquakes metre to metre scale) and the kilometre Geologists are always seeking new dimensions of natural earthquakes, we methods for extending the record of need better knowledge about the behav- past earthquakes and other large cata- ior of materials for in-situ conditions. strophic events beyond the written his- Experiments at depth in real fault zones torical record. Coastal deposits from can study the conditions for producing large tsunamis (produced by earth- earthquakes using small displacements quakes, volcanic events, meteorite of the actual rock masses under natural impacts), as identified in borehole cores, stress and temperature conditions (e.g. can be used to gain a better knowledge Henry et al., 2013). of such events. Giant M earthquakes, such as the recent 2004 Sumatra, Indo- 29 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / ACTIVE FAULTS AND EARTHQUAKES ICDP

Tiberian Fault

S France Gulf of Corinth Aigion Fault Wenchuan Fault

San Andreas Fault SE Iberia N Anatolian Fault Nojima Fault

Chelungpu Fault Koyna dam

Fault zone drilling and borehole observatory South African Goldmine Borehole observatory In situ experiment Alpine Fault

Figure 16. Locations of continental fault-zone drilling projects, borehole observatories and in-situ experiments discussed in the Active Faults and Earthquake Processes session at the ICDP Science Conference.

nesia and 2011 Tohoku, Japan earth- Capture the complete quakes produced global-scale tsuna- earthquake cycle mis which can be studied using coastal Past drilling projects have investigated boreholes (e.g. Fujiwara, 2013). Also fault zones soon after the occurrence of records from regions that have very high a large earthquake (e.g. Chelungpu and sedimentation rates, such as glacial and Wenchuan), while others have studied lake deposits, can provide new opportu- physical characteristics of faults in vari- nities for extending earthquake histories ous stages of the earthquake cycle. In the (Toy et al., 2013b). future, we envision a large-scale project to make detailed subsurface observa- Deep processes and tectonics tions before, during and after a large In addition to providing detailed fault- earthquake. For such studies, it is essen- zone characterisations, observations tial to measure the physical state of the made in boreholes provide the only fault before the event and have in place a direct means for measuring the state of borehole that can rapidly be reoccupied stress in the Earth. Knowledge of the to observe the rapid temporal evolution orientation and magnitude of the stress of the fault immediately after a large field and its spatial variability may hold slip event. Clarifying time-dependent the key to understanding the variability changes in the physical and chemical in earthquake rupture and seismic wave properties should lead to important new radiation, as well as providing impor- insights for understanding the whole tant constraints on regional tectonic process of earthquake occurrence. processes and deeper mantle processes. 30 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / ACTIVE FAULTS AND EARTHQUAKES ICDP

Drilling issues Recommendations

Reaching the depths of the seismogenic 1. Studying earthquakes using drilling zone where earthquakes nucleate has provides unique opportunities for high- always been a challenge for fault-zone profile, high-scientific return investi- drilling projects. The maximum depth gations that hold the potential to revo- reached in a fault-zone drilling project lutionise our understanding of active was 3.0 km at SAFOD, although, for faulting and earthquake processes. comparison, exploratory oil and gas Figure 17. Two scientists holding a drill core that contains the Alpine Fault, New Zealand. wells have been drilled to over three 2. These questions are of high interest to times this depth. For core sampling, the public, so appropriate education and there is the desire to reach greater depths outreach efforts should be considered and pressures which may be more rep- from the planning stages. Furthermore, resentative of the overall fault condi- serious consideration should be given to tions of a large earthquake. Obtain- the practical applications of the scientif- ing fault zone cores from depths of ic results to seismic hazard evaluations 5 to 10 km will need new cost-effective and mitigation. techniques for deep drilling, including advanced techniques for better recovery 3. ICDP workshops should be intro- of the fragile fault zone. duced to discuss broader logistical and design issues common to all earth- For borehole observatories, such as the quake investigations, rather than just GONAF array along the North Ana- the development of specific drilling tolian Fault in Turkey (Bohnhoff et al., proposals. Possible topics that would 2013), more numerous sites with rela- be of interest to the scientific commu- tively shallow boreholes are needed to nity include technologies in borehole emplace seismometres, strainmetres and observatories, applications for seismic other instruments in competent rock at hazard assessment, and a roadmap for a depth of a few hundred metres. ICDP a coordinated global fault zone drilling could lead efforts to develop efficient programme. drilling and deployment strategies for such borehole installations.

Also, improved logging tools and new techniques for analysing cuttings are needed to optimise the information gained during the drilling. 31 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / ACTIVE FAULTS AND EARTHQUAKES ICDP

References

Ando, M.: Geological and geophysical studies of the Ogasawara, H., Kato, H., Hofmann, G., Roberts, D., Piper, P., Nojima fault from drilling: An outline of the Nojima Clements, T., Yabe, Y., Sakaguchi, K.: In-situ stress fault zone probe, Island Arc 10, 206–214, measurements to constrain stress and strength near doi:10.1111/j.1440-1738.2001.00349, 2001. seismic faults in deep level South African gold mines, Avouac, J-P., Barbot, S., Cubas, N., Lapusta, N.: Spatial varia- 6th Int. Symp. on In-Situ Rock Stress, 2013. tions of fault friction: Observations and implication Raleigh, C. B., Healy, J. H., Bredehoeft, J. D.: An experiment in for fault dynamics, ICDP Science Conference, Imaging earthquake control at Rangely, Colorado, Science 191, the Past to Imagine Our Future, 2013. 1230–1237, 1976. Bohnhoff, M., Dresen, G., Bulut, F., Rabu, C., Kadirioglu, F. T., Tanikawa, W., Hirose, T., Mukoyoshi, H., Tadai, O., Lin, W.: Kilic, T., Kartal, R., Nurlu, M., Malin, P., Ito, H.: GONF: A Fluid transport properties in sediments and their role borehole-based geophysical observatory at the North in large slip near the surface of the plate boundary Anatolian fault zone in NW Turkey, ICDP Science Con- fault in the Japan Trench, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 382, ference, Imaging the Past to Imagine Our Future, 2013. 150–160, 2013. Chester, F. M., Rowe, C., Ujiie, K., Kirkpatrick, J., Regalla, C., Tobin, H., Kinoshita, M., Ashi, J., Lallemant, S., Kimura, G., Remitti, F., Moore, J. C., Toy, V., Wolfson-Schwehr, M., Screaton, E., Kyaw, M., Masago, H., Curewitz, D.: IODP Bose, S., Kameda, J., Mori, J. J., Brodsky, E. E., Eguchi, Exp. 314/ 315/ 316 Scientific Party, NanTroSEIZE Stage 1 N., Toczko, S., Expedition 343 and 343T Scientists: Expeditions 314, 315, and 316: First drilling programme Structure and composition of the plate-boundary slip- of the Nankai Trough Seismogenic Zone Experiment, zone for the 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake, Science 342, Scientific Drilling 8, 4–17, 1208–1211, doi:10.1126/science.1243719, 2013. doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.8.01.2009, 2009. Cornet, F. H., Doan, M. L., Moretti, I., Borm, G.: Drilling Toy, V., Boulton, C., Sutherland, R., Townend, J.: Petrogenesis through the active Aigion fault: The AIG10 well ob- of Alpine Fault Zone rocks based on results of the servatory, Compi. Rendus Geosci. 336, 395–406, 2004. first phase of the Alpine Fault Drilling Project ( DFDP-1 ) Deichmann, N., Giardini, D.: Earthquakes induced by the at Gaunt Creek, South Westland, New Zealand, ICDP stimulation of an enhanced geothermal system below Science Conference, Imaging the Past to Imagine Our Basel (Switzerland), Seismol. Res. Lett. 80, 784–798, Future, 2013a. doi:10.1785/gssrl.80.5.784, 2009. Toy, V., Moy, C. M., Howarth, J.: Linking glacial and lake sedi- Ellsworth, W. L., Injection-Induced Earthquakes, Science 341, ment palaeoseismic records to fault zone properties on doi:10.1126/science.1225942, 2013. the southern Alpine fault, ICDP Science Conference, Fujiwara, O.: Geohazard (widespread catastrophic damage Imaging the Past to Imagine Our Future, 2013b. caused by mega tsunamis), ICDP Science Conference, Vannucchi, P., Ujiie, K., Stroncik, N.: IODP Exp. 334 Scientific Imaging the Past to Imagine Our Future, 2013. Party, Expedition 334: An investigation of the sedimen- Gupta, H. K.: Review of recent studies of triggered earth- tary record, fluid flow and state of stress on the top of quakes by artificial water reservoirs with special the seismogenic zone of an erosive subduction margin, emphasis on earthquakes in Koyna, India, Earth- Scientific Drilling 15, 23–30, Science Reviews 58, 279–310, 2002. doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.15.03.2013, 2013. Henry, P., Guglielmi, Y., Cappa, F.:Hydromechanical studies Zoback, M., Hickman, S., Ellsworth, W.: Scientific drilling into of the seismic source with the step-rate injections the San Andreas fault zone—An overview of SAFOD’s method for fracture in-situ properties ( SIMFIP ), first five years, Scientific Drilling 11, 14–28, ICDP Science Conference, Imaging the Past to Imagine doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.11.02.2011, 2011. Our Future, 2013. Ikari, M.: The mechanics of fault slip explored by laboratory experiments on drilling samples, ICDP Science Confer- ence, Imaging the Past to Imagine Our Future, 2013 Li, H., Wang, H., Xu, Z., Si, J., Pei, J., Li, T., Huang, Y., Song, S.-R., Kuo, L.-W., Sun, Z., Chevalier, M.-L., Liu, D.: Characteristics of the fault-related rocks, fault zones and the principal slip zone in the Wenchuan Earth- quake Fault Scientific Drilling Project Hole-1 (WFSD-1), Tectonophysics 584, 23–42, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2012.08.021, 2012. Ma, K. F, Tanaka, H., Song, S.-R., Wang, C.-Y., Hung, J.-H., Tsai, Y.-B., Mori, J., Song, Y.-F., Yeh, E.-C., Soh, W., Sone, H., Kuo, L.-W., Wu, H.-Y.: Slip zone and energetics of a large earthquake from the Taiwan Chelungpu-fault Drilling Project, Nature 444, 473–476, doi:10.1038/nature05253, 2006. Ma, K. F., Lin, Y. Y., Lee, S. J., Mori, J., Brodsky, E. E.: Iso- tropic events observed with a borehole array in the Chelungpu fault zone, Taiwan, Science 337, 459–463, doi:10.1126/science.1222119, 2012. 32 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS ICDP

GLOBAL CYCLES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE

Lynn Soreghan School of Geology & Geophysics, University of Oklahoma, Norman, USA Ralf Littke Institute of Geology and Geochemistry of Petroleum and Coal, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Figure 18. Windswept valleys in Northern Africa as seen from space

Lay of the land catastrophic (rapid) events such as those induced by meteorite impacts and large The Earth’s climate is presently changing volcanic eruptions. Drilling to obtain rapidly, requiring expensive adaptation climate records from the ocean and ice strategies in many parts of the world. caps has helped define global records on There is much data and many argu- how the Earth’s climate system responds ments that this change is largely human to elevated levels of atmospheric CO2 induced. There is therefore ample moti- and other atmospheric gases and pro- vation for pursuing questions on cli- vide data on how ice sheets and sea mate and environmental change. Doing levels respond to a warming climate. so requires understanding the controls ICDP has provided a key input to the on climate change. This in turn requires understanding of the climate system by understanding of the full dynamic range investigating regional patterns of pre- of climate history on the planet, at all cipitation, such as those associated with timescales (seasonal to billions of years), monsoons or El Niño, or regional chang- across key climate transitions. We must es in ocean circulation. The response of also document linked life responses to the continental climates as recorded in both gradually changing climate and lakes and other sediments has permit- EARTH CLIMATE

Achim Brauer, Markus Schwab GFZ—German Research Centre for Geosciences, Germany

A central aspect of the palaeoclimate in the ICDP Dead Sea Deep Drilling This opens new perspectives for the research concept is the assessment Project DSDDP provide high- identification of flood /erosion of regional responses to global resolution records of climatic vari- and dust deposition events in the changes and their variations in time ability in the eastern Mediterranean 450 m long sediment record from the as well as deciphering leads and lags region, which is considered, deep Dead Sea basin, which comprises between different regions. as is the entire Mediterranean region, the last two glacial–interglacial to be especially sensitive to changing cycles (approximately 220,000 years) Lakes can be viewed as a historical climatic conditions. The microfacies (Waldmann et al. 2010; Neugebauer rain gauge for the climate of a region analyses of sediment cores, et al. 2014). and in turn a sensitive recorder of identification of biogenic compo- the climate variability on continental nents, analyses of the geochemical In order to meet the research targets, regions. Since reconstructions composition as well as the identifica- geoscientists develop novel climate of climate, environment and magnetic tion of former earthquakes in proxies based on the composition field changes from natural archives palaeoseismites enable the better and structure of finely-layered strongly relies on robust timescales, understanding of past and future lake deposits. The aim is the integra- a key aspect of research is to establish changes of climate and environment tion of long climate time-series precise chronologies based on in this highly sensitive region from geo-archives and instrumental annual sediment layers (varves) and (Migowski et al. 2004; Neugebauer et data to evaluate current changes and volcanic tephrochronology. al. 2014). The results show that micro- in a comprehensive long-term context facies analysis is a valuable tool to and to better understand the drivers For example, varved lake sediments identify abrupt changes in conditions of change. from the Dead Sea basin drilled in which sediments were deposited.

high

lake level

low

Figure 19. Exemplary identification of the sedimentary facies and paleoclimatic interpretation ( lake levels ) on core images of the ICDP Dead Sea DSDDP core 5017-1. Glacial times characterised by higher lake levels in the Dead Sea basin. Interglacial times characterised by lower lake levels. 34 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / GLOBAL CYCLES EFFECTING CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ICDP

Figure 20. Drilling campaign at Lake Czechowskie, Poland ted this approach by ICDP, which is life response to environmental pertur- becoming an increasingly important bations. We need to establish the nature input to regional climate models. and scope of earth and environmental change in response to drivers, such as A major challenge is the integration of climate, in order to provide the bound- information derived from different ary conditions for engineers and policy- chemical, biological and physical prox- makers working to mitigate impacts and ies and sample types into a coherent hazards. The earth system responds to picture. For example changes in climate changing climate in complex ways far are recorded in changes in ecosystems, beyond changing weather. mass wasting, and sea level, all of which have interlinked feedback mechanisms. Past accomplishments in ICDP It is in the integration of information that ICDP shares strong links with A large portion of proposals to ICDP IODP and ice-coring programmes. from its beginning focused on palaeoenvironmental research mainly We are part of Earth’s biosphere, and addressing recovery of younger Qua- have become a major agent of change. ternary sediments and the condi- Yet our ability to effect change on a plan- tions under which they were deposited etary scale has rapidly outstripped our from large and mid-size lakes. Lake ability to grasp the implications of glo- Baikal was drilled from a frozen-in bal environmental change. It is neces- barge during the Siberian winter and sary to understand evolutionary history for the first time allowed continuous at a new level, using new approaches in core recovery from a large deep lake. some cases uniquely enabled by acquisi- The data gained from these samples tion of core data, in order to understand confirmed the great potential to record 35 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / GLOBAL CYCLES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ICDP

datable, continuous climate and envi- to the retreat of the West Antarctic Ice ronmental signals over long periods sheet implying strong interhemispheric (Williams et al., 2001). Several other climate connectivity. lakes around the globe promised valuable palaeoclimate records from short Deeper lakes in the Eastern Mediter- piston cores. However, until ICDP ranean required the replacement of and associated organisations, there the GLAD800 by the Deep Lake Drill- was no deep drilling tool available to ing System ( DLDS ) that was built and be deployed on other lakes at afford- operated by DOSECC and transferred able costs. Therefore ICDP, DOSECC to ICDP ownership in 2014. It served and the US National Science Founda- to recover samples from Lake Van in tion sponsored workshops and final- eastern Turkey, from the Dead Sea, and ly the design and construction of the from Lake Ohrid in Macedonia and GLAD800 (Global Lake Drilling to Albania reaching through almost 300 m 800 m). This was operated by DOSECC deep waters up to 550 m into the lacus- and successfully tested on Salt Lake and trine strata. The Lake Van (Litt et al., Bear Lake in Utah, Western USA (Col- 2012), Dead Sea (Stein et al., 2013) and man et al., 2006). This progress paved Lake Ohrid (Wagner et al., 2014) sedi- the road to core recovery in mid- to ments provided high-resolution insight low-latitude lacustrine basins including in to the interplay of the Mediterranean Lake Titicaca (Fritz et al., 2007), Lake to Middle East climate drivers reaching Bosumtwi (Brooks et al., 2005), Lake at least one million years of environ- Qinghai (Colman et al., 2007), Lake mental history in the area. Collectively, Malawi (Brown et al., 2006) and Lake lacustrine basin drilling and its use as a Peten Itza (Hodell et al., 2006). universal geological archive serve to add scientific value through integration of Regional climate variations, such as multiple ICDP projects. the change of the annual path of the Intertropical Convergence Zone dur- Mesozoic strata in the southwestern ing the last glacial cycles or continent- USA of the Colorado Plateau com- wide mega-droughts in Africa, shed prise Triassic (252–202 Ma) sequences new light on the climate evolution in containing the first modern-style, rich the young Quaternary. Drilling at Lake land biota, and displaying a high reso- Potrok Aike (Zolitschka et al., 2013) and lution palaeoenvironmental terrestrial Lake El’gygytgyn (Melles et al., 2012; record bordered by major mass-extinc- Brigham-Grette et al., 2013) explored tion events. This succession served to plaeoclimate in the high latitudes. The address major issues of early Meso- 3.6 million years continuous sedimen- zoic biotic and environmental change tation in the Northeast Siberian, arctic (Geissman et al., 2014). Lake El’gygytgyn allowed study of the onset of the northern hemisphere gla- The Precambrian era during which life, ciation as well as periods of warm ‘super modern day tectonics, the growth of con- interglacials’ which are related in time tinents and the evolution of an oxygen- 36 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / GLOBAL CYCLES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ICDP

rich atmosphere began, has attracted (e.g., climatic, super-eruptions, ICDP research as well. The FAR-DEEP impacts), at timescales from (Fennoscandian Arctic Russia—Drill- decadal to million-year and beyond? ing Early Earth Project) project docu- • How did oxygenation of the mented the 500 Ma of Palaeoprotero- atmosphere evolve? zoic evolution of sulphur, phosphorus, • What are the key processes oxygen, carbon cycles that established characterising Earth’s Critical Zone? the modern day ocean, atmosphere and continental interaction (Melezhik et al. Future scientific targets 2012). Another important time slice further back in time in the Archaean Lacustrine records, including was sampled by the Barberton Drilling additional Quaternary records Project. In the Barberton Greenstone Long-lived lakes provide a rich, high- Belt supracrustal sedimentary and vol- resolution continental record of near- canic rocks formed 3.5 to 3.2 billion time climate, and many ‘benchmark’ years ago and preserved the first surface records of Quaternary climate are thus on Earth and earliest evolution of life records from such lakes (e.g. Cohen, (Heubeck et al. 2013). 2011). Future records to augment our understanding of the Plio-Pleistocene Fundamental open questions will continue to be found in long-lived lacustrine successions, including rela- In the next decade, palaeoclimate- tively deep-water targets. A distinct related projects will continue to improve advantage to continuing to exploit this our understanding of the natural and archive is the near-term capability of anthropogenic influences on evolving integrating these records globally in Earth climate by focusing on questions order to build datasets that can inform such as: climate models at high spatial and tem- • How did the Earth’s climate poral resolution. Such high-resolution, system behave during warmer / high- but globally distributed data-model CO2 worlds? comparisons would enable probing of • How did the Earth’s climate system key questions such as those related to behave during glacial cycling in Earth’s climate and linked biotic behav- cold worlds, and during icehouse– iour during glacial cycling. For example, greenhouse transitions? investigations of abrupt climatic / bio- • What are the fundamental processes geochemical events at decadal to mil- and feedbacks forcing climate lennial timescales, and how these are transitions, at timescales from decadal propagated through the atmosphere- to million year and beyond? hydrosphere-biosphere systems. High- • How fast did permafrost and gas resolution, near-time targets are also hydrate stability react on needed to fully probe questions regard- changing climate and vice versa? ing the sensitivity of land surface proc- • What were the biotic responses to esses to anthropogenic perturbations. major environmental changes Finally, sampling and measurements 37 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / GLOBAL CYCLES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ICDP

in lakes can enable a vastly improved aimed at reconstructing evolutionary understanding of phylogenies through history by integrating evolutionary rela- the combined study of body and molec- tionship information with environmen- ular fossil information in such self-con- tal records, and using cores to under- tained ecosystems. stand evolutionary events from body fossil records, for example. Drilling to access Earth’s deep-time climate and biotic record Drilling to access the Earth’s Clarifying our understanding of the full earliest palaeoenvironmental and range of climate behaviour on the con- palaeobiological records tinents must involve expanding drill- ICDP provides scientific records that ing targets to Earth’s ‘deep-time’ (loose- extend to the origins of the preserved ly, pre-Quaternary) record. Several key crust on Earth—over four billion years. questions related to our understand- Indeed some projects have focused on ing of Earth’s climate system, driven obtaining continental records of past largely by our current trajectory into a geoprocesses related to the origin of pre-Pliocene atmospheric composition, life, the oxidation of the atmosphere, mandate the targeting of the deep-time and the appearance of animals on land. record. As the Earth warms, for example, Ocean records ( IODP ) through dec- what can we learn from past warm inter- ades of drilling have provided an excel- vals to inform our predictions of future lent record of the Earth in the Ceno- behaviour? Furthermore, how can cli- zoic (approximately the last 60 million mate behaviour during both ‘green- years) and scientifically interesting, but house’ and ‘icehouse’ intervals of earth less well-developed records from the history inform understanding of various Jurassic to the Cenozoic (about 180 to 60 forcings—greenhouse gases, aerosols, million years). Ocean records, however, solar, and tectonic—at various times- do not extend to the pre-Jurassic, neces- cales. Critical, but poorly understood, sitating a focus on continental records processes include those related to for this vast majority of earth history. 1) the regional and global behaviors of ice sheets, permafrost, gas hydrates Understanding the links between envi- and hydrology in warmer worlds ronmental change and life requires 2) how abrupt climatic / biogeochemical linking ecosystem change to records of events are triggered and propagated evolution and extinction. This in turn 3) the biophysical feedbacks that either requires data calibrated to a high-res- maintain equilibrium climate or trigger olution geochronology, and continu- shifts to new states. ous stratigraphical records with unam- biguous superposition—a great benefit Equally important as informing our of core data. Core data also confers the understanding of climate is linking cli- benefit of access to unaltered materi- mate and environmental shifts to the al, increasingly critical for conducting evolution of life and ecosystems, at all organic and inorganic geochemical timescales. This will involve new efforts analyses (e.g. biomarker analysis, analy- 38 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / GLOBAL CYCLES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ICDP

sis of redox-sensitive elements; isotopes) inducing a decomposition of associat- so necessary for advanced investigations ed and underlying natural gas hydrates of the evolution of the biosphere. reservoirs. Depending on the local conditions the released methane from dis- Drilling to access the ‘critical zone’ sociated hydrates may migrate to shal- The ‘critical zone’ refers to Earth’s outer- lower layers. In particular methane, most surface, from the vegetation cano- released from hydrate reservoirs occur- py to the zone of groundwater (Brantley ring under submarine permafrost on et al., 2006), and thus encompasses the the shallow shelf, may migrate through nexus amongst the earth systems. Most the thawing permafrost and the shallow terrestrial life resides in the critical zone, water and be released into the atmos- and it is rapidly undergoing transforma- phere. Methane is a very strong green- tion by anthropogenic changes. The crit- house gas. In addition, Arctic warm- ical zone is, indeed, the key record of the ing will result in an increase of lakes in emerging Anthropocene. Drilling the area and depth on the coastal lowlands critical zone will enable us to address, and form pathways of methane from Figure 21. Core containing gas hydrates, Mallik project, Canada. in an entirely new way, processes critical decomposed gas hydrates to the surface to sustaining life and driving evolution, and the atmosphere. Although such an such as weathering and nutrient cycling, increase in regional methane emissions and the biogeochemical cycling of car- might have serious impact on the global bon and other elements. climate, very little is known about the potential decomposition of gas hydrates Permafrost and gas hydrates due to permafrost thawing and the Approximately 25% of the terrestrial resulting methane fluxes in terrestrial or surface of the Earth is associated with in marine environments. permafrost extending from the surface up to 1600 m depth. Relict permafrost Data from long-term drilling projects formed, due to lower sea level during in different permafrost regions moni- glacial periods, also exists on the con- toring the response of hydrate-bearing tinental shelves of the Arctic Ocean formations to global warming effects are at water depths down to about 80 m. necessary to verify or falsify the results Depending on the geological history of numerical models. of the permafrost region, gas hydrates may occur below or within the perma- Drilling issues frost layers and some of them are associated with conventional oil and gas New successes in understanding the reservoirs. Thawing of permafrost due Earth’s global cycles in climate, life, and to global warming may not only cause geodynamics requires advances in cor- serious problems regarding the infra- ing technology. Palaeoclimate stud- structure and ecosystem in Arctic are- ies require both continued acquisition as but also a temperature increase in of long cores in deep lakes, to acquire permafrost regions that will result benchmark Plio-Pleistocene records, in a degradation of permafrost possibly and acquisition of deep-time records 39 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / GLOBAL CYCLES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ICDP

to probe the full dynamic range of the the envelope of our understanding, and climate system. This sampling in turn thus capabilities for prediction. Finally, necessitates technical advances in drill- efforts on all fronts will be enhanced ing, e.g. the ability to recover core from greatly by partnering with other orga deep water, moving ice shelves and chal- nisations, including IODP. lenging material such as unconsolidat- ed sediment, and the ability to retrieve Recommendations information from uncontaminated, unweathered reactive organic (includ- 1. Well-preserved geological records re- ing DNA) and geochemical proxies of presenting rapid climatic and environ- various geological ages. This goal will mental changes provide excellent oppor- also benefit studies of biotic change tunities to understand earth system at all timescales, including oxygena- dynamics at different timescales, espe- tion in the deep-time record. Because cially if biotic response (on a body and long records of sedimentary rocks deep molecular level) can be investigated. in sedimentary basins are available at petroleum companies, scientific coop- 2. Lake drilling, especially Holocene, eration is highly desirable. should be coupled with numerical modelling of climate control processes In order to understand climate change, constrained by IODP results because a multi-proxy approaches will be needed large dataset is already available for this including new proxies and new meth- period. ods such as cosmogenic-nuclide age data. For palaeomagnetic applications 3. The excellent results of past ICDP oriented cores are required. Additional- sedimentary drilling operations should ly, implementation of horizontal drilling lead to a roadmap, based on a new will enable collection of large volumes critical integration of those results, for of event beds and fossil-rich horizons future drilling at world-class sites. to benefit life studies. For drilling gas hydrates, preservation of in-situ pressures might be necessary. Geodynamic research will require the ability to drill to great depth, and potentially drill into magma chambers, for gas sampling. Most fundamentally, new discoveries in the operation of the Earth’s global cycles will require the integration of data acquisition by coring with numerical modelling. This is especially critical for investigations into the climate system —at all temporal and spatial scales— as integration of data collection with climate modelling will ultimately push 40 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / GLOBAL CYCLES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ICDP

References

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HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Ilmo T. Kukkonen Solid Earth Geophysics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Guðmundur Ómar Friðleifsson HS Orka, Reykjanesbæ, Iceland

Figure 22. Balloon experiments at the Karymsky volcano, Kamchatka, Russia

Lay of the land dramatic seismicity and volcanism localised at well-defined global zones. The Earth is a thermally driven planet. Whereas seismicity and volcanic activ- Transfer of heat and mass, i.e., magma, ity are great threats to mankind, heat hot fluids, groundwater and sediment, and mass transfer is also extremely use- as well as the silent upward conduction ful and important for society, namely in of heat in the subsurface, are many of concentrating metals and hydrocarbons the basic processes responsible for the into economic deposits—which are physical and geological world we live indispensable for our civilisation—as in. The socioeconomic consequences well as providing renewable geothermal of heat and mass transfer are present in energy resources. The quest for atmos- all branches of human culture, either pheric carbon free sustainable energy is directly or indirectly. Heat and mass one of the challenges of the modern soci- transfer resulted, early on in the Earth’s ety, but geothermal sources of energy history, in an internal composition dif- —both high and low temperature—are ferentiation and layering of the plan- still to a large extent unexplored and et, which is expressed on the surface underused. This can be attributed to level in the plate tectonic process, with technological challenges encountered 43 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER ICDP

in exploiting the extreme high tempera- and Hauksson, 2015; Friðleifsson et al., ture environments but also to a lack of 2005, 2015). understanding of the related physics, ICDP has already made some sig- rock architecture and processes. Renew- nificant inroads in understanding the able energy technologies need also basic transport of heat in volcanic complex- and rare earth element ( REE ) metals es, notably in the drilling projects in in batteries, heat exchangers and other volcanic systems in: high technology products. Scientific • Iceland (Elders et al., 2014) drilling is at the cutting edge of research • Campi Flegrei (DeNatale et al., 2011) providing new discoveries and basic • the Unzen volcano, Japan understanding of heat and mass transfer (Nakada et al., 2005) for the benefit of the society. • the hot spot volcanoes of Hawaii (Chang et al., 2005; McConnell et al., High enthalpy geothermal energy, 1998; Stolper et al., 2009) and deep formation fluids and volcanic Yellowstone, US (Shervais et al., 2013, risk—Volcanoes pose both risks and Shervais and Evans, 2014). Figure 23. Geothermal power plant at Kizildere, Turkey benefits for society. The most dangerous volcanic environments are encountered In addition to underpinning the devel- in silicic volcanic systems, especially in opment of geothermal energy resourc- large silicic calderas (e.g. the Campi Fle- es, exploratory drilling in volcanic sys- grei area in Italy) which may generate tems supplies fundamental information huge eruptions threatening the popu- on understanding magma supply and lation and infrastructure in vast areas, heat transfer, in particular at the inter- and exceeding the mass and energy con- face of magma chambers and their host sequences of normal central-vent type rocks which could provide a sustainable volcanoes by several orders of magni- energy source (Friðleifsson and Elders, tude (DeNatale et al., 2006). Building 2005; Asanuma et al., 2012). a better understanding of the restless- ness of large silicic calderas is of utmost Low enthalpy energy exploitation importance for society. On the other and mass storage—Understanding hand, the high temperatures attainable deep aquifers and aquitards (areas of at shallow levels in all types of active very low permeability) is fundamen- volcanic and near-surface magmatic tal in geo-engineering processes in the systems provide a unique challenge and Earth’s crust. We have relatively good opportunity for the research of energy models for fluid flow in the upper tens resources in terms of: of metres of the crust, and reasonable • drilling technology models for the uppermost 1–2 kilome- • logging tools for high temperature tres. However, increasingly society will • physical properties of reservoir rocks be engineering the upper several kilo- (especially thermal and hydraulic) metres of the crust for geothermal ener- • solution of corrosion problems due to gy, energy storage, carbon capture and chemically aggressive formation fluids storage ( CCS ), unconventional energy (Asanuma et al., 2012; Markússon production, and waste sequestration. 44 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER ICDP

A thorough characterisation of fluid by ICDP should have a role in ground- pathways and transport mechanisms truthing some of these technologies. in the upper kilometres of the crust is thus fundamental to resilient economic Past accomplishments in ICDP development of the Earth and protect freshwater in aquifers. ICDP research Heat and mass transfer has been studied drilling and associated borehole observ- in numerous earlier ICDP projects (e.g. atories will be essential in this process. Harms and Emmermann, 2007). These We need to learn much more about the include the normal crustal conditions, critical zone interface of the human permafrost areas, active volcanic areas technology and culture with the hydro- (mid-oceanic ridges, hot spot volcanoes sphere, atmosphere and near subsur- and subduction systems), and meteorite face. We should work better with envi- impact craters. ronmental scientists in characterising this ‘zone with which humans interact’ Crustal and mantle heat flow and and improve its subsurface characterisa- radiogenic heat production inside tion and monitoring. the Earth—These are basic thermal parametres affecting the present inter- Mineral resources—The swelling popu- nal thermal regime, thermal power lation of the planet and increasing (heat flow) and thermal evolution of demand for commodities have already the planet. We still have considerable changed the profile of mineral explo- uncertainties in the estimates of glo- ration and national mineral security bal thermal output (Pollack et al., 1993, (Vidal et al., 2013). Companies are now Davies and Davies, 2005) and the total looking to exploit extreme environ- concentration of radiogenic heat-pro- ments, such as the deep oceans and ducing elements (Dye, 2012). One of the polar regions, for new resources. Inter- important accomplishments in heat- est is also increasing in exploration of flow studies during the past thirty years resources at deeper levels in the crust is the discovery of vertical variation in than exploited. At the same time con- heat flow and temperature gradient of sumers seek new commodities, result- the present continental crust, a result ing in a demand for certain rare ele- partly achieved in ICDP projects and ments used in electronics, new vehicles, previous super-deep and deep drillhole new types of catalysts and high-per- studies (Kremenetsky and Ovchinikov, formance magnets. It is not the role 1986; Clauser et al., 1997; Kukkonen of scientific research programmes to and Jõeleht, 2003, Kukkonen et al. 2011). explore for, and discover, new resources. The increase of heat-flow density in the Nonetheless, the development of nov- uppermost 2 km seems to be rather the el technologies in the realms of satel- rule than an exception in the continen- lite imagery, geophysical sounding and tal crust (e.g. Kukkonen and Jõeleht, geochemical indicators for geological 2003; Majorowicz and Šafanda, 2007; assessment and discovery of big depos- Majorowicz and Wybraniecz, 2010). its, will be essential. Research supported The uppermost crust is in a thermally GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Ernst Huenges GFZ—German Research Centre for Geosciences, Germany

Temperature in the Earth space heating in houses. Installations Key challenges Useful heat can be obtained from the of this type require only a few degrees Many of the hydrothermal and all Earth in various ways. Deeper sources of temperature difference in order to petrothermal systems can be from three kilometres and more can yield significant heat. Aquifers can developed to an economic use by the be used for large heating networks be used to store seasonally heat for so-called ‘Engineered Geothermal and power generation. Combinations example from solar sources. Hot water Systems ( EGS )’ concept. EGS are also possible. from deeper within the Earth provides technologies represent the sum of a high quality heat source. Such the engineering measures that Geothermal energy is classified as a hydrothermal systems can be found in are required to exchange the heat renewable resource because the areas with active volcanism, but also and to optimise the exploitation tapped heat from an active reservoir in non-volcanic regions. Today, most of the reservoir. All necessary system is continuously restored by natural of the large geothermal power plants components are available, but there heat production, conduction and in the world use steam and hot water is still potential for improvement convection from surrounding hotter from volcanically active regions to in terms of reliability and efficiency. regions. generate electric power. Geothermal A huge research demand exists in reservoirs available in non-volcanic this field to make geothermal energy Geothermal systems areas are hot, either deep water-bear- utilisation feasible in most environ- The figure shows geothermal systems ing systems (hydrothermal systems) ments in an environmentally friendly, used in central Europe. Relatively or systems (petrothermal systems) safe and responsible manner. widespread are near-surface geother- without or with limited water. Hydro- mal sources. Heat pumps use surface thermal systems are deep water- In this context, scientific drilling has and ground water from a depth bearing layers (aquifers) with natural- significant importance. Most of the of a few meters as a heat source for ly sufficient hydraulic permeability. technologies for the exploitation of deep geothermal energy reservoirs require at least two wells. A production well is needed to recover water with an appropriate temperature from the reservoir and an injection well to return the water into the underground. Scientific drilling contributes to develop responsible management strategies and technologies for a sustainable use of geothermal resources worldwide.

Figure 24: Illustration of energy resources utilized from Earth's underground. 46 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER ICDP

transient state with variations that can and mineral deposition as well as poten- be mostly attributed to past climatic tial areas for very high enthalpy geo- variations, especially the last glacia- thermal energy production. Due to tions 10,000 to 100,000 years ago (see the special properties of supercritical e.g. Kukkonen et al., 2011, Šafanda et al., water, fluids above the critical point 2004) but the role of advective ground- of water (> 374°C, > 22 MPa) are very water heat transfer may considerably interesting for energy production due affect the thermal regime in areas with to the improvement in energy pro- significant hydraulic gradients and duction efficiency (Friðleifsson et al., Figure 25. An ash-rich eruption plume rises from Sakura-jima above the city of Kagoshima, hydraulic permeabilities (Mottaghy et 2014), though the technological chal- on July 19th, 2013. Sakura-jima is one of Japan’s al., 2005). Therefore the depth to direct- lenges are huge for drilling and produc- most active volcanoes and has been erupting almost continuously since 1955. ly measure undisturbed heat flow densi- tion in those conditions. Supercritical ties many exceed 2 km. Such holes with fluids are always at close proximity to reliable thermal data are relatively few magma which further complicates the in continents and almost absent in oce- drilling and in-situ studies. The ongo- anic areas. The lack of reliable ground ing Iceland Deep Drilling project has surface temperature histories at drill- conducted pioneering research in such ing sites mostly prevents simple for- high-temperature conditions. The inward calculation of the required palae- tention is to access fluid at supercritical oclimatic corrections. In low heat flow conditions and bring it to the surface as continental areas the shallow level cor- superheated steam (400–600°C) at sub- rection may amount up to several tens critical pressure (< 22 MPa). TheIDDP - of percent of the steady-state value. On 1 drill hole in the Krafla geothermal area the other hand, where deep temperature was targeted to reach supercritical fluids profiles are available they can be invert- but unexpectedly met molten (> 900°C) ed for the past ground surface tempera- rhyolite magma at the depth of 2.1 km ture histories (Beltrami, 2002; Huang et in 2009. After cooling the well bottom al., 2000; Pollack and Smerdon, 2004). over a month and allowing it to heat The above results challenge the repre- again, the hole produced superheated sentativity of data in existing heat flow fluids (450°C /4–14 MPa) for over two databases and the average heat-flow val- years during which valuable experi- ues derived from such data, and thus, ments were undertaken (Hauksson et affect the estimates of global averages of al., 2014). Superheated dry steam con- thermal output of the planet. Heat-flow taining volatile chloride may produce data from deep wells is continuously hydrochloric acid when cooled below and globally needed. dew point which results in strong corrosion of steel (Hjartarson et al., 2014) High-temperature magmatic and in turn making an additional challenge hydrothermal systems—Mid-ocean to energy production technology. How- ridges, subduction zones and hot-spot ever, the experiments done by Hauks- volcanoes host high-temperature mag- son et al. (2014) showed that potential matic and hydrothermal systems which problems due to corrosion and scaling are environments of crustal formation could be mitigated by simple chemical 47 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER ICDP

treatments (Markússon and Hauksson, Campi Flegrei drilling project focuses 2015). The experience from IDDP-1 at on the famous caldera in southern Ita- Krafla suggests that unintentionally the ly in an active volcanic area, which was world’s first Magma Enhanced Geother- formed by huge ignimbritic eruptions, mal System ( EGS ) was developed and a hot suspension of particles and gases future prospect for economic benefits flowing rapidly from a volcano. Recent are very promising (Friðleifsson et al., deformation of the caldera and uplift 2015). indicate increasing activity of the volcano. The location of the volcano next Active volcanic systems—Volcanism to the city of Naples includes a sub- poses a significant threat to population, stantial risk for millions of people in a and understanding the volcanic proc- case of a serious eruption. The ongoing esses and improving the predictions of Campi Flegrei ICDP project has drilled the forthcoming eruptions is essential. a 500 m deep pilot hole, and the appro- Volcanism is driven by mantle-driv- cimately 2–3 km-deep oriented main en heat and mass transfer, and volcan- hole is in preparation. Drilling will give ic areas contain undeveloped resourc- fundamental, precise insight into the es for geothermal energy production. shallow substructure, the geometry and Drilling deep in active volcanic domes character of the geothermal systems and calderas has rarely been done, but and their role in the unrest episodes, the ICDP-supported drilling projects as well as to explain magma chemistry have provided direct information on and the mechanisms of magma–water many volcanic areas, such as Unzen, interaction (DeNatale et al., 2011). Japan, Campi Flegrei, Italy, Snake River (Yellowstone), US, and Long Valley, US The projectHOTSPOT drilled five holes and Koolau, Hawaii, US (Chang et al., in the Snake River Plain, Idaho, US , to 2005; McConnell et al., 1998; Nakada track the Yellowstone Plume through et al., 2005). space and time. The Yellowstone volcano has potential to produce huge erup- The magma conduit of the Unzen vol- tions in the continental scale, but how cano which had led to serious eruptions often such eruptions take place is uncer- only a few years earlier was penetrated tain. The Yellowstone and Snake River with directional drilling in an ICDP areas represent a world-class example project in 1999 to 2004. The results indi- of active mantle-plume volcanism in an cated still high temperatures (< 200°C) intracontinental setting. The drill cores and unexpectedly strong hydrothermal are expected to enlighten the problems alteration in the magmatic dyke rocks in of geochemical interaction of mantle- the conduit. It was the first time that in- derived magmas with the continen- situ observations were made in a recent tal lithosphere as well as formation of and still-hot magma conduit (Nakada continental crust by magmatic under- et al., 2005). plating. The first results document significant, continuous bimodal magmatic flux long after the lithosphere 48 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER ICDP

has moved away from the hotspot. Fundamental open questions The downhole logging revealed a high temperature aquifer at about 1.7 km Release of internal heat from the Earth depth indicating good potential for geo- by conduction through the crust is the thermal energy (Shervais et al., 2013, most important energy process in the Shervais and Evans, 2014). continental crust, whereas the hydrothermal circulation in the young ocean- The Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project ic crust is the most important in marine drilled core holes to a depth of 3.5 km areas (Lee and Uyeda, 1965; Pollack et in three phases between 1999 and 2007. al., 1993; Stein, 1995). Deep internal ther- Due to the moving Pacific Plate the mal processes of the planet are directly Hawaiian volcanoes progressively 'sam- or indirectly responsible for the genera- ple' the deep mantle-plume-derived tion of the geomagnetic field, convec- magmas. The geochemistry and isotopes tion in the mantle and outer core, move- of the intersected lava sequence of the ment of lithospheric plates, earthquakes Mauna Kea volcano revealed a smooth and volcanism as well as formation of transition in the chemical and helium mineral and hydrocarbon deposits. Still isotopic compositions from the central today we have considerable uncertainty (alkaline basalt) to the exterior melt- in our understanding of the exact values producing zone (tholeitic basalt) of the of the total thermal output of the Earth, plume. The bimodality and smooth var- and the internal sources and reposi- iation is interpreted to represent radi- tories of heat, which are primary para al variation in the deep mantle plume meters constraining the internal ther- beneath Hawaii (Stolper et al., 2009). mal regime and thermal evolution of the The age range of the lavas up to 680 kyr planet. In addition the hydraulic perme- BP indicate that the lifetimes of the ability is not easy to estimate for great Hawaiian volcanoes are about four times depths, and it may well behave dynami- longer than had been deduced from out- cally with time-dependent variations crop data. An unexpected deep circula- depending on the geodynamic set- tion to a depth of about 1 km of cold sea ting (Ingebritsen and Manning, 2010). water inward from the flanks of the volcano was revealed in temperature logs. The Heat and Mass Transfer session of This implied a more efficient cooling and the ICDP Conference 2013 in Potsdam alteration of the lava pile than previous- received 23 contributions enlightening ly anticipated and that the hydrogeol- very different aspects of heat and mass ogy of oceanic volcanic islands is much transfer problems and the role of deep more complicated than the freshwa- drilling in research. Understanding ter lens model of islands generally sug- the processes of heat and mass transfer gests (Thomas et al., 1996; Buettner and within the Earth is one of the key tasks Huenges, 2002). in geoscience and has challenges in both pure science as well as in applications in energy production and raw materials exploration. 49 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER ICDP

The topics and problems brought for- tures (Elders et al., 2014b). On the other ward in the conference can be divided hand, drilling to layers beneath the brit- into the following groups: tle–ductile transition (about 2–5 km in hot areas) but not to molten magma in 1) Heat and mass transfer related to volcanic areas provides a new potential mantle plumes, mid-ocean ridges and method to extract geothermal energy subduction zones. These environ- with the already established EGS tech- ments provide the most active fields nology. Creating an artificial reservoir of heat and mass transfer and they can with brittle fractures wholly within the Figure 26. Inside the Solfatara volcano, Campi Flegrei, Italy provide a constantly renewed source ductile zone prevents the typical loss of energy once the required technolo- of circulating heat transfer fluid, which gies have been developed (Friðleifsson improves the efficiency of theEGS . Fur- and Elders, 2005). Drilling is required thermore, the method does not increase to obtain deep in-situ information in the pore pressure in the seismic brittle these active conditions. Geochemical crust, thus avoiding artificially induced and isotope studies of magmatic prod- earthquakes. Drilling and downhole ucts provide information on the source logging into the very high temperatures region of these rocks, and further on (approximately 500°C) still requires the heterogeneity of the mantle, and development of special high-tempera- the nature of hot spots (De Paolo and ture tools (Asanuma et al., 2012). Drill- Weis, 2007). Studies of mantle plume ing into the magma itself would illus- magmatism of hot-spot volcanoes and trate basic physical concepts of heat large igneous provinces could provide and mass transfer, and reveal geology invaluable information on the origin from volcano structure to plate tecton- and geochemical evolution of the deep- ic scales, and illustrate the excitement derived plume magmas, and enlighten of scientific exploration in a previously the problems of mid-ocean-ridge basalt unvisited extreme environment within ( MORB ) vs. hot-spot volcanism, and our planet. the convective and metasomatic processes taking place in the upper and 3) Active high-enthalpy systems are lower mantle and the mantle transi- typically combinations of magmatic tion zone (DePaolo and Weis, 2007; and hydrothermal processes. We need Bercovici, 2012). deeper understanding of these processes and need to develop methodologies and 2) Molten and subsolidus intrusive technologies for energy production in complexes. The environment of mol- such systems both onshore and offshore ten rock is very demanding for sampling (mid-oceanic ridges). Drilling to reser- and drilling technologies, but only direct voirs with supercritical fluids is techno- sampling of magma provides unbiased logically very challenging (Axelsson et samples. Magma chambers cooling at al., 2014), and reliable high-temperature shallow levels (< 5 km) are very inter- logging and monitoring tools need to be esting for developing technologies for developed. extracting energy at very high tempera- 50 ICDP ORE DEPOSITS

Volker Lüders, Robert Trumbull GFZ—German Research Centre for Geosciences, Germany

What are ore deposits? intrusive rocks, and by contrast, Challenges for drilling Ore deposits are concentrations of the largest manganese resources are As in the oil and gas industry, drilling metal-bearing rocks (ores) in the related to sedimentary rocks. is well established and widely Earth´s crust. Ore deposits may form applied in the mining industry for in all known geologic environments Strategic metals exploration in order to find hidden from the surface (Ni, Al, Fe oxides In the recent past, ever-increasing ore bodies beneath physical or in laterite) to the deep mantle demand for metals in industrial geochemical anomalies, and then to (diamonds in kimberlites). In cases and emerging countries has led to a determine the 3D shape and extent where the ore grades are high enough, misbalance between supply and of an ore body to estimate ore such metal concentrations form demand and thus to increasing prices grades and reserves. Conventional economic ore deposits which are on the world market. There are a drilling applications, however, exploited by surface or underground number of so-called strategic metals only focus on exploration of ore mining. Ore deposits have formed (e.g. Cr, Sn, Cu, Nb, Ta, Co, Sb, bodies rather than on understanding throughout Earth history and are still as well as REE and PGE) which are their origin. Scientific drilling projects forming today, for example on the indispensable for fast-growing, are therefore extremely important sea floor in submarine hydrothermal high-technology and ’green‘ econo- as they can provide new insights vents (‘black smokers‘) or in terrestrial mies. Many industrial nations are on ore-forming processes that may hot springs. Whereas some metallic now dependent on imports of these inspire new exploration models. ores form in many settings, e.g. metals from other countries, Moreover, as near-surface economic Pb-Zn and Au-ores in magmatic- and there is great emphasis placed on deposits become harder and harder hydrothermal, hydrothermal, and securing long-term and ecologically to find, exploration must target sedimentary rocks, for others there sustainable supply. Apart from the deeper crustal levels and this is a new are only a few important types socio-economic aspects of sustainable frontier. Not much is known about of deposit. For example, most of the raw materials supply, there are major the occurrence, geometry, ore grades world´s copper production comes challenges ahead for the geoscience and physical properties of deep- from porphyry copper deposits that and minerals processing community. seated ore bodies. There are formed from magmatic-hydrothermal It can be said with some confidence also many new challenges in drilling fluids. The platinum group metals that the ’easy‘ ore deposits have and logging technologies at are almost exclusively hosted in mafic already been found and many have great depth. been completely extracted. The supply of strategic metals can only be partly met by recycling. New ore deposits will be needed in the fore‑ seeable future, and this requires continued development of new technologies for efficient mining and ore processing, and for new tools for exploration, including drilling concepts.

Figure 27. Platinum 51 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER ICDP

4) Active low-enthalpy geothermal perature data is perturbed globally by systems. These environments are com- surface and near-surface processes, such monly used for energy production (for as the palaeoclimatic conductive effects space heating), and there is increas- due to cycles of glaciations (about 100 ka; ing interest in using them for segrega- Kukkonen and Joeleht, 2003; Majorow- tion of CO2. The thermal structure of icz and Šafanda, 2007; Majorowicz and basins depends heavily on the thermal Wybraniecz, 2010). Measurement of an conductivity of rocks, and low thermal undisturbed heat flow requires drilling conductivity favors high temperatures to depths of more than 2 km. Therefore at relatively shallow depth, though the careful geothermal studies should be heat flow does not need to be elevated. carried out in all deep drilling projects. More should be known on the natural Further, the distribution of heat pro- fluid flow in the subsurface medium, ducing elements (U, Th, K) in the crust, permeability structures, fluid geochem- mantle and the whole Earth remains a istry and temperature. challenge. There are still considerable uncertainties in the total heat budget 5) Monitoring and understanding of of the Earth and the quantitative role of volcanic systems. Volcanic erup- heat producing elements in it (Dye, 2012; tions are among the biggest threats to Davies and Davies, 2005). Further, ther- human population. We cannot prevent mal transport properties of rocks are an future eruptions but we can improve our important component in heat and mass skills in predicting them. In this field, transfer in the crust and upper mantle, the monitoring of potentially danger- and more needs to be known of them at ous volcanoes is necessary. Monitor- high temperatures and pressures. ing requires both surface and subsur- Figure 28. Platinum metals mined at a large scale in the Bushveld Complex of South Africa. face instrumentation. Deep drill holes 7) Mineral resources and environ- are very important as they provide direct mental issues of mining. Our civili- information on the heat and mass trans- sation is built on mineral and energy fer in volcanoes. Drilling is also used to resources (e.g. Craig et al., 2010). The explore the efficiency and frequency present mining industry is using depos- of past volcanic activity (Nakada et al., its at a rate about an order of magnitude 2005, Stolper et al., 2009; Shervais, 2009, faster than a couple of generations ago. 2013; DeNatale et al., 2011). The process- This is a huge challenge for the methods es taking place in conduits, such as mag- and efficiency of exploration, especially ma fragmentation or ash formation by as exploration targets tend to be deep- explosive decompression and ash reac- er than before. We still need to under- tions in the atmopshere require further stand better the genesis and formation research (Spieler et al., 2004; Kueppers et of mineral deposits, especially those of al., 2006; Alidibirov and Dingwell, 2000). the metals becoming critical in modern technologies (e.g. Rare earth ele- 6) Crustal heat flow and heat sources. ment metals, Walters et al., 2013), but Predicting deep crustal temperatures not to forget the base metals either. from shallow (1 km) heat flow and tem- With increasing scale of mining, envi- 52 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER ICDP

ronmental problems arise unless appro- (Brodsky et al., 2009, 2010). Similar situ- priate actions are taken. Processing of ations may apply to active volcanic and toxic mine waste and waters (Akcil and magmatic systems. Koldas, 2005) requires new technologies (e.g. microbial processing) to gen- Future scientific targets erate closed fluid circulation systems with minimum environmental impacts. In summary, the main tasks requiring Deep and super-deep drilling is needed more research and activity in heat and in studying the thermal and hydrogeo- mass transfer are as follows: Figure 29. Sampling a Kilauea lava flow on Hawai’I logical conditions in the mine camps • studying heat and mass transfer (Ntholi and de Wit, 2012). in active volcanic and magmatic environments 8) Geodynamic issues of heat and • developing and applying technologies mass transfer. Driving forces moving for drilling into the plates and the basic mechanism gen- very high temperatures erating plate tectonics on the whole are • properties of super-critical fluid systems still matters of debate, and more needs • heat and mass transfer in low- to be known in these fields. What is the enthalpy environments actual connection between mantle con- • determination of undisturbed vection and movement of the surface crustal heat-flow values in normal plates, and further, the ridge-push, slab- stabilised crust pull and astenosphere drag forces are not • distribution and concentrations well constrained. The apparently weak of heat-producing elements in the plate boundaries and zones of deforma- crust and mantle tion preserved at plate boundaries for • understanding heat and mass transfer times much longer than the deformation in genesis of mineral deposits has taken place require coupled proc- • heat and mass-transport esses of lithospheric weakening, shear properties of rocks as functions of localisation, grain size evolution and temperature and pressure. damage which are not yet fully understood (Tackley, 2000; MacKenzie, 2001; Drilling issues Bercovici, 2003, 2012). Understanding orogenesis is one fundamental ques- Drilling in extremely hot environments tion in geology and geophysics, and deep of high-enthalpy systems with supercrit- drilling into past and present brittle and ical fluids is an important challenge, and ductile deformation zones of orogenic requires special materials and alloys in belts may essentially help at critical sites drill pipes and bits as well as enforcing (e.g. Gee et al., 2010; Lorenz et al., 2011). strict safety measures. Moreover, down- Depending on the problem studied the hole geophysical and hydrogeological timescale of heat and mass transfer may tools must have exceptional tolerance require rapid actions, for instance drill- at high temperatures and pressures and ing into earthquake faults to find out the durability in chemically aggressive fluid frictional heat released in an earthquake environments. 53 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER ICDP

In active magmatic environments, the plans to drill into the oceanic Moho (at risk of accidentally drilling in to mag- about 6 km; Ildefonse et al., 2007) and a ma should be decreased, developing research borehole to 10 km depth from and applying sonic and seismic tools for 3 to 4 km deep mines in South Africa ahead-directed sounding during drill- (Ntholi and de Wit, 2012) are good ing. Recognising the roof of a magma examples of ambitious drilling projects chamber well before drill hole penetrates which will be in the spotlight of geo- it would allow careful planning how to sciences if carried out. Super-deep proceed. Coring of magma requires spe- drilling with drilling goals at depths of cial cooling and quenching measures. over 10 km are still technological and Experience in magma sampling in drill- scientific adventures, where new meth- ing is still very limited, and needs further ods and technologies need to be devel- development. oped. Both the Kola super-deep hole in Russia and the KTB super-deep hole Fracking in low-enthalpy geothermal in Germany failed to reach their origi- projects is a prerequisite for enhanc- nal depth targets mainly due to diffi- ing the in-situ hydraulic permeability culties in penetrating rocks with sig- for efficient fluid circulation. However, nificant shearing and weakness, and the anisotropic character of the sedi- rheological properties at high tem- mentary or crystalline reservoir rocks, peratures close to the brittle-ductile pre-existing fracture systems and the transition. One of the problems was orientation of the natural stress field the underestimated temperature deter- all challenge the technology. It is very mined from extrapolating thermal data important from the societal point of from shallow boreholes. Reaching such view and the acceptance of the geother- great depth requires also improved mal energy production that fracking is a downhole drilling engines for maxi- controlled process to not trigger earth- mum efficiency and torque in drilling. quakes above an acceptable magnitude or to pollute groundwater. Recommendations

Drilling costs can be decreased with Heat and mass-transfer issues are relat- modern hydraulic drilling rigs and tech- ed to almost every scientific drilling nologies where the manpower is mini- project, and ICDP should be careful in mised, and drilling efficiency is maxim- checking possibilities to enhance this ised. Further new drilling technologies field as independent heat and mass- and innovations, such as deep water- transfer motivated projects as well as a hammer drilling, should be tested. ‘piggy-back’ contributions from projects aimed at other fields. Drilling super-deep holes of about 10 km would remarkably increase our understanding of the heat and mass transfer processes in the crust and the brittle–ductile transition. The present 54 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER ICDP

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Kremenetsky, A. A. and Ovchinnikov, L. N.: The Precambrian Šafanda, J., Szewczyk, J. and Majorowicz, J.: Geothermal evi- continental crust: Its structure, composition and dence of very low glacial temperatures on a rim of the evolution as revealed by deep drilling in the USSR, Fennoscandian ice sheet, Geophysical Research Letters Precambrian Res. 33, 11–43, 1986. 31, L07211, doi:10.1029/2004GL019547, 2004. Kueppers, U., Scheu, B., Spieler, O., Dingwell, D. B.: Fragmen- Šafanda, J., Heidinger, P., Wilhelm, H., Cermak, V.: Fluid con- tation efficiency of explosive volcanic eruptions: A vection observed from temperature logs in the karst study of experimentally generated pyroclasts, Journal formation of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, Journal of of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 153, 125–135, Geophysics and Engineering 2(4), 326–331, 2005. 2006. Šafanda, J., Wilhelm, H., Heidinger, P., Cermák, V.: Interpreta- Kukkonen, I. 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N., and Smerdon, J. E.: Borehole climate reconstructions Spatial structure and hemi- spheric averages. J. Geophys. Res. 109(D11), D11106, doi:10.1029/2003JD004163, 2004. 56 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS ICDP

THE UBIQUITOUS HIDDEN BIOSPHERE

Jens Kallmeyer GFZ—German Research Centre for Geosciences, Germany Tom Kieft Department of Biology, New Mexico Tech, Socorro, USA

Figure 30. Light microscopic picture of discrete methanotrophic colonies ( brown ) partially overgrown by contaminants ( whitish ); stereo microscope, magnification: 25×

Lay of the land Microbial life in the subsurface has a profound impact on human activity, Over the last two decades, exploration even though the ‘key players’ remain of the deep subsurface biosphere has invisible to the naked eye. For example, developed into a major research field natural gas of biogenic origin occurs in both earth sciences and environ- in economically producible quantities mental biosciences. It is now common- in some sedimentary basins e.g. the Po ly accepted that the deep subsurface Basin, Italy. biosphere forms the largest ecosystem on Earth. Despite recent studies that The same type of gas, occurring at shal- significantly downsized estimates of lower depths in all sedimentary basins, the number of microbial cells and its can enter the hydrosphere or atmos- biomass (Kallmeyer et al., 2012), the phere. Depending on the local condi- deep biosphere still harbours a signifi- tions, the gas is either consumed or cant part of all life on Earth and is a key becomes a greenhouse gas. driver of global biogeochemical cycles (Jørgensen, 2012). Sweet crude oils can be converted into viscous fluids that are difficult to produce, thanks to selective biodegrada- 57 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / THE UBIQUITOUS HIDDEN BIOSPHERE ICDP

tion by microorganisms in underground in 1994, the ICDP recognised that pur- reservoirs—here the deep biosphere is suit of the then new field of subsurface downgrading a natural energy resource. geomicrobiology could be facilitated by Understanding the mechanisms of drilling projects (Zoback and Emmer- microbially mediated processes is cru- mann, 1994). This theme was examined cial not just for reducing risk in explora- in both theoretical and practical terms tion and production but also to under- in the 2005 ICDP Science Plan (Hors- stand the coupling and fluxes between field et al., 2007), at a 2009 ICDP work- the geosphere on one side and the shop focused on the Deep Biosphere hydrosphere and atmosphere on the (Mangelsdorf and Kallmeyer, 2010), and other. Also, in several areas of the world, now at the 2013 ICDP Scientific Confer- groundwater is affected by geogenic pol- ence, where ‘the hidden biosphere’ was lution. The liberation and precipita- afforded a prominent role. Biological tion of these pollutants is controlled by studies have been carried out as part of microbial activity. ICDP drilling research projects planned for other purposes including the Mallik Speaking generally, the demands of a Gas Hydrate Research Project (Colwell growing global population cannot be et al., 2005), the Chesapeake Bay impact met without utilising the deep subsur- crater study (Gohn et al. 2008), and face, either as a resource or as a reposi- more shallow sedimentary paleoclimate tory. A good knowledge of the micro- lake drilling projects (e.g. Lake Van, bial communities themselves and, Glombitza et al., 2013; Lake Potrok Aike, more importantly, their influence on Vuillemin and Ariztegui, 2013). Fron- the cycling of elements will be crucial tier exploration of the deep biosphere to achieve these goals. As access to the was spearheaded by IODP and its pred- deep subsurface is only possible by drill- ecessor ODP; several dedicated deep ing, the ICDP plays an important role biosphere cruises were carried out and in our quest to explore the deep subsur- deep life studies are now being incorpo- face biosphere. Perhaps the most crucial rated into many expeditions. By com- issue for any deep biosphere study is the parison, ICDP ’s involvement so far has availability of uncontaminated samples. been small, despite there being a much This is usually not much of a concern broader range of targets and extreme for commercial drilling operations, so environments in continental settings. ICDP becomes the prime source for suitable clean sample material. Fundamental open questions

Past accomplishments in ICDP A number of overarching deep life research questions have been identified The study of the deep continental bio- (Horsfield et al., 2007; Mangelsdorf and sphere has matured considerably in Kallmeyer, 2010). These are listed below, recent years, due in part to the ICDP ’s each with a summary of the current efforts to integrate deep life studies state of knowledge. into drilling projects. At its inception 58 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / THE UBIQUITOUS HIDDEN BIOSPHERE ICDP

1) What is the extent and diversity of 2) What are the types of metabolism / deep microbial life and what are the carbon /energy sources and the rates factors limiting it? The continental of subsurface activity? Many subsur- subsurface has been estimated to face microbial ecosystems are fuelled contain 0.25–2.5 × 1029 prokaryotic cells by organic carbon that was generated (bacteria and archaea) (Whitman et al., by photosynthesis and then buried or 1998), or 0.8–27% of the Earth’s total transported to deeper layers; however, prokaryotes (Kallmeyer et al., 2012). The the quantity and quality of the organic factors that potentially limit the maxi- matter diminishes with depth. Some Figure 31. Fluorescence of hydrocarbon fractions mum depth limit for life include tem- microbes in the deeper, more remote perature, pressure, energy availability, regions of the subsurface have been and availability of fluid-filled pore space shown to utilise alternative energy of sufficient size and permeability. Of sources like H2, CO, and short-chain these, temperature is the least forgiving hydrocarbons (‘geogas’, Pedersen, 2000) with a currently understood upper limit generated by rock–water interactions, for life of about 122°C (Takai et al., 2008). e.g., serpentinisation (Schrenk et al., Factors other than temperature are also 2013) and radiolysis of water (Chivian likely to come into play, as evidenced by et al., 2008). The importance of geogas patterns in petroleum reservoirs, where relative to photosynthetically derived microbial activities sharply diminish as buried organic matter has yet to be temperatures exceed about 80°C (Wil- determined; the metabolic diversity of helms et al., 2001). Energetic require- subsurface microbes requires further ments for microbial maintenance and exploration, as well. Rates of subsurface repair increase at elevated temperatures, metabolism estimated through geo- including the need to replace proteins chemical modelling are orders of mag- as amino acids racemise (Onstott et al., nitude slower than those measured in 2014), and so energy availability may be surface habitats or pure cultures (Phelps extremely important. The depth limit et al., 1994; Kieft and Phelps, 1997), of the biosphere has yet to be deline- but actual in-situ rates are poorly con- ated. Subsurface biodiversity has also strained due to technical limitations. not been fully characterised; microbial communities in deep subsurface con- 3) How is deep microbial life adapted tinental habitats examined to date are to subsurface conditions? The deep diverse and vary with geochemical con- subsurface imposes high temperature ditions (Gihring et al., 2006). Culture- and high pressure, generally combined independent, nucleic-acid-based sur- with low energy fluxes, thus requiring veys have revealed novel lineages (Takai unique physiological adaptations. Most et al., 2001; Gihring et al., 2006; Chivian of these remain poorly understood, in et al., 2008, Sahl et al., 2008), many of part due to our current inability to culti- which appear to be unique to subsurface vate the majority of subsurface microbes environments. in the laboratory. The rise of genom- ic, transcriptomic, and metabolomic approaches will no doubt generate new 59 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / THE UBIQUITOUS HIDDEN BIOSPHERE ICDP

discoveries in this area. Still, as deep sub- life from the Hadean bombardment. surface samples are usually character- Beyond Earth, conditions in the subsur- ised by extremely low biomass and the face of other planets and planetary bod- presence of inhibitory substances, most ies in our solar system and elsewhere molecular techniques have to be modi- may be more habitable than those at the fied in order to work with such samples. surface, and if the geology is right, then geogas might be present as a potential 4) How do subsurface microbial com- subsurface energy source for microbes. munities affect energy resources? Further drilling on Earth may inform Subsurface microbes can generate ener- our decisions about exploring other getically useful products, e.g., H2 and planets. methane; they can also degrade hydrocarbons in petroleum reservoirs (Head Future scientific targets et al., 2003). We need a better understanding of these processes and the fac- The above are broad, enduring questions tors governing them. similar to those posed by other groups, e.g., IODP, the Deep Carbon Observa- 5) How does the deep biosphere inter- tory (http: // DCO.net), and Colwell act with the geosphere and atmos- and D’Hondt ( 2013 ). They need to be phere? Deep subsurface microbial com- addressed by multidisciplinary research munities are metabolically active, albeit projects that drill into subsurface envi- at slow rates (Kieft and Phelps, 1997), and ronments with wide-ranging geologies. as such they strongly influence the chem- Deep biosphere studies entail not only istry and mineralogy of their surround- geomicrobiology e.g. (Baker et al., 2003, ings. They can dissolve or precipitate Pedersen, 2000), but also biogeochem- minerals, thereby affecting porosity and istry (e.g. Zink et al., 2003), numerical permeability. Their metabolic processes modelling (Horsfield et al., 2006) and likely also affect fluxes between the sub- even geophysical phenomena, e.g., the surface and the atmosphere. For example, release of hydrogen or methane gas by sub-seafloor microbes remove 50–80% seismic events (Bräuer et al., 2005; Sleep of H2 before it can be released from dif- and Zoback, 2007). The variety of physi- fuse hydrothermal vents to overlying cal /chemical conditions beneath the water. Continental subsurface microbes the Earth’s surface produce a variety of likely mediate similar processes. biological phenomena, described above under Fundamental Open Questions, 6) Can we use the subsurface biosphe- that demand study. In fact, the conti- re as a model for life on early Earth nental subsurface is more geologically or other planets? Life on Earth could diverse than the marine subsurface, have originated in the subsurface, where and thus deep continental microorgan- elevated temperatures, mineral surfaces, isms are likely even more diverse than and abiotic generation of simple organic those beneath the oceans, and so ideally, compounds occur; the subsurface could they deserve an even greater scientific also have provided a refuge for early drilling programme. 60 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / THE UBIQUITOUS HIDDEN BIOSPHERE ICDP

Upcoming ICDP projects deal with a agreement that microbial activity plays variety of scientific topics in which an important role. Recovery of uncon- geomicrobiology combined with bio- taminated drill cores from relatively geochemistry features strongly: coarse aquifer sands will be a major technical challenge. • Deep hardrock microbiology. One example is the COSC Project (Sweden), • Metalliferous sediments are sched- drilled in Summer 2014. The project uled to be drilled at Lake Towuti is primarily geophysical and address- (Sulawesi, Indonesia) in 2015. The es questions related to mountain belt overall aim of this drilling project is to dynamics, but drilling at this site is also understand the climatic evolution of the enabling key geomicrobiological ques- Indo-Pacific Warm Pool over the last tions to be addressed. Foremost among 500 thousand years. This area is crucial- these is, what is the relative importance ly important for our understanding of of surface-derived organic matter from global climate dynamics but so far there photosynthesis compared to H2 gener- are no long records from this area (Rus- ated by rock–water interactions, e.g., sel and Bijaksana, 2012). Although the oxidation of ultramafic rocks and radi- Lake Towuti project is driven by paleo- olysis of water, as energy sources for climate research, it has a strong geom- fracture-water microbial communities? icrobiology component with six groups In the past, other projects have worked participating. The sediments offer the on similar research topics using short opportunity to study microbial metal horizontal drilling from inside mines cycling in much greater detail than in (Chivian et al., 2008) and other under- metal-poor sediments. ground facilities (Pedersen, 2000). Right now there are no such projects sched- • Serpentinisation. The Oman Ophio- uled, but in the event that a science- lite drilling project is being developed to friendly facility allows long-term access, study the microbiology and geochem- a project could be initiated relatively istry of serpentenizing rocks and high- quickly. pH environments. The project is mainly carbon sequestration motivated, but will • Shallow (100 m) sediment and have a geomicrobiology component. groundwater geochemistry. A pilot Serpentinisation releases H2, which can study in Illinois ( USA ) was conduct- be metaboilised by micro-organisms. ed in summer 2014 for the upcoming IDRAS project in Southeast Asia. The • Geothermal environments. To date motivation for this project is to under- the geothermal projects in ICDP, stand the spatial distribution and con- such as the Iceland geothermal project trolling factors of elevated arsenic lev- (Friðleifsson and Elders, 2007), have els in Southeast Asian groundwater, not had a microbiological component, which affects over 100 million people. this being due to the high temperature Although the exact mechanisms have enthalpy of the system under study. not yet been identified, there is broad However, new projects, e.g. Mutnovsky THE LIVING UNDERGROUND

Karsten Pedersen Microbial Analytics Sweden AB ( MICANS ), Mölnlycke, Sweden

The deep biosphere the sea floor and the continents is The origin of life Exploration of the microbial world driven by the energy available in Life in the early days of our planet got off to a slow start some 350 years hydrogen and methane, sulphur and would have been protected from ago, when Leeuwenhoek and his iron expelled from the interior of meteoritic impacts, ultraviolet irradia- contemporaries focused their micro- our planet. In other words, a sun tion, volcanic eruptions and desic- scopes on very small life forms. is not needed to sustain life on Earth! cation in underground environments. It was not until about 20 years ago, Knowledge about this deep biosphere An underground origin of life has however, that exploration of the has just begun to emerge and is become plausible because the underworld of underground microbes gath- expanding the spatial borders for life ground offers infinite possibilities ered momentum. In the mid-1980s, from a thin layer on the surface for the mixing of water with various the drilling of deep holes for scientific of the planet Earth and in the seas chemical and physical conditions, research started. Holes up to thou- to a several kilometre-thick biosphere one of which might have been the sands of metres deep were drilled in reaching deep below the ground correct mix for life to start. Addition- hard as well as sedimentary rock, surface and the sea floor. Life has ally, the underground was rich in and up came microbes in numbers been present and active deep down minerals with metals that may have equivalent to what could be found in in Earth for a very long time and catalysed many chemical reactions many surface ecosystems. Until then, it cannot be excluded that the location preceding the origin of life and it had been a general concept that of the origin of life was a deep sub- that are still used as obligate catalytic all life on Earth depends on the sun terranean aquifer environment (prob- components in many of the enzymes via photosynthesis. This concept ably hot with a high pressure) rather ruling the metabolic pathways of has now changed because the deep than a shallow, lukewarm pool cellular life. The figure shows an subterranean biosphere under environment on the surface of earth. arbitrary series of mixing of water with varying properties, demonstrating the outstanding environmental variability underground, compared to Sun rather homogenous surface environment such as the sea and lakes.

Key challenge

Recharge Whether the right conditions actually Hot spring pond Cooling spring water existed for an underground origin Sea of life remains to be tested and prov- Minerals along fractions Primordial soup? en. Scientific deep drilling will make it

Hot spring water possible to reach deep environments that no one has studied before. Maybe Energy in gases Deep saline water there, deep under our feet, the key Hydrothermal

system NH3 H2 to our understanding of the origin of CH4 H s CO2 2 life awaits discovery? Major fault

Figure 32. Environmental variability of the underground 62 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / THE UBIQUITOUS HIDDEN BIOSPHERE ICDP

Volcano may bring the opportunity to of these challenges have to do with explore such ecosystems. conflicting sample needs or at least the perception of conflicts. For example, • Biodegradation of hydrocarbons is paleoclimatologists require complete a topic of major ecological and eco- continuous depth profiles, with their nomic importance. Given the increased core remaining undisturbed in core lin- industrial interest in this topic, potential ers, while biologists need to sub-sample industry collaboration might be possi- the core as soon as possible after retriev- ble. al, ideally at the drill site in order to pre- serve the indigenous microbial popula- • Mud volcanoes are windows to the tion and to obtain accurate information deep biosphere by delivering material about the porewater composition. The from greater depth to the surface. How- addition of an extra borehole to a lake ever, this material usually becomes con- project adds expense, but may be justi- taminated on its way up, due to inflow- fied by compelling scientific questions. ing aquifers etc. Drilling into an active Adding depth to a borehole, e.g., drill- mud volcano would allow direct access ing /coring into bedrock underlying lake to uncontaminated samples in order to sediments could add a deep-life context study biogenic and thermogenic hydro- to a palaeoclimate study at relatively carbon-generating processes. modest extra cost. The need to sub- sample on-site, usually in an anaero- There are many other scientific ques- bic chamber, has been addressed in the tions, for example about the response of IODP by always having this equipment microbial life on anthropogenic altera- aboard the drill ship; GFZ Potsdam has tion of a subsurface habitat that could a mobile geomicrobiological laboratory be addressed by drilling, although there ( BUGLab) that is available for ICDP are currently no scheduled or planned drilling projects. The need to minimise ICDP projects in these research areas. and quantify chemical and biological contamination should be accommodat- Drilling issues ed. Standard protocols for geobiologi- cal /geochemical sampling have been The simplest way to further expand established (Kallmeyer et al., 2006; Kieft deep life studies sponsored by the ICDP et al., 2007; Kieft, 2010). Drilling fluids is to add geomicrobiological and geo- and drill string lubricants should be chemical components to even more of selected with an eye to avoiding organic the planned and imminent IODP drill- compounds that can promote microbi- ing projects, possibly to all projects. al growth or that can be confused with These ‘piggy-backing’ studies have chemical biosignatures. Quantification always been encouraged by the ICDP, of contamination is usually accom- and suggestions have been forthcom- plished by adding solute and particu- ing as to how to put these wishes into late tracers to the drilling fluid. These practice (Horsfield et al., 2007), but in changes add only modestly to drilling fact, there are built-in challenges. Some complexity and cost but require adop- 63 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / THE UBIQUITOUS HIDDEN BIOSPHERE ICDP

tion early in the planning process. Drill- biosphere community. It is therefore of ing into hard rock, as is done for many utmost importance that the commu- ICDP projects, adds further challenges. nity raises its visibility and makes the Examination of core fractures may give broader geomicrobiology community clues to microbially mediated precipita- aware of upcoming ICDP workshops tion or dissolution of minerals. A rock and projects. Given the special require- splitter can be used to sub-sample the ments for contamination control and cores. Hard rock boreholes also offer the on-site sample processing, the addition opportunity for long-term groundwater of a geomicrobiological component is sampling, in-situ experimentation (e.g., not always appreciated by all members push–pull experiments, mineral surface of a science party. However, accurate colonisation, etc.), and for deployment assessment of the contamination of the of downhole instrumentation. Instal- core by drilling fluids is important for lation of packers enables collection other disciplines as well. In order to of fracture water from discrete depth make geomicrobiology an integral part intervals. In most cases, these add-on of many future ICDP projects it is nec- technologies are compatible with drill- essary to get involved in projects at an ing for geophysical studies, but early early stage and to initiate projects as planning is required. well. Only through consolidated community effort can deep terrestrial bio- Recommendations sphere research be made an integral part of ICDP. With the rapidly increasing utilisation of the subsurface, either for exploitation of natural resources (hydrocarbons, water, heat) or long-term storage of waste products ( CO2, nuclear waste), it is of paramount importance to understand this so-far understudied environment. Over the last two decades, new findings have shown that microbes mediate many processes that were previously considered as abiotic. IODP studies in the marine realm have been the driving factor in studying the subsurface biosphere, whereas the terrestrial geomicrobiological community associated with ICDP is lagging behind, despite the great societal and scientific need to explore the terrestrial subsurface biosphere. The main reason for this is the much lower visibility and connectedness of the terrestrial deep 64 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / THE UBIQUITOUS HIDDEN BIOSPHERE ICDP

References

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CATACLYSMIC EVENTS — IMPACT CRATERS AND PROCESSES

Christian Koeberl Department of Lithospheric Research, University of Vienna, Austria Philippe Claeys Earth System Science, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium

Figure 33. The Ouarkziz impact crater, northwestern Algeria, formed by an asteroid impact less than 70 million years ago.

Lay of the land punctual, external, highly energetic events. Currently, of the 185 known On February 15, 2013, a brilliant fireball terrestrial impact craters about one was observed over the southern Ural third are not exposed on the surface region (Russia), followed by an explo- and can only be studied by geophysics sion and shock wave that damaged sev- or drilling. In addition, even exposed eral buildings and injured more than craters require drill cores to obtain a thousand people in the region. deeply buried impactite lithologies, to provide ground-truth for geophysi- Interplanetary collisions recorded in cal studies or models, and to gain a meteorites and the ubiquitous presence 3D view of the interior of the struc- of impact craters on solid planetary sur- ture. Considering that since the early faces demonstrated that since the origin earth Hadean times collisions have of the solar system cratering constitutes shaped terrestrial planets and that some a fundamental geological process. On impact events demonstrably affected Earth, more than 30 years of Creta- the geological and biological evolution ceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) debates led to on Earth, the formation and understand- a new paradigm in geology by demon- ing of impact structures are of interest strating that biological evolution is not not only to earth scientists, but also to only influenced by superficial or inter- society in general. nal geological processes, but also by 67 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / CATACLYSMIC EVENTS — IMPACT CRATERS AND PROCESSES ICDP

Past accomplishments in ICDP results were published in two special issues of the journal Meteoritics and Several meteorite impact structures Planetary Science in June and July 2004 have been drilled in ICDP projects (e.g., (Urrutia-Fucugauchi et al., 2004). Chicxulub, El’gygytgyn, Lake Bosumtwi, Chesapeake Bay). Meteorite impact Bosumtwi (Ghana): The 11 km diame- studies in ICDP projects have contrib- tre, 1.1 Ma old Bosumtwi impact crater uted considerably to the heat and mass in Ghana is arguably the best-preserved transfer and hydrothermal processes of complex young impact structure. It dis- impact processes (see earlier chapter on plays a pronounced rim, and is almost Heat and Mass Transfer), and provided completely filled by Lake Bosumtwi, a means to test the prevailing theories of hydrologically closed basin, in which impacts (Poag et al., 2004; Abramov and an approximately one-million-year Kring, 2007; Zurcher and Kring, 2004, continuous finely laminated sedimen- Schulte et al., 2010; Balburg et al., 2010; tary sequence was deposited. Within the Ferriere et al., 2008; Sanford, 2005). In framework of an international multi- addition, the deep holes have given use- disciplinary ICDP-led drilling project, ful opportunities to study the present 16 drill-cores were obtained at six loca- thermal regime and hydrogeology of tions, using the GLAD-800 lake-drill- impact structures and the thermal and ing system, from June to October 2004. hydraulic properties of shock metamor- The 14 sediment cores were investigated phic rocks (Willhelm et al. 2004, 2005; for paleoenvironmental indicators. The Popov et al., 2004; Mayr et al. 2008; two impactite cores, LB-07A and LB- Čermak et al., 2009; Šafanda et al, 2005, 08A drilled into the deepest section of 2009; Gondwe et al., 2010; Maharaj the annular moat (540 m) and the flank et al., 2013; Sanford et al., 2013). of the central uplift (450 m), respective- ly are the main subject of a special issue Chicxulub (Mexico): The Chicxulub of the journal Meteoritics and Planetary crater at the tip of the Yucatán Penin- Science (see Koeberl et al., 2007). sula (México), is the world’s third largest known impact structure and is widely Chesapeake Bay ( USA): The Late accepted to have been responsible for Eocene Chesapeake Bay impact struc- the dramatic environmental changes at ture lies buried at moderate depths the K/Pg boundary. The CSDP (Chicx- below Chesapeake Bay in Southeast- ulub Scientific Drilling Project) bore- ern Virginia, USA. It inviting target for hole Yaxcopoil-1 (Yax-1) was drilled ICDP drilling because of the location of from December 2001 through March the impact on the Eocene continental 2002 and extended to a depth of 1510 m. shelf, its three-layer target structure, its Integration of the Yax-1 drill results with large size (about 85 km diametre), its the existing geophysical and borehole status as the source of the North Ameri- database led to a revised crustal model can tektite strewn field, its temporal for the multi-ring Chicxulub structure association with other late Eocene ter- (Morgan et al. 2005). The main CSDP restrial impacts, its documented effects 68 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / CATACLYSMIC EVENTS — IMPACT CRATERS AND PROCESSES ICDP

on the regional groundwater system, mentary rocks and address the effect of and its previously unstudied effects on water and volatiles in target strata. the deep microbial biosphere. Details about this project can be found in, e.g., 3) Understand the different phases of Gohn et al. (2008, 2009). the cratering process, and in particular a ) the excavation of the transient cavity, El’gygytgyn (Russia): The El’gygytgyn its geometry and the reaction of differ- impact structure in Chukutka, Arctic ent types the target lithologies (ex. vola- Russia, is the only terrestrial impact cra- tile-rich vs dry silicates) as they are tra- ter currently known formed in mostly versed by the shock waves originating acid volcanic rocks. In addition, it has from the impact point, b ) the formation provided an excellent sediment trap that of the central-peak, peak-ring or for records paleoclimatic information for the largest structures, multi-rings that the 3.6 million years since its formation. result, as the pressure is released, from For these two main reasons, because of the uplift of the compressed deep lithol- the importance for impact and paleocli- ogies, and their subsequent collapse at mate research, El’gygytgyn was the sub- the end of the cratering process. ject of an ICDP drilling project in 2008 and 2009. Recently, results from the 4) Document the final modification of impact aspects of the project have been the crater by margin collapse, the behav- published in a special issue of the jour- iour of mega-blocks, and the evolution nal Meteoritics and Planetary Science of bounding fault geometries at depth — (Koeberl et al., 2013). merging into a decollement or some type of distributed brittle deformation. Further impact-related projects are the 2007 FAR-DEEP and the 2011–12 Bar- 5) Understand the formation, emplace- berton drillings. ment and magmatic evolution of melt- sheets and their relationships at depth Fundamental open questions to the underlying shocked / fractured basement. The following list singles out a number of aspects of impact cratering and their 6) Complement numerical modelling effects on the global earth system that through a better understanding of the can be investigated with impact crater interior of impact structures, i.e., the drilling. distribution and types of impactites generated in different target environ- 1) Obtain ground truth for confirma- ments, the incorporation of a meteoritic tion of origin of structures (not without components in the melt phases, differ- other objectives). entiate fall-back from fall-out suevites, track the spatial decay of shock effects 2) Understand the role of target rock and rock damage, estimate the total types ranging from crystalline to sedi- energy released etc. 69 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / CATACLYSMIC EVENTS — IMPACT CRATERS AND PROCESSES ICDP

7) Find evidence in the micro- to mac- focus on contributing to solve fun- ro-scale for the transient loss of strength damental questions of impact crater- in crater material to verify models such ing. The priority should not be to focus as acoustic fluidisation. on specific characteristics one particular crater. Priority has to be given to 8) Link ejecta and source crater to achieving a better understanding of the document the transport, dispersal and general processes, which form the cra- deposition of the material throw out of ter and lead to regional and global geo- the crater and its timing according to logical, environmental and biological Figure 34. Outcrop of Vredefort Impact rocks in South Africa. different processes distributed locally effects. Future scientific drilling projects around the structure or in some case must include and interpret all availa- globally. ble geoscience data (from drill core to remote sensing). Finally, these drilling 9) Constrain the role of crater size, com- projects should be interdisciplinary (see position of target and energy trans- Bosumtwi for example) and focused on fer from the cratering process to the world-class geological sites and stimu- global Earth system and the effects of late collaboration with other interna- large, catastrophic impact events on the tional organizations (e.g., IODP) or in- environment and the biosphere includ- dustry (Ex. Mjølnir). At the same time, ing cause-effect relationships for mass impact-related scientific drilling should extinctions. integrate as much as possible state-of- the-art research efforts into biologi- 10) Understand the chemical and physical, paleo-climate, resources and socio- cal processes during vapour, melt and economic aspects of impact craters. dust interaction with atmosphere. Sudbury, Canada: The Sudbury Struc- 11) Utilization of impact structures for ture (Canada) offers the only example of paleo-climatic/environmental investi- a basin-sized (250 km diameter) impact gations, and to understand the forma- structure on Earth that can be examined tion associated resources (oil & gas, ore at a range of stratigraphic levels from mineralization). the shocked basement rocks of the orig- inal crater floor up through the impact 12) Understand the time-dependant melt sheet and on through the fallback effects during the formation of large material and the crater-filling sedimen- impact melt complexes during differen- tary sequence. It hosts one of the world's tiation and post-impact hydrothermal largest concentrations of magmatic Ni- activities. Cu-Pt-Pd-Au mineralization, which formation mechanisms still require clar- Future scientific targets ifications. Sudbury is the premier local- ity on Earth to study processes related Specific Suggestions for Future Im- to impact and planetary accretion, as pact-Related Drilling Projects Future well as a wide range of magmatic dif- ICDP drillings of impact sites should ferentiation including the generation of 70 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / CATACLYSMIC EVENTS — IMPACT CRATERS AND PROCESSES ICDP

large magmatic sulfide deposits through This project would characterize the type scientific drilling. An international and proportion of deep-crater rocks workshop funded by ICDP was held at entrained within the ejecta blanket and Sudbury in September 2003 to review transported over large geographic areas, current geological, geophysical and geo- as part of fast-moving turbulent cloud technical studies and results from exist- of vapor, molten and solid particles. ing exploration drilling efforts to for- mulate a full proposal to ICDP. Drilling issues

Chicxulub, Yucatan, Mexico: Because The approximately 185 recognized of its size and importance, the Chicxu- impact structures on Earth ranging in lub structure certainly requires more size from ~ 300 km to a few tens of drilling to understand its formation, vis- meters in diameter are classified into ualize its internal 3 D morphology and three types: simple craters (e.g., Mete- ultimately how it so drastically affected or Crater), complex craters (e.g., the biosphere. A deep drilling within Bosumtwi, Chesapeake Bay), and multi- the central peak-ring would reach the ring basins (e.g., Chicxulub, Vredefort). thick melt-sheet surmised by geophysi- Each crater morphology-type implies cal studies and perhaps, barely pene- different formation processes controlled trated by the old Pemex oil exploration essentially by the energy release and the well Chicxulub 1 at about 1580 m below composition of the target lithologies. sea level. Understanding the formation, differentiation and emplacement Our current understanding, as revealed of this melt would constitute major by direct examination of the subsurface advances in our current understanding character of terrestrial impacts and their of crater formation, and magma evolu- deposits is limited, in most cases, to tion in general. On Early Earth, simi- data from a single drill hole. Such single lar impact related vast melt-sheet likely drill hole represents, for a 50 km diam- played a role in the formation of the first eter structure, 1 × 10-10% of the area or crust, and comparable processes must 1 × 10-4% of the diameter. There are no have occurred on differentiated aster- cores, which extend through or deeply oid such as Vesta. Moreover, in anal- into the central uplift or the floor depos- ogy with Sudbury, ore mineralization its (allochthonous and autochthonous could be associated with the evolution fragmental material with and without of this melt-sheet. Further down from melt or the melt sheet) or the bounding the melt-sheet, drilling at such location faults of complex craters. No cores have would also eventually reach deep crus- been obtained into the walls of craters tal lithologies brought up during the or sufficiently deep through the floor, uplift of the central peak ring. Another and away from the rim, to examine the option is a sequence of shallow drill- manner in which the shock effects are ings outside the crater to document the attenuated with distance. emplacement of the thick ejecta blanket that extend over > 300 km from the rim. 71 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / CATACLYSMIC EVENTS — IMPACT CRATERS AND PROCESSES ICDP

The center of complex impact cra- yet been defined. Additional drilling at ters typically has a central uplift. There, the Chicxulub impact could shed light rocks are raised from significant depth on the target materials and the man- below the crater and remain at shallow ner in which they were altered by the levels after the impact. Within the cen- impact and modified the global environ- tral uplift, lithologies that were orig- ment. A particularly relevant question inally at greater depth are exposed, with respect to impact-extinction cor- allowing access by means of drilling, in relations regards differences in the target large structures, to lower crustal rocks rocks and how alteration of that materi- that would otherwise not be accessible al changes the atmosphere composition through other geological processes, such and atmospheric thermal regime. as tectonic or mountain building. Science targets at impact structures and Impact craters can produce relatively considerations for the future: long-lived hydrothermal systems. The • Does a unique geological, geochemical studies of such systems have application and geophysical signature exist for to commercial mineralization, hydro- large terrestrial craters? thermal alteration processes, and extrem- • Will we be able to identify (finger- ophile habitats. Some impact structures print) the ‘remnants of early Earth are associated with significant economic impacts’ in Archean crustal blocks? deposits. Sudbury ( Canada ) hosts Ni- • Do we overestimate the melt Cu-Pt minerals. The Cantarell oil field volume production in small to in Mexico, the world’s 8th largest, is midsize craters? associated with the Chixculub structure. • This has consequences for the cooling Impact structures in the Williston Basin history of craters (such as the ( US / Canada ), Ames ( Oklahoma ), Avak existence/longevity of post-impact ( Alaska ), etc., are important hydrocar- hydrothermal activity in bon reservoirs. impact craters, mineral deposits, etc.) • Impact crater research offers a special Ages of impact events are poorly known opportunity to establish a better and can only be directly determined by link between absolute age determina- analysis of melted material produced tions (dating) and paleontological by the impact, both in terms of radio- time scales. metric ages and biostratigraphic ages. • We need to study more craters to get a Age data provide insight into the crater- better handle on the role of geological ing rate on Earth and the correlation of setting (sediment versus hard-rock impact events to terrestrial extinctions environments, rheological models for and the possibility of periodic increas- high pressure and temperatures (can es in the crater rate. While there is a we do better than acoustic fluidization clear temporal association between the models?), do we know the equation(s) K / Pg boundary and its extinction and of state for realistic (complex) geo- the Chicxulub impact, the specific cau- logical target rocks (including water sality mechanism of the impact has not saturated sediments)?). 72 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / CATACLYSMIC EVENTS — IMPACT CRATERS AND PROCESSES ICDP

• Drilling outside an impact crater • What causes the weakening may provide us with another set of that allows crater collapse geological markers (such as tektites —thermal softening, acoustic in the sedimentary column), and fluidization, or something else? in the immediate vicinity of craters • What is the nature of rings in we may obtain information about multi-ring basins? shock deformation, the mobility of • How is the melt volume and melt impact melts and cooling history. distribution related to the target • Establish ‘typical crater structure’ rheology (porosity, sediments versus for complex craters on Earth, and how crystalline) and impactor type they evolve from one morphological and velocity? type to another with increasing crater size. Recommendations • Refine the ages of the majority of impact craters, as only 18 of the 184 Scientific drilling of large craters pro- craters are dated with a precision vides essential petrological, structural, of 2% (Jourdan et al. 2013). Precision geochronological, and geophysical data, dating is capital to understand the allowing a quantum leap forward in relationships between impact and our understanding of the evolution of environmental evolution as well large impact structures and the physi- as answering planetary scale questions cal, chemical and biological processes regarding frequency of impact, that have operated within these craters crater clusters, asteroid or comet over time. Links to other important top- showers, etc. ics in continental drilling (such as fault • Determine the nature of a topographic studies, palaeoclimate, human origins, peak ring. deep biosphere, natural resources) allow • Determine the effect of target for joint projects. The determination lithology and target layering on of the energy relationships of impacts, crater formation. their effects on the environment, and • How does obliquity of impact affect the impact hazard assessment provide the total size of the crater formed essential socio-economic reasons to use and the environmental effect drilling in the study of impact processes of the impact (experiments and on the Earth. numerical models give very different answers to this)? • Can we determine the direction and angle of impact from the ejecta deposits? • How serious is the threat of a large impact today? 73 SCIENCE PLAN ELEMENTS / CATACLYSMIC EVENTS — IMPACT CRATERS AND PROCESSES ICDP

References

Abramov, O. and Kring, D. A.: Numerical modeling of impact- Schulte, P., Alegret, L., Arenillas, I., Arz, J. A., Barton, P. J., induced hydrothermal activity at the Chicxulub crater, Bown, P. R., Bralower, T. J., Christeson, G. L., Claeys, P., Meteoritics & Planetary Science 42, 93–112, 2007. Cockell, C. S., Collins, G. S., Deutsch, A., Goldin, T. J., Gohn, G. S., Koeberl C., Miller K. G., and Reimold W. U. (Eds.): Goto, K., Grajales-Nishimura, J. M., Grieve, R. A., The ICDP–USGS Deep Drilling Project in the Chesa- Gulick, S. P., Johnson, K. R., Kiessling, W., Koeberl, C., peake Bay Impact Structure: Results from the Eyreville Kring, D. A., MacLeod, K. G., Matsui, T., Melosh, J., Core Holes, Geological Society of America, Special Montanari, A., Morgan, J. V., Neal, C. R., Nichols, D. J., Paper 458, 975 pp., 2009. Norris, R. D., Pierazzo, E., Ravizza, G., Rebolledo- Gohn, G. S., Koeberl C., Miller K. G., Reimold W. U., Vieyra, M., Reimold, W. U., Robin, E., Salge, T., Browning J. V., Cockell C. S., Horton J. W., Kenkmann T., Speijer, R. P., Sweet, A. R., Urrutia-Fucugauchi, J., Kulpecz A. A., Powars D. S., Sanford W. E., and Vajda V., Whalen, M. T., Willumsen, P. S.: The Chicxulub Voytek, M. A.: Deep drilling into the Chesapeake Bay asteroid impact and mass extinction at the Creta- impact structure, Science 320, 1740–1745, 2008. ceous–Palaeogene boundary, Science 327, 1214–1218, Jourdan, F., Reimold, W. U., and Deutsch, A.: Dating 2010. terrestrial impact structures, Elements 8(1), 49–53, Urrutia-Fucugauchi, J., Morgan, J., Stöffler, D., and Claeys, P.: doi:10.2113/gselements.8.1.4, 2008. The Chicxulub Scientific Drilling Project ( CSDP ), Mete- Koeberl, C. and Milkereit, B.: Continental drilling and the oritics and Planetary Science 39, 787–790, 2004. study of impact craters and processes—an ICDP Wilhelm, H., Popov, Y., Burkhardt, H., Safanda, J., Cermak, V., perspective. In: Continental Scientific Drilling Heidinger, P., Korobkov, D., Romushkevich, R., Mayr, S.: (Eds. Harms, U., Koeberl, C., and Zoback, M. D.), Heterogeneity effects in thermal borehole measure- Springer, Heidelberg, 95–161, 2007. ments in the Chicxulub impact crater, Journal of Koeberl, C., Milkereit, B., Overpeck, J. T., Scholz, C. A., Geophysics and Engineering 2(4), 357–363, 2005. Amoako, P. Y. O., Boamah, D., Danuor, S. K., Karp, T., Zurcher, L., Kring, D. A.: Post-impact hydrothermal alteration Kueck, J., Hecky, R. E., King, J., and Peck, J. A.: An in the Yaxcopoil-1 hole, Chicxulub impact structure, international and multidisciplinary drilling project into Mexico, Meteoritics and Planetary Science 39(7), a young complex impact structure: The 2004 ICDP 1199–1221, 2004. Bosumtwi impact crater, Ghana, drilling project— An overview, Meteoritics and Planetary Science 42, 483–511, 2007. Koeberl, C., Pittarello, L., Reimold, W. U., Raschke, U., Brigham-Grette, J., Melles, M., and Minyuk, P.: El’gygytgyn impact crater, Chukotka, Arctic Russia: Impact cratering aspects of the 2009 ICDP drilling project, Meteoritics and Planetary Science 48, 1108–1129, 2013. Mayr, S. I., Burkhardt, H., Popov, Y., Wittmann, A.: Estima- tion of hydraulic permeability considering the micro morphology of rocks of the borehole YAXCOPOIL-1 (Impact crater Chicxulub, Mexico),International Journal of Earth Sciences 97(2), 385–399, 2008. Morgan, J., Warner, M., Urrutia-Fucugauchi, J., Gulick, S., Christeson, G., Barton, P., Rebolledo-Vieyra, M., and Melosh, J.: Chicxulub crater seismic survey prepares way for future drilling, EOS Transactions of the Ameri- can Geophysical Union 86, 325–328, 2005. Poag, C. W., Koeberl, C., Reimold, W. U.: The Chesapeake Bay Crater, Springer, New York, 522 pp., 2004. Popov, Y., Romushkevich, R., Bayuk, I., Korobkov, D., Mayr, S., Burkhardt, H., Wilhelm, H.: Physical properties of rocks from the upper part of the Yaxcopoil-1 drill hole, Chicxulub crater, Meteoritics and Planetary Science 39(6), 799–812, 2004. Sanford, W. E.: A simulation of the hydrothermal response to the Chesapeake Bay bolide impact, Geofluids 5, 185–201, 2005. Sanford, W. E., Doughten, M. W., Coplen, T. B., Hunt, A. G., Bullen, T. D.: Evidence for high salinity of Early Cretaceous sea water from the Chesapeake Bay crater, nature letter, doi:10.1038/nature12714, 2013. 74 LINKS WITH OTHER ORGANISATIONS ICDP

LINKS WITH OTHER ORGANISATIONS — TOWARDS A MORE INTEGRATED APPROACH TO SCIENTIFIC EARTH DRILLING

Ulrich Harms GFZ—German Research Centre for Geosciences, Germany Keir Becker Rosenstiel School of Marine & Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, USA

International scientific drilling has cross-programme issues and oppor- developed over the past five decades in tunities were addressed at a December the marine, continental, and Antarctic 2011 ICDP / IODP Task Force meeting, realms, culminating in the current inter- but implementing any recommenda- national programmes IODP, ICDP, tions from that meeting was suspend- ANDRILL and others. While there is a ed pending renewal and reorganisa- wide overlap in the overarching scien- tion of IODP. The reorganisation of the tific objectives of these programmes, post-2013 IODP in three branches with their structures and organisations have more independent funding and deci- remained independent and with signifi- sion-making, as well as preparation of cant differences. On the one hand, there this White Paper have provided the best are technical differences in the various opportunity to date to increase the level tools deployed in operations on long- of cooperation and coordination among term chartered drilling vessels versus programmes. Shortly after theICDP Sci- short-term contracted land drilling rigs ence Conference (November 2013) both of opportunity, but there has also been programmes agreed on a joint call for important engineering cooperation such new proposals with focus on land–sea as the sharing of hydraulic piston cor- transects. These united proposals will be ing designs between ODP / IODP and reviewed and decided on by coordinat- ICDP / DOSECC. More importantly, ed panel actions and will be funded and there have been significant differenc- executed together. es in funding models, from full programme funding over several years A number of accompanying joint ac- ( ODP / IODP ) to partial support of sin- tions should be considered to support gle projects ( ICDP ), and this has led to these goals: important differences in the way projects 1) The programmes should ensure are proposed, evaluated, and supported. that coupled and joint proposals are reviewed and nurtured in a coordinated Recently, several projects addressed approach to ensure cooperatively fund- research themes that cross shorelines ing and timing. The pragmatic way for- ( ‘amphibious projects’) and require ward is to harmonise review panel meet- participation by more than one pro- ing dates and venues for joint discussion gramme. However, to date these joint and decision. proposals have been independent- 2) This Science Plan has taken theIODP ly proposed, reviewed, and nurtured Science Plan into account and the inter- until approved or rejected. Important national drilling programmes should 75 AMPHIBIOUS SCIENTIFIC DRILLING

Achim Kopf MARUM—Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, Bremen University, Bremen, Germany

At times of global change and increas- shaking, formation of microbial gas, correlations, and may also function ing urbanisation of coastal areas, dissociation of gas hydrate, sediment as early-warning systems in case the well-being of its populations rep- deformation and human activity, a real-time data transfer is realised. resents one of the major challenges to name just a few. Still, the exact for society. The UN Environmental nature of onshore and offshore Affordable drilling onshore and Panel notes an increase in the number landslides is incompletely understood offshore by utilising mission-specific of natural hazard events per year so that scientific drilling and bore- drilling platforms is the only means to over the past 100 years. A particularly hole monitoring is essential. Only an thoroughly study phenomena such as good example is the Ligurian coast, amphibious approach can set up coastal geohazards, which represent a France. The most recent event an appropriate network of observation global societal threat and challenging was the 1979 Nice Airport landslide, points to allow researchers a compre- scientific endeavour. ICDP and which caused a tsunami, numerous hensive landslide understanding IODP are working closely together casualties, and severe damage to and hazard assessment. Boreholes to streamline their respective proce- the capital and infrastructure along on land will help characterising the dures so that amphibious projects this part of the French Riviera. inputs and discharge rates of fluids as like this one can come to fruition. well as the permeability and strength In slope failure processes, fluids play of the sediment or rock in the aquifer a major role since the water and gas system. Offshore boreholes will then between the particles lower cohesive serve to monitor how sediment strength and favour disaggregation properties and fluid flow change and slip. Causes for enhanced as a function of the inputs. Borehole fluid flow and overpressure in the instruments are capable of unambigu- underground include precipitation, ously identifying landslide triggers, groundwater charging, earthquake allow hole-to-hole experiments and

Figure 35. The effects of the 1979 tsunami in the village of Antibes Figure 36. Composite cross-section of the Ligurian amphibious drilling profile, combining geological information onshore with marine seismic profiles. Black vertical lines indicate locations of existing groundwater wells. Triangles represent the ( sometimes projected ) sites proposed for amphibic scientific drilling ( Green = ICDP, blue = IODP ). Marine seismic reflection profile with the top of the Pliocene conglomerates underlying the slumped as well as deltaic sediments composed of permeable Holocene sand interbedded with clay. Blue arrows mark Var river discharge and groundwater flow in Quaternary and Pliocene ( ? ) units. 76 LINKS WITH OTHER ORGANISATIONS ICDP

then cooperate to identify high pri- A number of scientific themes have ority science themes for future joint already been identified for closer col- approaches. Toward this end, joint the- laboration between ICDP and IODP. matic workshops should be further These include investigations at conti- developed and the programmes should nental margins, large igneous provinces, cooperate on unified calls for propos- ophiolite belts, and major plate bounda- als (e.g., in EOS and on the internet) for ry faults. In addition, combined techno- land-sea-transect projects. logical projects make good sense across 3) Common outreach can be greatly the land–sea boundary. These include improved through better linking of sea-level studies, investigations of per- websites. mafrost across continental margins, and 4) The programmes should consider investigations of active fault processes at modifying and eventually unifying pro- plate boundaries as a result of the programme support offices for proposal gressive build-up and release of tectonic support and nurturing. stress and strain.

Finally, the research infrastructure avail- The latter is particularly topical at able in ICDP and IODP, such as the present. IODP has undertaken a dec- mobile components used in ECORD adal programme of drilling and observ- operations, should be further integrated, atory installation to understand the and technology such as drilling, logging, controls on large ‘megathrust’ quakes sample storage and data curation should (M > 8) that occur offshore and threaten be shared more closely. areas such as Japan, Central America, and Cascadia. Earthquakes in tectonic Although it is premature to consid- zones inside continents result in signif- er full integration of international sci- icant disasters and have been targeted entific drilling programmes, there is an by ICDP. The first efforts at drilling into obvious need for streamlining. There active fault systems by ICDP and IODP is a strong core of nations providing were ground-breaking and fraught with funding to IODP and ICDP, and many technical challenges. ICDP is now drill- already handle this support through a ing into a fault system in the Sea of Mar- single national programme. According- mara, in Turkey, and on the Alpine Fault ly, potential synergies must be utilised in New Zealand. Better characterisa- and a concerted approach to use drill- tion of fault-zone behaviour will allow ing to answer critical question for earth development of predictive capabilities science will be the way forward. An and ultimately help to save lives through overarching parent organisation with better definition of hazardous zones and independent but nevertheless fully coor- tighter regulation of construction prac- dinated organisations is a pragmatic way tices. Fault-zone observatories must forward. have onshore to offshore links and must be integrated with regional programmes which link multiple geophysical and geochemical sensor systems. 77 LINKS WITH OTHER ORGANISATIONS ICDP

Figure 37. Jack up platform used in shallow waters inaccessible for drilling vessels and land drill rigs. 78 ROLE OF INDUSTRY ICDP

ROLE OF INDUSTRY

Stefan Luthi Applied Geology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands Nick Arndt Institut des Sciences de la Terre, Université de Grenoble, Saint-Martin d’Hères, France

Figure 38. ‘Columbia Protecting Science and Industry’ by sculptor Caspar Buberl above the main entrance on the north side of the Arts and Industries Building ( Smithsonian museum ) in Washington, D.C.

From a societal, technological and finan- companies, semi-national and nation- cial point of view it would be highly al research organisations, and oil and desirable for ICDP to have closer links gas companies who often operate under with industry. This occurs now prima- government guidelines that require sig- rily in the form of contractor–client nificant in-house and outsourced R & D relationships whereas ICDP and indus- investments. try would both benefit substantially from a relationship based on scientific Several forms of collaboration or part- and technological collaboration on a nership can be envisioned, such as full mutual and balanced give-and-take ICDP membership, project-based col- partnership. Potential industry partners laboration or technological develop- include companies in upstream oil and ment contracts. Over the years ICDP gas, mining and the geotechnical, geo- has enjoyed fruitful collaboration at the engineering and geothermal domains. project level—such as the IDDP project An interesting target group are major on Iceland and the Songliao Basin technology providers such as oil service project in China. Also, to aid in technol- 79 ROLE OF INDUSTRY ICDP

ogy transfer in the field of drilling logis- urement logs, fluid and biological tics, an industry partner has served on its sampling tools, permanent downhole Executive Committee and was an official monitoring and more. ICDP will con- sponsor of ICDP. While experience at sider the development of databases as a our sister organisation IODP has re- means of developing and maintaining cently indicated that the large explora- industry contacts as well improving and tion and production ( E & P ) companies streamlining communication with key would prefer collaboration on a case-by- industry contacts. case project level basis, other potential partners might be open for full member- ICDP is a science driven organisation; ship. Specifically, some national or semi- the notion that industry membership national E & P companies might be open would change all that is unfounded. for membership in order to provide Symbiotic, transparently regulated and access for their national researchers to operated cooperation on a science and ICDP projects and at the same benefit technology level makes good sense. from new scientific and technological developments.

The petroleum, natural gas, and mining industries are constantly drilling exploration and production wells, and so tre- mendous potential exists for addressing scientific questions with these same boreholes. Project-based participation can be in the form of piggy-backing onto planned projects, through data exchange, or simply for PR purposes in a particular country or for a specific research goal. This is already ongoing in several ICDP projects and can be further enhanced and encouraged on both sides. A very promising area of industry involvement lies in technological development, where ICDP sees great potential in collaborating on issues such as high-pressure / high-temperature meas- 80 EDUCATION AND OUTREACH ICDP

EDUCATION AND OUTREACH

Thomas Wiersberg GFZ—German Research Centre for Geosciences, Germany

Scientific drilling has strong added val- tunately drilling is not taught at most ue in that it addresses the fundamen- earth science faculties of universities tal challenges facing mankind in the worldwide. Therefore an important twenty-first century, namely sustain- component of the ICDP is training of able resources, environmental chang- earth scientists, engineers, and tech- es and natural hazards. It is extreme- nicians in drilling-related know-how ly important that the general public, and technologies. ICDP offers a suite funding bodies and politicians alike are of different training measures, includ- made aware of that fact because drilling annual training courses and, on ing projects are mainly financed using request specific training courses on e.g. taxpayers’ money. Focused knowledge geophysical downhole logging, ICDP’s transfer, education and outreach must Drilling Information System DIS and be made visible to the public, to media ICDP’s Online Gas Monitoring Sys- and decision makers at all levels. Recent tem OLGA. Principal Investigators can discussions about the exploitation of inquire ICDP Training measures even unconventional gas resources, car- at their drill site. bon capture and storage and geothermal energy have brought deep drilling Principal investigators are overwhelmed into the public eye, and unfortunately by the complexity of planning a scien- often with a negative connotation. The tific project as they are not that famil- backlash affects all who are concerned iar with drilling engineering or project with the science and technology of the controlling and management. To miti- geological subsurface, be it for pure or gate these shortcomings, a training applied purposes. Enhanced education course on project management will be and outreach is needed at ICDP to bring implemented every second year to even across an understanding of geoscience have the programme benefit from. and the benefits of scientific drilling; it must be an integral part of every project In addition to the pure ICDP Training, from early on. ICDP will facilitate and actively assist in establishing joint training measures with Training geoscience partner programmes ( IODP, ANDRILL ), e.g. summer schools. Drilling is the ultimate method to retrieve matter from and yield information about the Earth’s interior structure, processes and evolution, but unfor- 81 ICDP THE JOURNAL SCIENTIFIC DRILLING — SCIENCE IN ACTION—

Ulrich Harms GFZ—German Research Centre for Geosciences, Germany

Earth science meets drilling engineer- • Progress reports that serve to publish Another facet of the journal is ing in any scientific coring project. new results of smaller projects its pioneering role in the cooperation Communicating the technical or shares of multi-phase missions between the ocean drilling realm challenges and initial scientific results • Technical reports that permit and Earth scientists working on con‑ requires some bridge construction the publication of new instruments, tinents as the ICDP and International as scientists tend to publish research methods or tool developments Ocean Discovery Program, IODP results while engineers write • Workshop reports that assist publica- jointly founded it in 2005. This paved technical reports but interested lay tion of novel ideas or conclusions the pathway for the close cooperation people, media and stakeholders of thematic meetings. They that is meanwhile throughout scien- want to hear about discoveries, sensa- also serve to call for participation tific drilling programs. tions and records. in new goals.

The journal Scientific Drilling addresses Scientific Drilling has meanwhile been these needs with: established not only as scientific • Scientific reports that provide insight publication but also as an outreach into research goals and first findings instrument for the whole scientific of a drilling campaign and describe drilling and earth science community, at the same time the technical the public and even for the oilfield achievements, tools deployed and service industry. tests performed

Figure 39. The Scientific Drilling Journal—a joint publication with IODP. 82 EDUCATION AND OUTREACH ICDP

Education Scientific sessions at those conferences remain also an important tool to address A first and easy step to encourage and scientific results from recently complet- enthuse the next generation of scientists ed or ongoing projects and to present is to provide high school teachers with new technical developments. Confer- the specialised materials and courses ence booths in cooperation with other they need. Similar to IODP’s ‘Teachers programmes provide information and at the Sea’ programme, ICDP will devel- exhibit instruments and videos. op a programme ‘Teachers at the Drill Site’ to bring continental scientific drill- The journal Scientific Drilling (www. ing to the classrooms. An alternative scientific-drilling.net) delivers peer- will be to bring pupils to the facilities, reviewed science reports from recently e.g. core repositories or drill sites. Drill completed and ongoing international sites are landmarks that draw attention scientific drilling projects as well as locals and people from a wider area, as reports on engineering developments, one can see by the great success of the technical developments, workshops, German KTB Geocenter. If not located progress reports, and includes also in remote areas, ICDP drill sites shall a short news section for updates about be considered to serve as Geoparks after community developments. The jour- project completion. nal is issued twice a year and serves as an additional outreach tool for the Outreach scientific community.

To the science community To raise awareness amongst young sci- ICDP unites a large and still growing entists, a better visibility of the pro- science community of about 6000 indi- gramme on social media (Facebook, viduals all over the world. Academics Twitter, LinkedIn) will help to raise the engaged in scientific drilling span very profile of ICDP. In addition, drilling different fields of expertise, e.g. geology, projects are now asked to open twitter biology, physics, and chemistry. Most accounts, post a Facebook page, or run scientists are not familiar with drilling a blog to stay in steady contact with the engineering. To conduct a successful community. Involvement of early career project sharing information and exper- scientists in ICDP projects is often dif- tise, furthering interaction and training ficult due to funding issues. Funds will is therefore a must. be raised on different levels to directly aid early career scientists, particularly Town Hall meetings at international doctoral students and post-doctoral fel- conferences inform the scientific drill- lows. Merit-based awards for outstanding community about ongoing ICDP ing young researchers will be estab- drilling activities. These conferences will lished for grant, tuition, research costs, remain excellent opportunities to make and travel. Moreover, workshop pro- scientists aware of possible collabora- posals will become ‘open access’ and are tions. posted as an event on the ICDP website 83 ICDP THE VALUE OF ON-SITE TRAINING

Thomas Wiersberg GFZ—German Research Centre for Geosciences, Germany

Drilling develops more and more to The idea of the annual ICDP training The training includes lessons about an important and powerful tool in courses is to teach fundamentals project management, drilling tech- geosciences, but unfortunately drilling about drilling-related technologies nique, borehole measurements will not be taught in geoscientific and methods, but just as important is and interpretation, data management, faculties of the universities world to introduce the different languages samples & sample handling and wide. Therefore an important compo- and technical terms of scientists fundamentals of on-site geosciences. nent of ICDP is the capability and drilling engineers to minimise The lessons are taught by a team to train earth scientists, engineers, communication problems, problems of instructors who are specialists in and technicians. ICDP training in- which may lead to very cost-intensive their fields and who have an extensive cludes annual courses and, on request, bad decisions at the drillsite. theoretical and practical experience. theme-specific training e.g. on Specialists from the industry or data management, downhole logging, scientific institutes will be engaged or gas monitoring. for special topics or individual courses if necessary.

Since the founding of ICDP, 275 scientists, engineers and technicians from 37 countries, including all ICDP member countries, countries considering membership, and countries with ICDP drilling activities, have passed through ICDP training courses. ICDP is interested in integrating the training courses with active drilling projects and in holding the courses near a drillsite to bridge the gap between the classroom and practical application in the field. This will make the training as realistic as possible and maximise the training effect. The training courses last one week and are free of charge for the attendees.

Figure 40. ICDP training course feedback 84 EDUCATION AND OUTREACH ICDP

in due time. A comment section will be provided where people can input as well as ask to become involved.

To the public Target communities for public outreach measures include funding organisations and stakeholders, local communities, politicians and landowners, media, schools and universities and the interested public. Understanding cultural differences is a key element for the success of public outreach. Differences may include social customs, communication style and, last but not least, lan- guage. Therefore, public outreach activities including open days at drill sites, Figure 41. Young students with drill bit at the ICDP Snake River drill site, USA core repository visits, interviews, press releases and talks in schools and universities will be encouraged to get coordinated at a national level, ideally in cooperation between the project and the national ICDP office under consideration of national priorities. Material such as videos, brochures and flyers are available on the ICDP Website and will be developed further.

To develop a long-term outreach and education plan for ICDP, an ICDP outreach committee shall be launched including external experts for optimal output. 85 EDUCATION AND OUTREACH ICDP 86 EPILOGUE —ICDP IN ACTION ICDP

EPILOGUE —ICDP IN ACTION

Figure 42. The Alpine Fault drill site, New Zealand

An external evaluation committee • We stress affordability and cost- ( 2011 ) stated that ICDP is a leading effectiveness through sharing—a boon global earth science infrastructure pro- for scientists and sponsors alike. gramme, enabling world-class science of global impact to be conducted with • Our projects are designed very modest investments. to attract high quality researchers to address topics of high national and The programme continues to be highly international priority. effective in community-building and is driving integration in modern earth • There are clear intellectual benefits system science: to all participants arising from international cooperation. • We focus our scientific effort on drilling sites of global significance • We have our finger on the pulse of (World Geological Sites). socio-economic needs linked to water quality, climate change, sustainable resource development and natural hazard vulnerability. 87 EPILOGUE —ICDP IN ACTION ICDP

While the current ‘lean and mean’ man- In closing, the future looks bright for agement and financing system contin- ICDP. The Science Plan contained in ues to work well, flexibility and growth this White Paper presents exciting cut- are capped because of our membership ting edge ideas on exploring the struc- funding structure and because subsi- ture and workings of Earth’s subsurface. dies from industry or other third-party Many of the drilling targets are confined sources are limited. It is ironic that to continental systems and therefore ICDP, despite specialising in continen- come under ICDP’s auspices, but oth- tally based operations, and therefore ers transect the shoreline are therefore ideally suited to encourage research ideally suited for joint investigation projects with direct socioeconomic sig- alongside IODP. We seek to enhance nificance, attracts far less funding from throughput and diversity of projects national sponsors than does IODP. while maintaining the highest level of Attaining an overall higher visibility, as science quality and providing added well as the streamlining of cross-organ- value for our sponsors. To make this isational coordination, for example at a happen, the management and opera- European level, is needed to generate tions business model has been revised, increased funding from member coun- and we eagerly look forward to a new tries. ICDP management and opera- era in the illustrious history of ICDP. tional practices have been reviewed, and Glück auf! * changes proposed to enable the programme to grow and flourish. The current model, with an honorary Executive * Glueck auf! is the German miners' Committee Chairman and a team of greeting. highly enthusiastic and supportive vol- unteers running the organisation, is not ideal. Full-time dedicated management (‘professionalisation’) is prerequisite, and two models are under consideration. Additionally, a key asset of ICDP, the Operational Support Group, already strongly subsidised by GFZ, needs more manpower and technical upgrading, and this will be implemented step-wise. 88 ICDP

Figure Credits

Figure 1 p. 8 T. Wiersberg, ICDP, Germany Figure 2 p. 9 J. Kück, ICDP, Germany Figure 3 p. 10 ICDP, Germany Figure 4 p. 11 K. Behrends, ICDP, Germany Figure 5 p. 13 Y. Maystrenko, Geological Survey Norway and M. Scheck Wenderoth, GFZ, Germany Figure 6 p. 14 O. Oncken and M. Motagh, GFZ, Germany Figure 7 p. 15 T. Wiersberg, ICDP, Germany Figure 8 p. 17 U. Harms, GFZ, Germany Figure 9 p. 19 C. Knebel, ICDP, Germany Figure 10 p. 20 M. de Wit, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa Figure 11 p. 24 J. K. Nakata, U. S. Geological Survey, USA Figure 12 p. 25 R. E. Wallace, U. S. Geological Survey, USA Figure 13 p. 26 M. Bohnhoff, GFZ, Germany Figure 14 p. 27 M. Bohnhoff, GFZ, Germany Figure 15 p. 28 R. Conze, ICDP, Germany Figure 16 p. 29 ICDP, Germany Figure 17 p. 30 J. Mori, Kyoto University, Japan Figure 18 p. 32 NASA, USA Figure 19 p. 33 M. Schwab, GFZ, Germany Figure 20 p. 34 A. Brauer, GFZ, Germany Figure 21 p. 38 J. Schicks, GFZ, Germany Figure 22 p. 42 T. Walter, GFZ, Germany Figure 23 p. 43 T. Wiersberg, ICDP, Germany Figure 24 p. 45 E. Huenges, GFZ/KIT ( modified ), Germany Figure 25 p. 46 J. Salzer, GFZ, Germany Figure 26 p. 49 T. Wiersberg, ICDP, Germany Figure 27 p. 50 J. Matthey, Platinum Today image library Figure 28 p. 51 L. Hecht, Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin, Germany Figure 29 p. 52 ICDP, Germany Figure 30 p. 56 S. Liebner, GFZ, Germany Figure 31 p. 58 A. Gruner and R. Jarling, GFZ, Germany Figure 32 p. 61 K. Pedersen, MICANS, Sweden Figure 33 p. 66 NASA, USA Figure 34 p. 69 ICDP, Germany Figure 35 p. 75 Nice Martin Newspaper from, October 17, 1979 Figure 36 p. 75 A. Kopf, MARUM, Germany Figure 37 p. 77 G. Mountain, Rutgers University, USA Figure 38 p. 78 J. Adams, Wikimedia Commons Figure 39 p. 81 T. Wiersberg, ICDP, Germany Figure 40 p. 83 T. Wiersberg, ICDP, Germany Figure 41 p. 84 ICDP, Germany Figure 42 p. 86 J. Thompson, GNS Science, New Zealand Imprint

Publisher: International Continental Scientific Drilling Program GFZ—German Research Centre for Geosciences Potsdam, Germany

Please cite this publication as follows: Horsfield, B., Knebel, C., Ludden, J. and Hyndman, R. (Eds.): Unravelling the Workings of Planet Earth, Inter- national Continental Scientific Drilling Program, Potsdam, doi:10.2312/icdp.2014.001, 2014.

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