Federal Register / Vol. 78, No. 192 / Thursday, October 3, 2013 / Proposed Rules 61273

Programs. Specifically, how should have to assist FTA in assessing the December 2, 2013. Comments submitted transit state of good repair needs incremental benefit from adopting your electronically using the Federal identified in be addressed alongside suggestion? eRulemaking Portal (see ADDRESSES other investment goals in these section, below) must be received by XI. Next Steps and Public Participation financially-constrained plans? 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on the closing 121. How should safety targets be This ANPRM seeks input from the date. We must receive requests for considered in the planning process by public on these topics to ensure that the public hearings, in writing, at the State’s and MPOs? Should MPO’s be final rules are clear and effective. It is address shown in FOR FURTHER required to set a region-wide safety important that transit agencies, State INFORMATION CONTACT by November 18, target? Or, should MPO’s be required to agencies, SSO agencies, MPOs, other 2013. incorporate each of the safety targets organizations, as well as interested ADDRESSES: You may submit comments from each transit system within their members of the public that could by one of the following methods: jurisdiction into the performance-based potentially be affected by rules issued planning process? Or, should MPO’s after this ANPRM, take this opportunity (1) Electronically: Go to the Federal have discretion to choose between these to share thoughts, concerns, ideas, and eRulemaking Portal: http:// two approaches? How would each general comments on the topics www.regulations.gov. In the search box, approach make the planning process presented herein. enter FWS–R4–ES–2013–0033, which is easier or more difficult for transit After FTA reviews the comments the docket number for this rulemaking. agencies? collected through this ANPRM, FTA You may submit a comment by clicking will draft several Notices of Proposed on ‘‘Comment Now!’’ If your comments X. Estimating the Benefits and Costs of Rulemakings (NPRM) for the National will fit in the comment box provided, Requirements Safety Program and the TAM Program. please use this feature of http:// Executive Orders 12866 and 13563 These NPRMs will set forth proposed www.regulations.gov, as it is most direct agencies to propose or adopt a regulations based on FTA’s analysis of compatible with our comment review regulation only upon a reasoned the statutory requirements and relevant procedures. If you attach your determination that its benefits justify its issues, as well as comments received comments as a separate document, our costs, tailor a regulation to impose the from the public. Once FTA publishes preferred file format is Microsoft Word. least burden on society consistent with the proposed rules, stakeholders and the If you attach multiple comments (such obtaining the regulatory objectives, and public will have another opportunity to as form letters), our preferred format is in choosing among alternative provide comments that FTA will take a spreadsheet in Microsoft Excel. regulatory approaches, select those into consideration prior to issuing final (2) By hard copy: Submit by U.S. mail approaches that maximize net benefits. rules. or hand-delivery to: Public Comments Consistent with the requirements in Processing, Attn: FWS–R4–ES–2013– these executive orders, FTA seeks Peter Rogoff, 0033; Division of Policy and Directives comment on the following questions: Administrator. Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife 122. FTA seeks information from the [FR Doc. 2013–23921 Filed 10–2–13; 8:45 am] Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, MS public in order to assist it in assessing BILLING CODE 4910–57–P 2042–PDM; Arlington, VA 22203. the cost of alternative regulatory We request that you send comments approaches for implementing the only by the methods described above. National Safety Program and the DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR We will post all information received on National TAM System. For example, for http://www.regulations.gov. This commenters who suggest that FTA Fish and Wildlife Service generally means that we will post any consider adopting certain safety personal information you provide us performance criteria, minimum safety 50 CFR Part 17 (see the Information Requested section standards for vehicles, or objective [Docket No. FWS–R4–ES–2013–0033; below for more information). standards for measuring the condition of 4500030113] capital assets, or training standards, FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: what information do you have to assist RIN 1018–AZ15 Larry Williams, Field Supervisor, U.S. FTA in assessing the incremental cost of Fish and Wildlife Service, South Florida Endangered and Threatened Wildlife adopting your suggestion? FTA is Ecological Services Office, 1339 20th and Plants; Proposed Endangered interested in information to assist it in Street, Vero Beach, FL 32960, by Status for Brickellia mosieri (Florida assessing the full cost of the suggestion, telephone 772–562–3909, or by Brickell-bush) and Linum carteri var. such as the cost for transit agencies to facsimile 772–562–4288. Persons who carteri (Carter’s Small-flowered Flax) collect and assess information and the use a telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) may call the Federal cost to take action based on the AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, information. Interior. Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800–877–8339. 123. Likewise, FTA seeks information ACTION: Proposed rule. from the public to assist FTA in SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: assessing the potential benefits of SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Executive Summary alternative regulatory approaches for Wildlife Service (Service), propose to implementing the National Safety list Brickellia mosieri (Florida brickell- Why we need to publish a rule. Under Program and the National TAM System. bush) and Linum carteri var. carteri the Act, if we intend to list a species as For example, for commenters who (Carter’s small-flowered flax), as endangered or threatened throughout all suggest that FTA consider adopting endangered species under the or a significant portion of its range, we certain safety performance criteria, Endangered Species Act. If we finalize are required to promptly publish a minimum safety standards for vehicles, this rule as proposed, it would extend proposal in the Federal Register and objective standards for measuring the the Act’s protections to these plants. make a final determination on our condition of capital assets, or training DATES: We will accept comments proposal within one year. Listing a standards, what information do you received or postmarked on or before species as an endangered or threatened

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species can only be completed by proposed rule. We particularly seek submission—including any personal issuing a rule. comments concerning: identifying information—will be posted This document consists of a proposed (1) Both plants’ biology, range, and on the Web site. If your submission is rule to list Brickellia mosieri and Linum population trends, including: made via a hardcopy that includes carteri var. carteri as endangered (a) Habitat requirements for feeding, personal identifying information, you species. Elsewhere in today’s Federal breeding, and sheltering; may request at the top of your document Register, we propose to designate (b) Genetics and taxonomy; that we withhold this information from critical habitat for Brickellia mosieri and (c) Historical and current range public review. However, we cannot Linum carteri var. carteri under the Act. including distribution patterns; guarantee that we will be able to do so. Both plants are candidate taxa (i.e., (d) Historical and current population We will post all hardcopy submissions species or varieties) for which we have levels, and current and projected trends; on http://www.regulations.gov. Please on file sufficient information on and include sufficient information with your biological vulnerability and threats to (e) Past and ongoing conservation comments to allow us to verify any support preparation of a listing measures for the plants, their habitat, or scientific or commercial information proposal, but for which development of both. you include. a listing regulation has been precluded (2) The factors that are the basis for Comments and materials we receive, by other higher priority listing activities. making a listing determination for a as well as supporting documentation we This rule reassesses all available species under section 4(a) of the Act (16 used in preparing this proposed rule, information regarding status of and U.S.C. 1531 et seq.), which are: will be available for public inspection threats to both plants. (a) The present or threatened on http://www.regulations.gov, or by destruction, modification, or The basis for our action. Under the appointment, during normal business curtailment of their habitat or range; hours, at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Act, we may determine that a species is (b) Overutilization for commercial, an endangered or threatened species Service, South Florida Ecological recreational, scientific, or educational Services Office (see FOR FURTHER based on any of five factors: (A) The purposes; INFORMATION CONTACT). present or threatened destruction, (c) Disease or predation; modification, or curtailment of its (d) The inadequacy of existing Previous Federal Actions habitat or range; (B) overutilization for regulatory mechanisms; or Brickellia mosieri was first recognized commercial, recreational, scientific, or (e) Other natural or manmade factors as a candidate for possible future listing educational purposes; (C) disease or affecting their continued existence. on September 27, 1985 (50 FR 39526), predation; (D) the inadequacy of (3) Biological, commercial trade, or and we assigned the species a listing existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other relevant data concerning any priority number (LPN) of 2. Candidate other natural or manmade factors threats (or lack thereof) to these plants species are assigned LPNs based on affecting its continued existence. We and regulations that may be addressing immediacy and magnitude of threats, as have determined that the threats to both those threats. well as taxonomic status. The lower the Brickellia mosieri and Linum carteri var. (4) Additional information concerning LPN, the higher priority that species is carteri consist primarily of habitat loss the historical and current status, range, for us to determine appropriate action and modification through urban and distribution, and population size of using our available resources agricultural development, and lack of these plants, including the locations of (September 21, 1983; 48 FR 43100). adequate fire management (Factor A); any additional populations of these Category 2 candidates were those taxa proliferation of nonnative invasive plants. for which information contained in our plants, and sea level rise (Factor E); and (5) Current or planned activities in the files indicated that listing may be these threats are not reduced by existing areas occupied by these plants and appropriate, but for which additional regulatory mechanisms (Factor D). possible impacts of these activities on data were needed to support a listing We will seek peer review. We are these plants. proposal. seeking comments from knowledgeable (6) Additional information concerning Linum carteri var. carteri was also individuals with scientific expertise to the biological or ecological requirements first recognized as a candidate for review our analysis of the best available of these plants, including pollination possible future listing on September 27, science and application of that science and pollinators. 1985 (50 FR 39526), and assigned an and to provide any additional scientific Please note that submissions merely LPN of 1. Category 1 candidates were information to improve this proposed stating support for or opposition to the those taxa for which the Service had rule. Because we will consider all action under consideration without substantial information on biological comments and information received providing supporting information, vulnerability and threats to support the during the comment period, our final although noted, will not be considered appropriateness of proposing to list determinations may differ from this in making a determination, as section them as endangered or threatened proposal. 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act directs that species. On February 21, 1990, we determinations as to whether any Information Requested downgraded this variety to a category 2 species is an endangered or threatened candidate (55 FR 6184). We intend that any final action species must be made ‘‘solely on the Both Brickellia mosieri and Linum resulting from this proposed rule will be basis of the best scientific and carteri var. carteri remained on the based on the best scientific and commercial data available.’’ candidate list as published in what is commercial data available and be as You may submit your comments and now known as the Candidate Notice of accurate and as effective as possible. materials concerning this proposed rule Review (CNOR) until 1993 (55 FR 6184, Therefore, we request comments or by one of the methods listed in February 21, 1990; 58 FR 51144, information from the public, other ADDRESSES. We request that you send September 30, 1993). Both plants were concerned governmental agencies, comments only by the methods removed from the candidate list from Native American tribes, the scientific described in ADDRESSES. 1996 to 1998 because there was not community, industry, or any other If you submit information via http:// sufficient information on their interested parties concerning this www.regulations.gov, your entire biological vulnerability and threats to

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support issuance of a proposed rule. determinations will be made. On July (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 11) and Both plants were again placed on the 12, 2011, the Service reached an differentiating the species by leaf width candidate list in the 1999 CNOR agreement with another frequent and margin (i.e., B. mosieri having 1–3 (October 25, 1999, 64 FR 57534), in plaintiff group and further strengthened millimeter (mm) (0.04–0.12 in) wide, which we determined that listing was the workplan, which will allow the entire or obscurely toothed leaves warranted, but was precluded due to agency to focus its resources on the versus B. eupatorioides having 5–40 mm workloads and priorities. B. mosieri was species most in need of protection (0.2–1.6 in) wide, coarsely toothed assigned an LPN of 5, meaning that the under the Act. These agreements were leaves). magnitude of threats for the species approved by the court on September 9, While some sources (Integrated remained high but were not imminent. 2011. Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) L. c. var. carteri was assigned an LPN of 2013a, page numbers not applicable) Status Assessment for Brickellia 3, meaning that the magnitude of threats indicate that Brickellia eupatorioides mosieri and Linum carteri var. remained both high and immediate and var. floridana is the accepted taxonomy, carteri reflected its taxonomic status at the local sources including the online Atlas varietal level. Background of Florida Vascular Plants (Wunderlin Both plants remained on the It is our intent to discuss below only and Hansen 2008, page numbers not candidate list as published in the those topics directly relevant to the applicable), the Florida Department of CNORs from 2001 to 2004 (66 FR 54808, listing of Brickellia mosieri and Linum Agriculture and Consumer Services October 30, 2001; 67 FR 40657, June 13, carteri var. carteri as endangered in this (FDACS; Coile and Garland 2003, p. 7), 2002; 69 FR 24876, May 4, 2004). On proposed rule. and the Institute for Regional May 11, 2005, we published findings for Conservation (IRC) all use Brickellia both plants in the 2005 CNOR (70 FR Brickellia mosieri mosieri. Although there is not complete 24869) in response to a petition received Description agreement on whether this taxon is a on May 11, 2004. Brickellia mosieri variety or a species, there is consensus remained on the candidate list, but we Brickellia mosieri (Family: that it is a distinct taxon. Based upon changed the LPN from a 5 to an 8, Asteraceae) is a perennial herb. Mature the best available scientific information, meaning that the magnitude of threats to plants are 0.3–1.1 meters (m) (1.0–3.5 Brickellia mosieri is a distinct taxon, the species were moderate, but feet (ft)) tall, slender, erect, and endemic to Miami-Dade County in immediate (70 FR 24869). A primary branching (Chafin 2000, page numbers Florida. Synonyms include Brickellia factor noted in this downgrading was not applicable). Leaves are 1–3 eupatorioides var. floridana, Kuhnia the occurrence of 13 of the 17 known centimeters (cm) (0.4–1.2 inches (in)) eupatorioides var. floridana, and populations on conservation lands, long, alternate, narrow, linear, thick, Kuhnia mosieri (Wunderlin and Hansen which were being managed usually spreading or curved downward, 2008, page numbers not applicable). appropriately with prescribed fire and entire or slightly toothed, and resin- Climate control of invasive nonnative species. dotted (Chafin 2000, page numbers not Linum carteri var. carteri also remained applicable). The flower heads are in The climate of south Florida where on the candidate list, with an loose, open clusters at the ends of Brickellia mosieri occurs is classified as unchanged LPN of 3 (70 FR 24869). B. branches (Chafin 2000, page numbers tropical savanna and is characterized by mosieri and L. c. var. carteri remained not applicable). Disk flowers are white distinct wet and dry seasons and a on the candidate list as published in the in small, dense heads surrounded by monthly mean temperature above 18 CNORs from 2006 to 2012, with LPNs of hairy, slightly ribbed bracts; there are no degrees Celsius (°C) (64.4 degrees 8 and 3, respectively (71 FR 53756, ray flowers, although long-style Fahrenheit (°F)) in every month of the September 12, 2006; 72 FR 69034, branches (white, sometimes brown) may year (Gabler et al. 1994, p. 211). Freezes December 6, 2007; 73 FR 75176, appear to be rays (Chafin 2000, page can occur in the winter months, but are December 10, 2008; 74 FR 57804, numbers not applicable). infrequent at this latitude in south Florida. Rainfall in the pine rockland November 9, 2009; 75 FR 69222, Taxonomy November 10, 2010; 76 FR 66370, community where B. mosieri occurs October 26, 2011; and 77 FR 69994, Brickellia mosieri was first described exclusively, varies from an annual November 21, 2012). by Small in 1933 as Kuhnia mosieri average of 153–165 cm (60–65 in) in the On May 10, 2011, as part of an (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 11). In 1970, northern portion of the Miami Rock agreement with one of the agency’s most Long called the species Kuhnia Ridge to an average of 140–153 cm (55– frequent plaintiffs, the Service filed a eupatorioides var. floridana, reducing it 60 in) in the southern portion (Snyder workplan with the U.S. District Court to a variety of a more widespread et al. 1990, p. 238). Approximately 75 for the District of Columbia. The species occurring in the eastern United percent of yearly rainfall occurs during workplan will enable the agency to, over States (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 11). the wet season from June through a period of 6 years, systematically In 1971, Shinners included all members September (Snyder et al. 1990, p. 238). review and address the needs of more of the genus Kuhnia in Brickellia and than 250 species listed within the 2010 restored the plant to species status, Habitat CNOR, including Brickellia mosieri and calling it Brickellia mosieri (Bradley and Brickellia mosieri grows exclusively Linum carteri var. carteri, to determine Gann 1999, p. 11). In a 1989 study of the on the Miami Rock Ridge in Miami- if these plants should be added to the Brickellia eupatorioides complex, Dade County outside the boundaries of Federal Lists of Endangered and Turner identified it as a variety of the Everglades National Park (ENP). This Threatened Wildlife and Plants. This more widespread Brickellia area extends from the ENP boundary, workplan will enable the Service to eupatorioides, and gave it the new name near the Park entrance road, northeast again prioritize its workload based on Brickellia eupatorioides var. floridana. approximately 72 kilometers (km) (45 the needs of candidate species, while Wunderlin and Hansen (2003, pp. 300– miles (mi)) to its end near North Miami. also providing state wildlife agencies, 301) recognized Brickellia mosieri, Habitat conditions more specific to this stakeholders, and other partners clarity thinking the plant to be specifically area are highlighted below. The pine and certainty about when listing distinct from Brickellia eupatorioides rocklands are a unique ecosystem found

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on limestone substrates in three areas in pine rocklands, with only occasional Acalypha chamaedrifolia (bastard Florida—the Miami Rock Ridge, in the hardwoods such as Lysiloma copperleaf) (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. Florida Keys, and in the Big Cypress bahamensis (wild tamarind) and 12). B. mosieri may also be found in Swamp. The pine rocklands differ to Quercus virginiana (live oak) growing to close association with several other rare some degree between and within these tree size in Miami Rock Ridge pinelands plants, including Chamaesyce deltoidea areas with regard to substrate (e.g., (Snyder et al. 1990, p. 253). The shrub/ ssp. deltoidea (deltoid spurge), amount of exposed limestone, type of understory layer is a diverse mix of Chamaesyce deltoidea ssp. adhaerens soil), elevation, hydrology, and species species including both temperate and (wedge sandmat), Chamaesyce deltoidea composition (both plant and animal). tropical shrubs and palms. Dominant ssp. pinetorum (pineland sandmat), Pine rockland occurs on relatively flat plants in the shrub layer of pine Galactia smallii (Small’s milkpea), terrain, approximately 2–7 m (6.5–23.0 rocklands vary based on elevation, soils, Polygala smallii (tiny polygala), and ft) above sea level with an average and location, including nearby Argythamnia blodgettii (Blodgett’s elevation of approximately 3 m (9.8 ft) associated natural communities. The silverbush) (Bradley and Gann 199, p. (Service 1999, p. 3–167; Florida Natural pine rocklands where Brickellia mosieri 12). Areas Inventory (FNAI) 2010, p. 62). On occurs are characterized by an open Pine rockland occurs in a mosaic with the Miami Rock Ridge, oolitic limestone shrub canopy of Serenoa repens (saw primarily two other natural community is at or very near the surface, and palmetto), Myrica cerifera (wax myrtle), types—rockland hammock and marl solution holes occasionally form where Metopium toxiferum (poisonwood), and prairie. Pine rockland grades into the surface limestone is dissolved by Sideroxylon salicifolium (willow bustic) rockland hammock; pine rockland has organic acids. There is typically very as well as species with more restricted an open pine canopy, and rockland little soil development, consisting distribution within pine rocklands hammock has a closed, hardwood primarily of accumulations of low- including Sideroxylon reclinatum canopy. Pine rockland is a fire- nutrient sand, marl, clayey loam, and (buckthorn), Callicarpa americana maintained ecosystem—a well- organic debris found in solution holes, (beauty berry), Dodonaea angustifolia maintained pine rockland is a savanna- depressions, and crevices on the (varnish leaf), and Ilex cassine (dahoon like forest, but, in the absence of fire, it limestone surface (FNAI 2010, p. 62). holly) (Snyder et al. 1990, p. 254; will eventually succeed into rockland However, extensive sandy pockets can Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 12). The hammock. Historically, fires often be found at the northern end of the shrub layer in pinelands occurring in started in the adjacent prairie wetlands Miami Rock Ridge, beginning from the northern end of the Miami Rock and swept into the pinelands, which approximately North Miami Beach and Ridge more closely resembles pine often have suitable fuel conditions to extending south to approximately SW. flatwoods as a result of the amount of support surface fires that consume 216 Street (which runs east-west sandy soils in this area, with species primarily leaf litter (pine needles and approximately one-half mile south of such as Lyonia fruticosa (staggerbush), herbaceous fuel) and some understory Quail Roost Pineland) (Service 1999, p. Quercus minima (dwarf live oak), vegetation (Snyder et al. 1990, p. 258). 3–162). Brickellia mosieri tends to occur Quercus pumila (running oak), and Pine rockland plants have adapted to on exposed limestone with minimal Vaccinium myrsinites (shiny blueberry) frequent fires. Mature South Florida organic litter and in areas with only becoming more common (Snyder et al. slash pine is a highly fire-resistant minor amounts of substrate disturbance 1990, p. 255). The height and density of variety, and even its seedlings have thicker stems and are more fire-resistant (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 11). the shrub layer vary based on fire Pine rocklands are generally than typical slash pine seedlings frequency, with understory plants moderately to well drained, depending (Snyder et al. 1990, p. 259). growing taller and more dense as time on the porosity of the limestone Aboveground portions of hardwood since fire increases. substrate and landscape position, shrubs are typically killed by fire, but including nearby associated natural Pine rocklands in all three areas of often resprout below ground; palms communities. In pine rocklands on the Florida also boast a richly diverse typically produce new growth post-fire Miami Rock Ridge outside of ENP, the herbaceous layer, including a large from their unaffected apical buds. Pine water table seldom reaches the surface number of rare and endemic species rockland herbs, including Brickellia (Service 1999, p. 3–167). Bradley and such as Brickellia mosieri. The diversity mosieri, respond favorably to fire with Gann (1999) found one occurrence of of the herbaceous layer decreases as the rapid regrowth and increased flowering. Brickellia mosieri in a low-elevation density of the shrub layer increases (i.e., On one private conservation area, B. pine rockland (2–3 m above sea level) as understory openness decreases), and mosieri has only been observed in very close to a marl prairie. The pine pine rockland on the mainland has a flower immediately after prescribed rockland that contains this occurrence more diverse herbaceous layer due to burning has occurred (Pine Ridge may have flooded periodically during the presence of temperate species and Sanctuary; Glancy 2013, pers. comm.). the summer wet season. Known some tropical species that do not occur Fire is important for the removal of populations of B. mosieri are found at in the Florida Keys (FNAI 2010, p. 63). litter accumulation from the limestone elevations ranging from approximately The herbaceous layer can range from substrate and stimulation of herbaceous 1.7–4.8 m (5.5–15.8 ft). While species mostly continuous in areas with more growth as well as for maintaining an occurrences are distributed throughout soil development and little exposed open shrub layer. Evaluation of this range, there are two elevational limestone, to sparse where much of the herbaceous layers post-fire suggests that groupings in the landscape—one with limestone is at the surface. Most pine rocklands may have evolved under average elevations of approximately herbaceous species in pine rocklands a wide range of fire frequency, and some 1.7–2.1 m (5.5–7.0 ft) and the other, are perennials (Snyder et al. 1990, p. degree of variation in burn season, larger grouping between approximately 257). Common herbaceous associates of suggesting that pine rockland habitat 2.7 and 4.0 m (9.0 and 13.0 ft). B. mosieri in the Miami Rock Ridge pine historically existed as a mosaic in the Pine rockland is characterized by an rocklands include Schizachyrium landscape. The natural fire regime of open canopy of South Florida slash pine sanguineum (crimson bluestem), pine rockland is believed to be (Pinus elliottii var. densa). Subcanopy Schizachyrium gracile (wire bluestem), approximately 3–7 years, or twice per development is rare in well-maintained Aster adnatus (scaleleaf aster), and decade, on average, with fires primarily

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occurring in the summer (wet season) in South Miami to Florida City, a range of populations on public lands, association with lightning strikes. As approximately 36.2 km (22.5 mi), along specifically those owned or managed by time since fire increases, leaf litter the Miami Rock Ridge (Bradley and the County, occur more commonly and deepens and the shrub layer becomes Gann 1999, p. 11). However, Bradley provide a more detailed assessment of denser, eventually shading out and Gann (1999, p. 11) state that the species’ status on selected preserves. understory species and preventing herbarium specimens have not been B. mosieri was not found during a 2-year germination of new plants, which studied from the New York Botanical project intended to survey and map require exposed substrate and high light Garden, so the full extent of its nonnative and rare plants along Florida conditions. If fire is excluded for 20–30 historical range is unknown. Available Department of Transportation (FDOT) years, hardwoods will come to dominate herbarium specimens and other records rights-of-way within Miami-Dade the community and hammock for this plant (Bradley and Gann 1999, County (Gordon et al. 2007, pp. 1, 36). conditions will prevail, which further p. 16; Wunderlin and Hansen 2008, Based on the best available data, we discourage fires from spreading except page numbers not applicable) do not classified those occurrences of Brickellia in drought conditions. give precise or accurate location mosieri that have not been confirmed Pine rocklands are also susceptible to information. extirpated as either extant (status natural disturbances such as hurricanes confirmed within the last 10 years), and other severe storms, during which Current Range, Population Estimates, possibly extant (reliable data are greater trees may be killed, thereby helping to and Status than 10 years but less than 15 years old; maintain the open canopy that is Brickellia mosieri is currently habitat is still extant), or unknown/ essential to pine rockland plants such as distributed from central and southern historical (observation does not include Brickellia mosieri. This species was first Miami-Dade County from SW 120 St. sufficient detail, or data are more than observed in flower on Pine Ridge (latitude ca. 25’’ 39.4) to Florida City 15 years old; habitat is still extant) Sanctuary after Hurricane Andrew made (latitude ca. 25’’ 26.0), suggesting its (Table 1). Using this classification, landfall in south Florida in 1992 historical range has contracted at least populations of B. mosieri are believed to (Glancy 2013, pers. comm.). During 4.8 km (3 mi), or more than 13 percent occur on at least 17 (extant or presumed such events, pine rocklands near the (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 11). At least extant) sites, and may possibly occur on coast may be temporarily inundated by 9 known populations on private lands up to another 5 (possibly extant) sites, saltwater which can also kill or damage have been extirpated including: Sunset although most of these latter sites have vegetation (Snyder et al. 1990, p. 251; Drive and 71 Court (site developed; last been searched in recent years without URS Corporation Southern et al. 2007, observation in 1968); Palms Woodlawn the species being found. B. mosieri may p. 11). In addition, though rare, freeze Cemetery (site developed; last also occur at three historical sites, events can kill tropical plants in the observation in 1992); Turnpike although additional confirmation is open understory, helping to reduce Extension and 93rd Terrace (site needed. Of the 17 extant occurrences, 9 hardwood encroachment (Service 1999, destroyed; confirmed extirpated in occur on public conservation lands, 4 p. 3–167; FNAI 2010, p. 63). These 2007); plus at least 6 of 18 undated occur on private lands managed for sporadic, but potentially major, occurrences reported by Alan Herndon conservation, and 4 occur on private disturbances along with burning, create (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 12; Bradley lands with unknown management the dynamic nature of the pine rockland 2007, pers. comm.). In addition, several (Table 1). Four of the populations on habitat, in which some currently of Herndon’s 18 sites experienced public conservation lands, including unsuitable areas may become open in impacts to habitat through disturbance two of the three large (≤100 plants) the future, while areas currently open or invasion by nonnative plants or monitored populations, occur adjacent may develop more dense canopy over dense hardwoods, and B. mosieri may to one another in the Richmond time, eventually rendering that portion no longer occur at these sites (Bradley Pineland Complex. of the pineland unsuitable for B. mosieri and Gann 1999, p. 12). Bradley and Gann (1999, p. 12) and other pine rockland endemic plants. The number of extant occurrences of estimated population size using a Pine rockland on the Miami Rock this species is somewhat uncertain due logarithmic scale. On that scale, the Ridge can also occur within lower, to the lack of complete and recent total population of the species in 1999 seasonally flooded marl prairies, which survey information, which is primarily was estimated at 1,001–10,000 plants differ from pine rockland in having no a function of the number of populations (with the exact number probably pines, an understory dominated by that occur on private lands, making between 5,000 and 7,000 plants), and grasses and sedges, and a minimal cover them difficult to survey. In addition, was thought to be declining (Bradley of shrubs (FNAI 2010, p. 63). Where Brickellia mosieri can be extremely and Gann 1999, p. 12). Since that time, pine rockland occurs close to the ocean, difficult to identify when not in flower, the estimate for the largest population it may be bordered by mangrove swamp making it difficult to confidently (Larry and Penny Thompson Park, or salt marsh and can receive flooding determine when a population has been 1,001–10,000 plants in 1999) has by extremely high tides (FNAI 2010, p. extirpated. The most complete survey decreased to 101–1,000 plants, with 63). Pine rocklands on the northern that included the species was the 2004– adjacent areas (University of Miami, Zoo Miami Rock Ridge grade into scrub and 2005 mapping by IRC of natural forest Miami, Martinez Pineland) estimated to sandhill vegetation where the three communities (NFCs; pinelands and hold another 112–1,100 plants communities intermix in areas with hardwoods) in Miami-Dade County combined (Possley 2013b, pers. comm.). deep sands and rock outcrops (Snyder et outside of ENP. IRC mapped both public Additional plants are suspected to occur al. 1990, p. 257). and private NFCs where the county on adjacent privately owned parcels in government obtained landowner the Richmond Pineland Complex Historical Range permission or determined it was not (Possley 2013a, pers. comm.). The only Brickellia mosieri is endemic to the necessary. This survey found B. mosieri other monitored population estimated to pine rocklands of the Miami Rock Ridge on six privately owned parcels, be composed of greater than 100 plants in Miami-Dade County. It was including on the University of Miami occurs on the Navy Wells Pineland historically known from central and Richmond campus (formerly the U.S. Preserve, located approximately 20 km southern Miami-Dade County from Naval Observatory). Surveys of (12.5 mi) southwest at the southern end

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of the species’ current range. Another most no more than approximately 3.2 between 515 and 4,935 plants, although large population was observed on a km (2 mi) from their nearest neighboring the actual number of individuals is private parcel situated between Navy population—the major exception to this probably closer to between 2,150 and Wells and the Richmond Pinelands; is a 7.2-km (4.5-mi) gap between the 3,700 (Table 1). Based on current however this property has not been populations on Quail Roost Pineland estimates, the total population of B. surveyed since 2004. Smaller and Camp Owaissa Bauer. Based on the mosieri has apparently declined by populations occur on pine rockland 17 populations considered to be extant, approximately 50 percent since 1999. fragments spread across the landscape, the current total population estimate is

TABLE 1—EXTANT AND HISTORICAL POPULATIONS OF Brickellia mosieri—FOR THOSE POPULATIONS OCCURRING WITHIN A COUNTY-DESIGNATED NATURAL FOREST COMMUNITY (NFC) PARCEL, NFC NUMBER IS PROVIDED IF AVAILABLE. THE NFC NUMBER FORMAT ISALETTER DESIGNATING PRIMARY HABITAT TYPE WITHIN THE NFC (‘‘P’’ FOR PINE ROCKLAND, ‘‘H’’ FOR HAMMOCK), FOLLOWED BY A 1–3 DIGIT NUMBER ASSIGNED BY THE COUNTY

Population Ownership Population range (NFC # if applicable (P-#)) (* denotes lands managed for conservation) (number of plants and year if available)

Extant: Regularly monitored populations—status confirmed within last 5 years.

Navy Wells Pineland Preserve (P–415) ...... State of Florida (Florida Keys Aqueduct Au- 101–1,000 (272 in 2009).1 thority) and Miami-Dade County*. Pine Shore Pineland Preserve (P–48) ...... Miami-Dade County* ...... 11–100 (77–118 in 2009).1 Quail Roost Pineland (P–144)...... State of Florida—managed by Miami-Dade 11–100 (23 in 2011).1 County*. Richmond Pinelands Complex—Larry and Miami-Dade County* ...... 101–1,000 (815 in 2008).1 Penny Thompson Park (P–391). Richmond Pinelands Complex—Zoo Miami (P– Miami-Dade County* ...... 101–1,000 (742 in 2009).1 391). Rockdale Pineland (P–52)...... State of Florida—managed by Miami-Dade 1–10 (5 in 2010).1 County*. Ron Ehman Park...... Miami-Dade School Board—managed by 11–100 (31–45 in 2011).1 Miami-Dade County*. West Biscayne Pineland (P–295) ...... State of Florida—managed by Miami-Dade 11–100 (15–150 in 2008).1 County*.

Presumed Extant: Populations not regularly monitored—status confirmed within last 10 years.

P–132 ...... Private* ...... 1–10.2 P–295 ...... Private ...... 101–1,000.2 P–297 ...... Private ...... 11–100.2 P–316 ...... Private* ...... 11–100.2 P–365 ...... Private ...... 11–100.2 Pine Ridge Sanctuary (P–310) ...... Private* ...... 11–100.3 Porter Russell Pineland Preserve (P–160) ...... Private—Tropical Audubon Society* ...... 10–15.4 Richmond Pinelands Complex —Martinez Pine- Miami-Dade County* ...... Unknown (previously grouped with Larry and land (P–391). Penny Thompson Park). Richmond Pinelands Complex —University of Private—University of Miami ...... 11–100.2 Miami, Richmond Campus (P–391).

Possibly Extant: Habitat extant but status last confirmed 10–15 years ago.

Camp Choee (P–397) ...... Private—Girls Scouts of Tropical Florida ...... 11–100.5 Camp Owaissa Bauer (H–681) ...... Miami-Dade County* ...... 11–100.5 Panther Pineland (P–338) ...... Private* ...... 11–100.5 Seminole Wayside Park (P–365) ...... Miami-Dade County* ...... 11–100.5 Tamiami Pinelands Complex Addition (P–6.00) State of Florida—managed by Miami-Dade 10–100.5 County*.

Unknown/Historical: Habitat extant but records regarding occurrence are limited and/or >15 years old.

Ingram Pineland (P–360)...... State of Florida—managed by Miami-Dade Unknown.6 County*. Navy Wells #2 (P–329) ...... Miami-Dade School Board ...... Unknown.7 Nixon Smiley Pineland Preserve (P–370) ...... Miami-Dade County* ...... Unknown.8 1 Possley 2013b, pers. comm. 2 Bradley and Gann 2005, page numbers not applicable. 3 Glancy 2013, pers. comm. 4 Bradley 2008a, pers. comm. 5 Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 15. 6 IRC 2005, page numbers not applicable. 7 FNAI 2011, page numbers not applicable. 8 IRC 1999, p. 2; IRC 2013, page numbers not applicable.

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Demographic, Reproductive Biology, Taxonomy disturbance (e.g., firebreaks, canal and Population Genetics According to Bradley and Gann (1999, banks, edges of railway beds). All known occurrences are within either Little research has been done into the p. 70), Linum carteri was named by Small in 1905; in 1907, he put it in a scarified pine rockland, disturbed areas demography, reproductive biology, or adjacent to or within pine rocklands, or genetics of Brickellia mosieri. Field segregate genus, calling it Cathartolinum carteri. His concept of in completely disturbed areas having a observations indicate that the species limestone substrate (Bradley and Gann does not usually occur in great the taxon included both pubescent and glabrous (smooth, without hairs) plants, 1999, p. 71; Bradley 2013, pers. comm.). abundance—populations are typically None of the known occurrences over the sparse and contain a low density of with or without stipular (having last 15 years have been from a plants even in well-maintained pine stipules) glands. In 1963, Rogers completely undisturbed pine rockland. rockland habitat (Bradley and Gann renamed the plants as a variety of Linum L. c. var. carteri responds positively to 1999, p. 12). Reproduction is sexual rigidum, noting the close relationship of low competition and high light (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 12). While Florida plants to those in the Western United States. In 1968, he split the conditions, and responds negatively to specific pollinators or dispersers are taxon into two varieties, calling unknown, flower morphology suggests shading or litter accumulation. Thus, it pubescent plants Linum carteri var. this species may be pollinated by may have been excluded from much of carteri, and segregating the glabrous butterflies, bees, or both (Koptur 2013, its former habitat by inadequate fire plants as Linum carteri var. smallii, pers. comm.); wind is one likely management (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. basing the division on new genetic data dispersal vector (Gann 2013b, pers. 71). Alternatively, this variety may only from Mosquin and Hayley (1967, pp. comm.). Flowering takes place primarily proliferate on sites where exposed 1278–1283) and his own morphological in the fall (August–October), but substrate occurs following disturbance; data (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 70). L. individuals may be found in flower historically this may have occurred c. var. carteri was treated as endemic to during most of the year (Bradley and following hurricanes (e.g., under tip-up Miami-Dade County, while L. c. var. Gann 1999, p. 12). mounds), animal disturbance, or fire smallii was slightly more widespread in (Gann 2013a, pers. comm.). More Linum carteri var. carteri southern Florida (Bradley and Gann information is needed to understand 1999, p. 70). Long and Lakela (1971), Description how this variety behaved in intact Robertson (1971), and Wunderlin (1998) habitat before modern human Linum carteri var. carteri (Family: have used this same taxonomy (Bradley disturbance (Gann 2013a, pers. comm.). Linaceae) is an annual or short-lived and Gann 1999, p. 70). ITIS (2013, page numbers not applicable) uses the name The pine rockland community is perennial herb endemic to Miami-Dade Linum carteri var. carteri and indicates described above for Brickellia mosieri. County, where it grows in pine that this species’ taxonomic standing is The scarified pine rocklands and rocklands, particularly in disturbed pine accepted. Based upon the best available disturbed areas where Linum carteri var. rocklands (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. scientific information, Linum carteri carteri occurs often supports a subset of 70). Its stem is erect, 23–36 cm (9.0–14.2 var. carteri is a distinct taxon, endemic the pine rockland flora, as well as a in) tall, commonly branched near the to Miami-Dade County in Florida. component of weedy native and base, and puberulent (covered with Synonyms include Cathartolinum nonnative plants, including Bidens alba minute hairs). Its leaves are slender (18– carteri and Linum rigidum var. carteri var. radiata (beggarticks), Eremochloa 26 mm (0.7–1.0 in) long and 0.8–1.2 mm (ITIS 2013b, page numbers not ophiuroides (centipede grass), (0.03–0.05 in) wide), entire, alternate, applicable). Desmodium spp. (ticktrefoil), and and closely overlap at the base of the Stenotaphrum secundatum (St. Climate plant. This variety has stipules (pair of Augustine grass) (Bradley and Gann appendages at the base of the petiole, The climate of south Florida where 1999, p. 71). L. c. var. carteri may grow which is the stalk by which a leaf is Linum carteri var. carteri occurs is in association with several other rare attached to a stem) with paired dark described above for Brickellia mosieri. species including Linum arenicola (sand glands. Its inflorescence (cluster of flax), Dalea carthagenensis var. flowers arranged on a branching stem) is Habitat floridana (Florida prairie-clover), and an ascending or spreading cyme Like Brickellia mosieri, Linum carteri Argythamnia blodgettii (Blodgett’s (usually flat-topped or convex flower var. carteri grows exclusively on the silverbush) (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. cluster in which the main axis and each Miami Rock Ridge in Miami-Dade 71). branch end in a flower that opens before County outside the boundaries of ENP. the flowers below or to the side of it), Its known populations are found at The natural disturbance regime for with yellow petals that are broadly elevations ranging from approximately pine rocklands is discussed above for obovate (egg-shaped), 9–17 mm (0.35– 1.6–4.8 m (5.2–15.9 ft), with Brickellia mosieri and also applies to 0.67 in) long, and quickly deciduous. occurrences distributed fairly regularly Linum carteri var. carteri. Fellows et al. The fruit is straw-colored, ovoid, 4.1– throughout this range. Herbarium label (2004, p. 95) suggested that fire could be 4.6 mm (0.16–0.18 in) long, 3.4–3.7 mm data indicated that L. c. var. carteri once beneficial as it creates openings in the (0.13–0.15 in) in diameter, and dehisces occurred in pine rocklands with sand or habitat, but that the potential for adults (opens spontaneously at defined places) marl deposits (Bradley and Gann 1999, to survive from rootstock is unknown into five two-seeded segments; seeds are p. 75). In addition, one specimen was (although population recovery may be narrowly ovoid-elliptic, 2.3–2.8 mm taken from Brickell Hammock, but it is supported by the seed bank). Because (0.09–0.11 in) long, 1.0–1.3 mm (0.04– more likely that the plant was collected areas where the variety now exists 0.05 in) wide. In habit and flower, the outside of the hammock or along the support native pine rockland plant closely resembles Piriqueta roadside (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. herbaceous and grass plant species, caroliniana (Pitted stripeseed) in the 75). Currently, this variety is associated periodic mowing of these areas may Turneraceae (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. with pine rocklands that have partially replace the role of fire in 70). undergone some sort of substrate maintaining an open understory.

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Historical Range 1911); Red Road/114 Terrace (site Pineland), which had not been observed developed; last observation in 1969); since the 1990s but whose habitat was Linum carteri var. carteri was first Deering Estate at Cutler (not sighted still extant, was deemed ‘‘Historical’’ collected in 1903 between the Coconut since 1980s; unknown reason); Ponce Grove and Cutler areas of Miami, and and may reappear there (Bradley and and Riviera Pineland (site developed in since that time, it has been found in van der Heiden 2013, p. 14). Of the 2004); and Cocoplum Development (site pine rocklands from as far north as the seven extant occurrences, five developed in 2005) (Bradley 2007, pers. Brickell Hammock area to as far south populations are on publicly owned comm.; Bradley and van der Heiden lands, but only three of these are as the Naranja area (Gann et al. 2002, p. 2013, pp. 14–16). Bradley and Gann 463). Bradley and Gann (1999, p. 70) managed for the conservation of natural (1999, p. 71) described nine known resources (Table 2). Four of the indicated that it has been found at many populations (only three of these widespread locations, from Coconut populations occur near the north end of ° occurring on conservation lands) with the variety’s range (near R. Hardy Grove (latitude 25 43.8’) to southern an estimated total population of 100– Miami-Dade County, terminating near Matheson Preserve), and three occur ° 1,000 individuals; its status was thought near the south end (near Camp Owaissa SW 280 Street (latitude 25 30.4’), a to be possibly declining. Fellows et al. range of about 39 km (24 mi). However, Bauer), with an approximately 16-km (2001, p. 2) estimated the total (10-mi) gap between the closest they believe that several of these population to be 9,540–10,300 plants occurrences represented populations of these groups. Within across six populations in 2001, with one each grouping, populations are misidentifications, and that the plants population sustaining the vast majority actually were either Linum arenicola approximately 1.3–4.3 km (0.8–2.7 mi) (Chapman Field, U.S. Department of apart. (sand flax) or Linum carteri var. smallii Agriculture (USDA) Subtropical (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 72). For Horticultural Research Station; 7,500 Because this variety is known to be a example, a previous report of the plant individuals). L. c. var. carteri was not short-lived perennial with widely occurring at Homestead Air Reserve found during a 2-year project intended fluctuating numbers of individuals Base site is now considered to be to survey and map nonnative and rare (Maschinski et al. 2003, p. v; 2004, p. erroneous (Bradley 2008b, pers. comm.). plants along FDOT rights-of-way within iv), as well as being difficult to find Austin et al. (1980, page number not Miami-Dade County (Gordon et al. 2007, when not in flower, we include an applicable) noted that there were four pp. 1, 36). estimate of population range using the historical sites for this variety in a study In 2012, IRC (Bradley and van der logarithmic scale (Table 2) to account of southern Florida, although only one Heiden 2013, entire) conducted a status for these characteristics and to provide site remained in 1980; they attributed survey for Linum carteri var. carteri to a comparison to the previous total the 75 percent decline to urbanization. include extant occurrences, historical population estimates. Using the logarithmic scale, the total population Current Range, Population Estimates, locations, and new survey stations. estimate is 337–3,310 plants. However, and Status Because they had previously conducted a comprehensive survey of all pine it should be noted that most 2012 Linum carteri var. carteri is currently rockland habitat in 2004–2005 (during observations were at the low end of the found from R. Hardy Matheson Preserve which, L. c. var. carteri was not found corresponding logarithmic range such (near Pinecrest) southwest to Naranja/ on any new sites), this habitat was that the resulting high end for the total Modello, with a distance of excluded from new surveys. Canals population estimate may be a gross approximately 27.3 km (17 mi) between within urban Miami-Dade County that overestimate of the actual population. the farthest locations. The apparent intersected with the pine rockland soils Based strictly on 2012 observations, the reduction in its historical range (11.2 of the Miami Rock Ridge were surveyed, total population estimate may be closer km (7.2 mi), or 30 percent) has occurred as were additional disturbed sites with to 1,300 individuals. Comparing these entirely in the northern portion, remnant native vegetation in close estimates to the 1999 and 2003 between Pinecrest and Coconut Grove, proximity to existing sites. L. c. var. population estimates generally supports primarily due to urban development. carteri was found at seven locations the boom-and-bust nature of Linum Similarly, much of the habitat within containing approximately 1,313 carteri var. carteri, although the the variety’s current range has been individuals; populations ranged in size significant decline since 2001 could also destroyed (Gann et al. 2002, p. 463). At from a single plant to 700 plants, with potentially indicate a declining trend in least five known populations have been a median of 18 plants (Table 2; Bradley one or more populations (especially extirpated including: Brickell Hammock and van der Heiden 2013, p. 6). One USDA Chapman Field and R. Hardy (site developed; last observation in occurrence (at Gifford Arboretum Matheson Preserve).

TABLE 2—EXTANT AND HISTORICAL POPULATIONS OF Linum carteri var. carteri—FOR THOSE POPULATIONS OCCURRING WITHIN A COUNTY-DESIGNATED NATURAL FOREST COMMUNITY (NFC) PARCEL, NFC NUMBER IS PROVIDED IF AVAIL- ABLE. THE NFC NUMBER FORMAT IS A LETTER DESIGNATING PRIMARY HABITAT TYPE WITHIN THE NFC (‘‘P’’ FOR PINE ROCKLAND, ‘‘H’’ FOR HAMMOCK), FOLLOWED BY A 1–3 DIGIT NUMBER ASSIGNED BY THE COUNTY

Population Ownership Population range (NFC # if applicable (P–#)) (* denotes lands managed (est. number of for conservation) plants in 2012) 1

Extant: Population status confirmed in 2012 surveys conducted by IRC.

C–103 Canal ...... State of Florida—South Florida Water Management District 1–10 (1). Camp Owaissa Bauer Addition (P–255.4) ...... State of Florida—managed by Miami-Dade County* ...... 11–100 (13). Chapman Field, USDA Subtropical Horticultural Research Federal—U.S. Department of Agriculture ...... 101–1,000 (700). Station (portions are P–63). Montgomery Botanical Center ...... Private—Montgomery Botanical Center ...... 11–100 (12). Old Dixie Pineland ...... Private ...... 11–100 (18).

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TABLE 2—EXTANT AND HISTORICAL POPULATIONS OF Linum carteri var. carteri—FOR THOSE POPULATIONS OCCURRING WITHIN A COUNTY-DESIGNATED NATURAL FOREST COMMUNITY (NFC) PARCEL, NFC NUMBER IS PROVIDED IF AVAIL- ABLE. THE NFC NUMBER FORMAT IS A LETTER DESIGNATING PRIMARY HABITAT TYPE WITHIN THE NFC (‘‘P’’ FOR PINE ROCKLAND, ‘‘H’’ FOR HAMMOCK), FOLLOWED BY A 1–3 DIGIT NUMBER ASSIGNED BY THE COUNTY—Continued

Population Ownership Population range (NFC # if applicable (P–#)) (* denotes lands managed (est. number of for conservation) plants in 2012) 1

R. Hardy Matheson Preserve (H–634) ...... State of Florida—managed by Miami-Dade County * ...... 101–1,000 (374). Rockdale Pineland Addition (P–52) ...... Miami-Dade County * ...... 101–1,000 (195).

Historical: Population not observed for >10 years, but habitat extant.

Gifford Arboretum Pineland ...... Private ...... 0. 1 Source for number of plants is Bradley and van der Heiden (2013, pp. 12–16).

Demographics, Reproductive Biology across sites and season of seed 2007, p. 56). Germination varied across and Population Genetics production, with seed produced in sites and season of seed production as The reproductive ecology and biology winter (January) having low to no discussed above, although there was of Linum carteri var. carteri is not well germination and longer germination greater germination on the undisturbed understood, but reproduction is sexual times than seeds produced in summer site in both seasons. Fruiting was also (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 71). L. c. (July). Of the 51 seeds that germinated variable across years and sites; while var. carteri is capable of flowering across all trials, they followed the there was no clear effect of mowing, throughout the year, but tends to have growth of 32 seedlings—of these, only 6 plants growing on mown sites were most abundant flowering and fruiting set fruit (Maschinski and Walters 2008, shorter, which may affect fruiting following rain (Maschinski and Walters p. 27). The mean time to set first bud magnitude. While mowing does not ± 2008, p. 28). Tatje (1980, p. 2) indicated was 197 2.4 days, while mean time to usually kill adult plants, if mowing ± that the variety requires disturbance to first fruit set was 226 2.3 days occurs prior to plants reaching bloom, although this theory was not (Maschinski and Walters 2008, p. 27). reproductive status, it can also delay supported by observations of The 226-day growth-to-maturity enables reproduction (Maschinski and Walters Maschinski et al. (2003, pp. 37–39). this variety to contribute seeds to a next 2007 pp. 56–57). If such mowing occurs While specific pollinators are unknown, generation in a relatively short period repeatedly, reproduction of those plants flower morphology suggests this variety (Maschinski and Walters 2008, p. 28). would be entirely eliminated. If, may be pollinated by butterflies, bees, or Once mature, individuals may live one instead, mowing occurs at least three both (Koptur 2013, pers. comm.). to several years producing multiple weeks after flowering, there would be a Alternatively, Mosquin and Hayley fruits (Maschinski and Walters 2008, p. higher probability of adults setting fruit (1967, p. 1278) suggested L. c. var. 28). Growth-to-maturity may be prior to mowing; mowing may then act carteri may be self-pollinated. influenced by season of germination, as a positive disturbance by both Dispersers are also unknown, although with summer-germinating seeds scattering seeds and reducing historically water may have played a possibly reaching maturity more rapidly competition (Maschinski and Walters role in dispersal when summer high- than seedlings that germinate in the fall 2007, p. 57). The exact impacts of water conditions in adjacent wet or winter (Maschinski and Walters 2008, mowing thus depend on the timing of prairies may have inundated portions of p. 28). Similarly, seeds produced during the mowing event, rainfall prior to and pine rocklands (Gann 2013b, pers. different seasons may differ in their following mowing, and the numbers of comm.). The maximum magnitude and germination rates, dormancy breaking plants in the population that have frequency of seed production is requirements, and rates of growth reached a reproductive state. unknown, although Maschinski and (Maschinski and Walters 2008, p. 28). Although population viability models Walters (2007, p. 56) indicate plants can To examine population viability in projected declines in mown sites, and produce up to 62 fruits. Some fruits response to disturbance, long-term fairly stable population growth in dehisce in a characteristic 5-parted star demographic studies were conducted undisturbed sites, high variation in the pattern, while others never dehisce from June 2003 through July 2007 at a models suggest caution be used in (Fellows 2002, Appendix D2 p. 1). disturbed (mown) site and an interpreting results. One likely factor in Preliminary demographic monitoring undisturbed site; in May 2006, a site the high year-to-year variation observed of Linum carteri var. carteri showed having both disturbed and undisturbed is variation in weather, which was most that, for adult reproductive plants, sections was added (Maschinski 2006, apparent in the model for undisturbed average plant growth was fairly constant p. 82; Maschinski and Walters 2007, p. habitat. Preliminary models indicated from July through October, flowering 55). Results were mixed with regard to that population viability was greatly and fruit production were most demographic responses between sites. affected by reproductive rates and abundant in July, and plant mortality Maschinski (2006, p. 83) reported that whether there is a persistent seed bank increased during the fall months Linum carteri var. carteri has typical (Maschinski 2006, p. 83; Maschinski (Maschinski et al. 2002, p. iv). behavior for an early successional plant. and Walters 2007, p. 56). Models Maschinski and Walters (2008, p. 27) Significantly higher densities of plants indicate that the transition from studied in situ germination and growth- were found at the mown sites where seedling to adult and adult reproduction to-maturity of plants growing in the competition with other plants is greatly influence population trajectories wild at two sites (mown and decreased, although changes in number (Maschinski and Walters 2007, p. 56). undisturbed) from January 2006 until of plants between sites and treatments However, more frequent monitoring July 2007. Field germination varied were variable (Maschinski and Walters (with frequency partially dependent of

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mowing regime) is needed to determine ‘‘rock plow’’ in 1954, large-scale along the edge of pine rockland along threshold reproductive values for clearing of pinelands for row crops Krome Avenue, and is threatened by the population growth and whether began (Snyder et al. 1990, p. 272). Due proposed widening of that road. disturbance regime has a persistent to these impacts combined with Another human-related factor that can impact on population demographics increased residential development from modify public and private lands alike is (Maschinski 2013, pers. comm.). the early 1900s, pine rockland habitat in the potential for high levels of nutrients Miami-Dade County, including ENP, Summary of Factors Affecting the from agricultural and urban areas to was reduced to about 11 percent of its Species enter into pine rockland systems. Such natural extent, from approximately chemical alteration of pine rockland Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), 74,000 hectares (ha) (183,000 acres (ac)) soil, which has naturally low amounts and its implementing regulations at 50 to only 8,140 ha (20,100 ac) in 1996 of phosphorus and nitrogen, can result CFR part 424, set forth the procedures (Kernan and Bradley 1996, p. 2). in changes to vegetation composition for adding species to the Federal Lists Outside of ENP, only about 1 percent of and structure, at the expense of pine of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife the Miami Rock Ridge pinelands have rockland endemics such as Brickellia and Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the escaped clearing, and much of what is mosieri and Linum carteri var. carteri. Act, we may determine a species to be left is in small remnant blocks isolated This is currently not considered a endangered or threatened due to one or from other natural areas (Herndon 1998, problem in most intact pine rockland more of the following five factors: (A) p. 1). Habitat loss continues to occur in systems, but could likely be an issue The present or threatened destruction, these plants’ ranges, and most where restoration is required (Gann modification, or curtailment of its remaining suitable habitat has been 2013a, pers. comm.). habitat or range; (B) overutilization for negatively altered by human activity. commercial, recreational, scientific, or While Miami-Dade County has Habitat Fragmentation educational purposes; (C) disease or developed a network of public Habitat fragmentation reduces the size predation; (D) the inadequacy of conservation lands including some of of plant populations, and increases existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) these pine rocklands, much of the spatial isolation of remnants. Barrios et other natural or manmade factors remaining habitat occurs on private al. (2011, p. 1062) investigated the affecting its continued existence. Listing lands as well as publically owned lands effects of fragmentation on a threatened actions may be warranted based on any not managed for conservation. Species pine rockland plant, Angadenia berteroi of the above threat factors, singly or in occurrences and suitable habitat combination. Each of these factors as remaining on these lands are threatened (pineland golden trumpet), and found applied to these two plants is discussed by habitat loss and degradation, and that abundance and fragment size were below. threats are expected to accelerate with positively related. Possley et al. (2008, increased development. The human p. 385) studied the effects of fragment A. The Present or Threatened population within Miami-Dade County, size on species composition in south Destruction, Modification, or which comprises the historical and Florida pine rocklands, and found that Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range current ranges for these plants and, plant species richness and fragment size Brickellia mosieri and Linum carteri therefore, supports all of the remaining were positively correlated (although var. carteri have experienced substantial occurrences, is currently greater than some small fragments supported nearly destruction, modification, and 2.4 million people, and the population as many species as the largest fragment). curtailment of their habitat and range is expected to grow to more than 4 Composition of fragmented habitat (see Status Assessment, above). Specific million by 2060, an annual increase of typically differs from that of intact threats to these plants included in this roughly 30,000 people (Zwick and Carr forests, as isolation and edge effects factor include habitat loss, 2006, p. 20). Approximately 47 percent increase leading to increased abundance fragmentation, and modification caused (8 sites) of extant Brickellia mosieri of disturbance-adapted species (weedy by development (i.e., conversion to both occurrences, and 28 percent (2 sites) of species, nonnative invasive species) and urban and agricultural land uses) and extant Linum carteri var. carteri lower rates of pollination and propagule inadequate fire management. Each of occurrences, are located on private land dispersal (Laurence and Bierregaard these threats and its specific effects on within this County; however, it is likely 1997, pp. 347–350.; Noss and Csuti these plants are discussed in detail that these plants will be lost from most 1997, pp. 284–299). The degree to below. of these sites, with increased which fragmentation threatens the development pressure. dispersal abilities of Brickellia mosieri Human Population Growth and Development, such as road and Linum carteri var. carteri is Development construction, can also threaten these unknown. Because B. mosieri is thought The pine rockland community of plants’ habitat on public lands. This is to be dispersed, to some degree, by south Florida, to which both plants are especially true for Linum carteri var. wind, dispersal-related impacts are endemic, is critically imperiled globally carteri, whose association with probably less than those experienced by (FNAI 2012, p. 27). Since the 1800s, disturbed areas is more likely to result L. c. var. carteri, which has heavier residential and commercial in occurrences in firebreaks and other seeds. In the historical landscape, where development and agriculture have edge areas subject to increased pine rockland occurred within a mosaic drastically reduced the habitat for these development pressure and effects. For of wetlands, water may have acted as a plants throughout pine rocklands in example, one colony of 11–100 L. c. var. dispersal vector for all pine rockland south Florida. When the Florida East carteri individuals located within the seeds, and especially for plants such as Coast (FEC) Railroad reached Miami in FEC Railway right-of-way at Old Dixie L. c. var. carteri. In the current, 1896, industrial logging began and Pineland was destroyed by the fragmented landscape, this type of pinelands were clearcut over the next 50 construction of the South Miami-Dade dispersal would no longer be possible. years (Snyder et al. 1990, p. 271). Busway in 2007 (Bradley and van der While additional dispersal vectors for L. Groves of tropical trees were planted on Heiden 2013, p. 15). In addition, one of c. var. carteri may include animals and well-drained (and previously cleared) the two colonies of L. c. var. carteri on (in certain locations) mowing pinelands; with the invention of the Camp Owaissa Bauer Addition occurs equipment, it is likely that

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fragmentation has effectively reduced such as the dumping of trash (Chavez et al. 2007, pp. 811–812). This alteration this taxon’s ability to disperse. and Tynon 2000, p. 405). The many to microhabitat can also inhibit seedling While pollination research has not effects of habitat fragmentation may establishment as well as negatively been conducted for Brickellia mosieri or work in concert to threaten the local influence flower and fruit production Linum carteri var. carteri, research persistence of a species; when a species’ (Wendelberger and Maschinski 2009, regarding other species and ecosystems range of occurrence is limited, threats to pp. 849–851), thereby reducing sexual provides valuable information regarding local persistence increase extinction reproduction in fire-adapted species potential effects of fragmentation to risk. such as B. mosieri and L. c. var. carteri these plants. Effects of fragmentation on (Geiger 2002, pp. 78–79, 81–83). pollinators may include changes to the Fire Management After an extended period of pollinator community as a result of One of the primary threats to both of inadequate fire management in pine limitation of pollinator-required these plants is habitat modification and rocklands, it becomes necessary to resources (e.g., reduced availability of degradation through inadequate fire control invading native hardwoods rendezvous plants, nesting and roosting management, which includes both the mechanically, since excess growth of sites, and nectar/pollen); these changes lack of prescribed fire and suppression native hardwoods would result in a hot may include changes to pollinator of natural fires. Where the term ‘‘fire- fire, which can be destructive. community composition, species suppressed’’ is used below, it describes Mechanical treatments cannot entirely abundance and diversity, and pollinator degraded pine rockland conditions replace fire because pine trees, behavior (Rathcke and Jules 1993, pp. resulting from a lack of adequate fire understory shrubs, grasses, and herbs all 273–275; Kremen and Ricketts 2000, p. (natural or prescribed) in the landscape. contribute to an ever-increasing layer of 1227; Harris and Johnson 2004, pp. 30– Historically, frequent (approximately leaf litter, covering herbs and preventing 33). As a result, plants in fragmented twice per decade), lightning-induced germination, as discussed above. Leaf habitats may experience lower visitation fires were a vital component in litter will continue to accumulate even rates, which in turn may result in maintaining native vegetation and if hardwoods are removed reduced seed production of the ecosystem functioning within south mechanically. In addition, the ashes left pollinated plant (which may lead to Florida pine rocklands (see Status by fires provide important post-fire reduced seedling recruitment), reduced Assessment, above). A period of just 10 nutrient cycling, which is not provided pollen dispersal, increased inbreeding, years without fire may result in a via mechanical removal. reduced genetic variability, and marked decrease in the number of Brickellia mosieri—All occurrences of ultimately reduced population viability herbaceous species due to the effects of Brickellia mosieri are affected by some (Rathcke and Jules 1993, p. 275; shading and litter accumulation (FNAI degree of inadequate fire management, Goverde et al. 2002, pp. 297–298; Harris 2010, p. 63). Exclusion of fire for with the primary threat being shading and Johnson 2004, pp. 33–34). approximately 25 years will likely result by hardwoods (Bradley and Gann 1999, In addition to effects on pollination, in gradual hammock development over p. 15; Bradley and Gann 2005, page fragmentation of natural habitats often that time period, leaving a system that numbers not applicable). While alters other ecosystems’ functions and is very fire resistant if additional pre-fire management of some County disturbance regimes. Fragmentation management (e.g., mechanical conservation lands (e.g., those in results in an increased proportion of hardwood removal) is not undertaken. Richmond Pinelands complex and Navy ‘‘edge’’ habitat, which in turn has a Now, natural fires are unlikely to Wells Pineland Preserve) includes variety of effects, including changes in occur or are likely to be suppressed in regular burning, other such lands can be microclimate and community structure the remaining, highly fragmented pine severely fire-suppressed. For example, at various distances from the edge rockland habitat. The suppression of the B. mosieri population at Pine Shore (Margules and Pressey 2000, p. 248), natural fires has reduced the size of the Pineland Preserve may be the most altered spatial distribution of fire areas that burn, and habitat endangered (due to lack of adequate fire (greater fire frequency in areas nearer fragmentation has prevented fire from management), and is expected to be the edge) (Cochrane 2001, pp. 1518– moving across the landscape in a extirpated within 10 years if fires are 1519), and increased pressure from natural way. Without fire, successional not reintroduced (Possley 2013a, pers. nonnative invasive plants and animals climax from pine rockland to rockland comm.). Even in areas under active that may out-compete or disturb native hammock is rapid, and displacement of management, some portions are plant populations. The effects of native species by invasive nonnative typically fire-suppressed, thereby fragmentation on fire go beyond edge plants often occurs. Understory plants threatening populations of this species. effects and include reduced likelihood such as Brickellia mosieri and Linum Linum carteri var. carteri—Of the and extent of fires, and altered behavior carteri var. carteri are shaded out by seven extant occurrences of Linum and characteristics (e.g., intensity) of hardwoods and nonnatives alike. carteri var. carteri, six are threatened to those fires that do occur. Habitat Shading may also be caused by a fire- some degree by inadequate fire fragmentation encourages the suppressed (and, in some cases, management. Three of these populations suppression of naturally occurring fires, planted) pine canopy that has evaded (Camp Owaissa Bauer Addition, and has prevented fire from moving the natural thinning effects that fire has Montgomery Botanical Center, and across the landscape in a natural way, on seedlings and smaller trees. Gann Rockdale Pineland) occur adjacent to resulting in an increased amount of (2013a, pers. comm.) indicates this is fire-suppressed pine rocklands (Bradley habitat suffering from these negative also a threat to pine rockland habitat on and van der Heiden 2013, pp. 13–16). impacts. High fragmentation of small the Miami Rock Ridge. Whether the One population (R. Hardy Matheson habitat patches within an urban matrix dense canopy is composed of pine, Preserve) occurs in previously cleared discourages the use of prescribed fire as hardwoods, nonnatives, or a pine rockland habitat in areas of open well due to logistical difficulties (see combination, seed germination and canopy gaps and exposed bare rock Fire Management, below). Forest establishment are inhibited in fire- substrate (Bradley and van der Heiden fragments in urban settings are also suppressed habitat due to accumulated 2013, p. 16). Pine rocklands at Chapman subject to increased likelihood of certain leaf litter, which also changes soil Field, USDA Subtropical Horticultural types of human-related disturbance, moisture and nutrient availability (Hiers Research Station are severely fire-

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suppressed, and the plant now occurs properties enrolled in this program, projects may serve as valuable only adjacent to the pine rocklands or preserving 69.4 ha (172 ac) of pine components toward the conservation of in nearby open fields (Bradley and van rockland habitat (Johnson 2012, pers. pine rockland species and habitat, they der Heiden 2013, p. 13). In addition, one comm.). The vast majority of these are dependent on continual funding, as historical population (at Gifford properties are small—only three are well as participation from private Arboretum Pineland) may have been larger than 2 ha (5 ac)—and many are in landowners, both of which may vary extirpated due to the effects of need of habitat management such as through time. inadequate fire management (Bradley prescribed fire and removal of B. Overutilization for Commercial, and van der Heiden 2013, p. 14). nonnative invasive plants. Of the 59 Recreational, Scientific, or Educational Bradley and Gann (1999, pp. 71–72) pine rockland properties, three have Purposes suggested that the lack of fires in most known populations of Brickellia forest fragments in Miami-Dade County mosieri. Two of these, a 1.3-ha (3.3-ac) We have no evidence suggesting that during the last century may be one of parcel and a 5.7-ha (14-ac) parcel, are in overutilization for commercial, the reasons why this taxon occurs good overall condition. The other, a recreational, scientific, or educational primarily in disturbed areas. 5.75-ha (14.2-ac) parcel, has heavy cover purposes is a threat to Brickellia Implementation of a prescribed fire by exotics, and illegal clearing of NFC mosieri. Except for its rarity, the species program in Miami-Dade County has vegetation was observed during a 2013 does not possess any attributes that been hampered by a shortage of site inspection. Thus, while EEL would make it desirable to collectors, resources, and by logistical difficulties covenant lands have the potential to such as showy foliage or flowers, and and public concern related to burning provide valuable habitat for these plants there are no known medicinal, culinary, next to residential areas. Many homes and reduce threats in the near term, the or religious uses for this species. We have been built in a mosaic of pine actual effect of these conservation lands also have no evidence that rockland, so the use of prescribed fire in is largely determined by whether overutilization is a threat for Linum many places has become complicated individual land owners follow carteri var. carteri. However, FTBG because of potential danger to structures prescribed EEL management plans and states that the species is a member of the and smoke generated from the burns. NFC regulations (see Local under Factor Linum rigidum complex and, therefore, Nonprofit organizations such as IRC D). may contain the a-carotenoids leutin have similar difficulties in conducting Since 2005, the Service has funded and 5,6-monoepoxide (Robertson 1971, prescribed burns due to difficulties with IRC to facilitate restoration and p. 658), both of which are hypothesized permitting and obtaining the necessary management of privately owned pine to reduce the risk of certain cancers permissions as well as hazard insurance rockland habitats in Miami-Dade (Fellows et al. 2004, p. 96). At this time, limitations (Gann 2013a, pers. comm.). County. These programs included we have no evidence indicating that L. Few private landowners have the means prescribed burns, nonnative plant c. var. carteri is being used for this and/or desire to implement prescribed control, light debris removal, hardwood purpose. Therefore, we believe that fire on their property, and doing so in management, reintroduction of pines collection for medicinal purposes is not a fragmented urban environment is where needed, and development of a threat at this time. Based on our logistically difficult and may be costly. management plans. One of these analysis of the best available scientific One of the few privately owned pine programs, called the Pine Rockland and commercial information, we find rocklands that is successfully managed Initiative, includes 10-year cooperative that collecting for commercial or with prescribed burning is Pine Ridge agreements between participating scientific reasons or recreational Sanctuary, located in a more landowners and the Service/IRC to activities is not a threat to B. mosieri or agricultural (less urban) matrix in the ensure restored areas will be managed L. c. var. carteri in any portion of their southwestern portion of Brickellia appropriately during that time. ranges at this time and is not likely to mosieri’s current range, which was last Although most of these objectives have become so in the future. Threats to these burned in November 2010 (Glancy 2013, been achieved, IRC has not been able to plants related to other aspects of pers. comm.). conduct the desired prescribed burns, recreation and similar human activities due to logistical difficulties as discussed Conservation Efforts To Reduce the (i.e., not related to overutilization) are above (see Fire Management). discussed in Factor E. Present or Threatened Destruction, Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden Modification, or Curtailment of Habitat (FTBG), with the support of various C. Disease or Predation or Range Federal, State, local, and nonprofit No diseases or incidences of In 1979, Miami-Dade County enacted organizations, has established the predation have been reported for the Environmentally Endangered Lands ‘‘Connect to Protect Network.’’ The Brickellia mosieri and Linum carteri var. (EEL) Covenant Program, which reduces objective of this program is to encourage carteri. taxes for private landowners of natural widespread participation of citizens to forest communities (NFCs; pine create corridors of healthy pine D. The Inadequacy of Existing rocklands and tropical hardwood rocklands by planting stepping stone Regulatory Mechanisms hammocks) who agree not to develop gardens and rights-of-way with native Under this factor, we examine their property and manage it for a pine rockland species, and restoring whether existing regulatory mechanisms period of 10 years, with the option to isolated pine rockland fragments. By are inadequate to address the threats to renew for additional 10-year periods doing this, FTBG hopes to increase the the species discussed under the other (Service 1999, p. 3–177). Although these probability that pollination and seed factors. Section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act temporary conservation easements dispersal vectors can find and transport requires the Service to take into account provide valuable protection for their seeds and pollen across developed areas ‘‘those efforts, if any, being made by any duration, they are not considered under that separate pine rockland fragments to State or foreign nation, or any political Factor D, below, because they are improve gene flow between fragmented subdivision of a State or foreign nation, voluntary agreements and not regulatory plant populations and increase the to protect such species. . . .’’ In relation in nature. Miami-Dade County currently likelihood that these plants will persist to Factor D, we interpret this language has approximately 59 pine rockland over the long term. Although these to require the Service to consider

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relevant Federal, State, and tribal laws, person willfully destroying or issuance of an NFC permit. The NFC plans, regulations, and other such harvesting; transporting, carrying, or program currently regulates mechanisms that may minimize any of conveying on any public road or approximately 600 pine rockland or the threats we describe in threat highway; or selling or offering for sale pine rockland/hammock properties, analyses under the other four factors, or any plant listed in the Index as comprising approximately 1,200 ha otherwise enhance conservation of the endangered must have a permit from the (3,000 ac) of habitat (Joyner 2013, pers. species. We give strongest weight to State at all times when engaged in any comm.). NFC regulations are designed to statutes and their implementing such activities. prevent clearing or destruction of native regulations and to management In addition, subsections (8)(a) and (b) vegetation within preserved areas; direction that stems from those laws and of the statute waive State regulation for however, illegal development and certain classes of activities for all regulations. An example would be State destruction of pine rockland continues species on the Regulated Plant Index, governmental actions enforced under a to occur, despite these regulations. State statute or constitution, or Federal including the clearing or removal of When discovered, RER pursues action under statute. regulated plants for agricultural, forestry, mining, construction unpermitted work through appropriate Federal (residential, commercial, or enforcement action and seeks These plants have no Federal infrastructure), and fire-control restoration when possible. regulatory protection in their known activities by a private landowner or his Fee Title Properties occupied and suitable habitat. Neither or her agent. However, section (10) of taxon occurs on National Wildlife the statute provides for consultation In 1990, Miami-Dade County voters Refuge or National Park land. Brickellia similar to section 7 of the Federal Act approved a 2-year property tax to fund mosieri is known to occur on Federal for listed species by requiring the the acquisition, protection, and lands within the Richmond Pinelands Department of Transportation to notify maintenance of environmentally Complex, including lands owned by the the FDACS and the Endangered Plant endangered lands. The EEL Program U.S. Coast Guard and the National Advisory Council of planned highway identifies and secures these lands for Oceanic and Atmospheric Association construction at the time bids are first preservation. Under this program to (NOAA; small portion of Martinez advertised, to facilitate evaluation of the date, Miami-Dade County has acquired Pineland). The only known Federal project for listed plant populations, and a total of approximately 255 ha (630 ac) occurrence of Linum carteri var. carteri to ‘‘provide for the appropriate disposal of pine rockland. In addition, is on Chapman Field USDA Subtropical of such plants’’ (i.e., transplanting). approximately 445 ha (1,100 ac) of pine Horticultural Research Station. There Local rockland are owned by the Miami-Dade are no Federal protections for candidate County Parks and Recreation species on these properties. These In 1984, Section 24–49 of the Code of Department and managed by the EEL plants primarily occur on State- or Miami-Dade County established Program, including some of the largest County-owned and private land (Tables regulation of County-designated NFCs, remaining areas of pine rockland habitat 1 and 2), and development of these which include both pine rocklands and on the Miami Rock Ridge outside of areas will likely require no Federal tropical hardwood hammocks. These permit or other authorization. Therefore, regulations were placed on specific ENP (e.g., Larry and Penny Thompson projects that affect them are usually not properties throughout the county by an Park, Zoo Miami pinelands, and Navy analyzed under the National act of the Board of County Wells Pineland Preserve). Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) (42 Commissioners in an effort to protect While State and local regulations, and U.S.C. 4321 et seq.). environmentally sensitive forest lands. fee title properties, do provide for The Miami-Dade County Department of protection of these plants specifically, State Regulatory and Economic Resources and pine rockland habitat in general, Brickellia mosieri and Linum carteri (RER) has regulatory authority over they are either not effective or not var. carteri are listed on the Regulated NFCs and is charged with enforcing implemented sufficiently to alleviate the Plant Index as endangered under regulations that provide partial threats to these plants or their habitat. Chapter 5B–40, Florida Administrative protection on the Miami Rock Ridge. Code. The Regulated Plant Index also Miami-Dade Code typically allows up to E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors includes all federally listed endangered 20 percent of a pine rockland designated Affecting Its Continued Existence and threatened plant species. This as NFC to be developed, and requires listing provides little or no habitat that the remaining 80 percent be placed Brickellia mosieri and Linum carteri protection beyond the State’s under a perpetual covenant. In certain var. carteri are both threatened by other Development of Regional Impact circumstances, where the landowner natural or manmade factors that affect process, which discloses impacts from can demonstrate that limiting each taxon to varying degrees. Specific projects, but provides no regulatory development to 20 percent does not threats to these plants included in this protection for State-listed plants on allow for ‘‘reasonable use’’ of the factor consist of the spread of nonnative private lands. property, additional development may invasive plants, potentially Florida Statutes 581.185 sections be approved. NFC landowners are also incompatible management practices (3)(a) and (b) prohibit any person from required to obtain an NFC permit for (such as mowing and herbicide use), willfully destroying or harvesting any any work, including removal of direct impacts to plants from recreation species listed as endangered or nonnatives within the boundaries of the and other human activities, small threatened on the Index, or growing NFC on their property. The NFC population size and isolation, climate such a plant on the private land of program is responsible for ensuring that change, and the related risks from another, or on any public land, without NFC permits are issued in accordance environmental stochasticity (extreme first obtaining the written permission of with the limitations and requirements of weather) on these small populations. the landowner and a permit from the the code and that appropriate NFC Each of these threats and its specific Florida Department of Plant Industry. preserves are established and effect on these plants are discussed in The statute further provides that any maintained in conjunction with the detail below.

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Nonnative Plant Species nonnative species can act as a seed Linum carteri var. carteri, due to the Nonnative plants have significantly source of nonnatives allowing them to variety’s occurrence in disturbed, open affected pine rocklands, and threaten all continue to invade the surrounding pine areas, which are also the typical habitat occurrences of Brickellia mosieri and rockland (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. of weedy and nonnative plant species. Linum carteri var. carteri to some degree 13). Two of the seven extant L. c. var. carteri occurrences—the C–103 Canal and (Bradley and Gann 1999, pp. 15, 72; Mowing Chapman Field USDA Subtropical Bradley and Gann 2005, page numbers Linum carteri var. carteri’s occurrence not applicable; Bradley 2007, pers. Horticultural Research Station—are in in disturbed, open areas such as such areas. The use of herbicides for comm.; Bradley and van der Heiden firebreaks and road rights-of-way makes 2013, pp. 12–16). As a result of human weed control here would be detrimental it much more susceptible than Brickellia to these populations. activities, at least 277 taxa of nonnative mosieri to disturbance factors such as plants have invaded pine rocklands mowing. According to Bradley and van Recreation and Other Human Activities throughout south Florida (Service 1999, der Heiden (2013, pp. 12–16), five of the Linum carteri var. carteri’s occurrence p. 3–175). Neyraudia neyraudiana seven extant populations of this variety in disturbed, open areas such as (Burma reed) and Schinus are vulnerable to changes in mowing firebreaks and road rights-of-way also terebinthifolius (Brazilian pepper) practices. Mowing can serve to maintain makes it much more susceptible than threaten both plants (Bradley and Gann an open understory in the absence of Brickellia mosieri to recreational and 1999, pp. 13, 72). S. terebinthifolius, a fire (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 71; other human activities. These activities nonnative tree, is the most widespread Maschinski and Walters 2007, p. 56). may inadvertently impact some and one of the most invasive species. It For example, at the Montgomery populations of L. c. var. carteri. In the forms dense thickets of tangled, woody Botanical Center, occasional mowing is past, mountain biking has been stems that completely shade out and thought to keep competing vegetation at identified as a threat at R. Hardy displace native vegetation (Loflin 1991, bay while still allowing the plants to Matheson Preserve (Bradley and Gann p. 19; Langeland and Craddock Burks complete their life cycle (Maschinski 1999, pp. 71, 74; Bradley 2007, pers. 1998, p. 54). Acacia auriculiformis 2011, pers. comm.). However, mowing comm.), but this was remedied by (earleaf acacia), Rhynchelytrum repens can also threaten this variety depending placement of protective fencing (Possley (natal grass), Lantana camara (shrub on the timing, frequency, and intensity 2012, pers. comm.). More recently, a verbena), and Albizia lebbeck (tongue of its application (see Status colony of L. c. var. carteri at Camp tree) are some of the other nonnative Assessment, above). If not properly Owaissa Bauer Addition has been species in pine rocklands. More species applied, mowing can eliminate impacted by ‘‘yard sales’’ and car of nonnative plants could become reproduction entirely in very young parking along Krome Avenue (Bradley problems in the future, such as plants or delay reproductive maturation and van der Heiden 2013, p. 13). While Lygodium microphyllum (Old World (Maschinski and Walters 2007, p. 56; these impacts are usually some distance climbing fern), which is a serious threat 2008, p. 28). In some instances, adult from the plants, they sometimes throughout south Florida. plants may be killed, but typically encroach on the edge of the natural area Nonnative invasive plants compete mowing simply disrupts the apical and have the potential to trample the with native plants for space, light, meristem (as with natural levels of plants. This plant occurs in similar water, and nutrients, and make habitat herbivory) and triggers production of habitat on Rockdale Pineland, where it conditions unsuitable for both Brickellia additional lateral branches; plants can is found along the edges of the mosieri and Linum carteri var. carteri, produce compensatory branches abandoned FEC Railroad tracks, which respond positively to open following mowing and live to reproduce adjacent to pine rockland habitat conditions. They also affect the at a later time as long as the mowing (Bradley and van der Heiden 2013, p. characteristics of a fire when it does regime is not too frequent (Maschinski 16). Here, plants have also been occur. Historically, pine rocklands had and Walters 2008, p. 28). The impact of trampled from parking vehicles and an open, low understory where natural mowing can be modified by the timing machinery along the edges of the fires remained patchy with low and frequency of the mowing event, railroad right-of-way (Bradley and van temperature intensity, thus sparing rainfall prior to and following the event, der Heiden 2013, p. 16). While these many native plants such as B. mosieri and the numbers of plants that have activities have affected individual and L. c. var. carteri. Dense infestations reached reproductive state prior to plants in some populations, they are not of Neyraudia neyraudiana and Schinus mowing (Maschinski and Walters 2008, likely to have caused significant terebinthifolius cause higher fire p. 27). Maschinski and Walters (2008, p. population declines in the taxon. temperatures and longer burning 28) recommended adjusting the timing Effects of Small Population Size and periods. With the presence of invasive of mowing to occur at least three weeks Isolation nonnative species, it is uncertain how after flowering is observed to allow a fire, even under a managed situation, higher probability of adults setting fruit Endemic species whose populations will affect these plants. Bradley and prior to the mowing event. With exhibit a high degree of isolation are Gann (1999, pp. 13, 71–72) indicated flexibility and proper instructions to extremely susceptible to extinction from that the control of nonnative plants is land managers and ground crews, both random and nonrandom one of the most important conservation mowing practices could be catastrophic natural or human-caused actions for these plants and a critical implemented in such a way as to scatter events. Species that are restricted to part of habitat maintenance. seeds and reduce competition with little geographically limited areas are Management of nonnative invasive effect on population reproductive inherently more vulnerable to extinction plants in pine rocklands in Miami-Dade output for the year (Maschinski and than widespread species because of the County is further complicated because Walters 2008, p. 28). increased risk of genetic bottlenecks, the vast majority of pine rocklands are random demographic fluctuations, small, fragmented areas bordered by Herbicides climate change, and localized urban development. Areas near As with mowing, the use of herbicides catastrophes such as hurricanes and managed pine rockland that contain is more likely to threaten populations of disease outbreaks (Mangel and Tier

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1994, p. 607; Pimm et al. 1988, p. 757). sizable. L. c. var. carteri shows great projections of the magnitude and rate of These problems are further magnified differences in plant numbers from year warming differ after about 2030, the when populations are few and restricted to year, probably because individuals overall trajectory of all the projections is to a very small geographic area, and typically live 1–2 years and grow from one of increased global warming when the number of individuals is very seed. This trait makes them more through the end of this century, even for small. Populations with these vulnerable than perennials to changes in the projections based on scenarios that characteristics face an increased environment. Viable plant populations assume that GHG emissions will likelihood of stochastic extinction due for small, short-lived herbs may consist stabilize or decline. Thus, there is strong to changes in demography, the of tens of thousands of plants (Menges scientific support for projections that environment, genetics, or other factors 1991, p. 48; Lande 1995, p. 789). warming will continue through the 21st (Gilpin and Soule 1986, pp. 24–34). Although robust population viability century, and that the magnitude and Small, isolated populations, such as analyses (including minimum viable rate of change will be influenced those in fragmented habitat, often population calculations) have not been substantially by the extent of GHG exhibit reduced levels of genetic conducted for these plants, indications emissions (IPCC 2007, pp. 44–45; Meehl variability, although the ultimate effect are that most existing populations for et al. 2007, pp. 760–764 and 797–811; of these changes is dependent on a both plants are at best marginal. Lack of Ganguly et al. 2009, pp. 15555–15558; plant’s specific life history, reproductive dispersal between occurrences may also Prinn et al. 2011, pp. 527, 529). system, and interaction with pollinators be a threat (see Habitat Fragmentation Various changes in climate may have and dispersal vectors (which may under Factor A). direct or indirect effects on species. themselves be affected by These effects may be positive, neutral, fragmentation) (Young et al. 1996, p. Climate Change or negative, and they may change over 413). While research results clearly Climatic changes, including sea level time, depending on the species and indicate that isolation/fragmentation has rise (SLR), are major threats to south other relevant considerations, such as population genetic consequences for Florida, including Brickellia mosieri interactions of climate with other plants, consequences are varied and for and Linum carteri var. carteri. Our variables (e.g., habitat fragmentation) some species there may be a analyses under the Act include (IPCC 2007, pp. 8–14, 18–19). ‘‘fragmentation threshold’’ below which consideration of ongoing and projected Projected changes in climate and genetic variation is not lost (Young et al. changes in climate. The terms ‘‘climate’’ related impacts can vary substantially 1996, p. 416). No such study has been and ‘‘climate change’’ are defined by the across and within different regions of conducted for Brickellia mosieri or Intergovernmental Panel on Climate the world (e.g., IPCC 2007, pp. 8–12). Linum carteri var. carteri, so whether Change (IPCC). The term ‘‘climate’’ Therefore, we use ‘‘downscaled’’ these plants exhibit such a threshold is refers to the mean and variability of projections when they are available and not known. Reduced genetic variability different types of weather conditions have been developed through generally diminishes a species’ capacity over time, with 30 years being a typical appropriate scientific procedures (see to adapt and respond to environmental period for such measurements, although Glick et al. 2011, pp. 58–61, for a changes, thereby decreasing the shorter or longer periods also may be discussion of downscaling). With regard probability of long-term persistence used (IPCC 2007, p. 78). The term to our analysis for Brickellia mosieri and (e.g., Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; ‘‘climate change’’ thus refers to a change Linum carteri var. carteri, downscaled Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Very in the mean or variability of one or more projections suggest that SLR is the small plant populations may experience measures of climate (e.g., temperature or largest climate-driven challenge to low- reduced reproductive vigor due to precipitation) that persists for an lying coastal areas in the subtropical ineffective pollination or inbreeding extended period, typically decades or ecoregion of southern Florida (U.S. depression. Isolated individuals have longer, whether the change is due to Climate Change Science Program difficulty achieving natural pollen natural variability, human activity, or (USCCSP) 2008, pp. 5–31, 5–32). exchange, which limits the production both (IPCC 2007, p. 78). Several populations of B. mosieri occur of viable seed. The problems associated Scientific measurements spanning at elevations less than 2 m (6.6 ft) above with small population size and several decades demonstrate that sea level. In addition, approximately 50 vulnerability to random demographic changes in climate are occurring, and percent of the known occurrences of L. fluctuations or natural catastrophes are that the rate of change has been faster c. var. carteri are located along a coastal further magnified by synergistic since the 1950s. Examples include ridge, making the species highly (interaction of two or more components) warming of the global climate system, susceptible to increased storm surges effects with other threats, such as those and substantial increases in and related impacts associated with discussed above. precipitation in some regions of the SLR. Only small and fragmented world and decreases in other regions. The long-term record at Key West occurrences of these two plants remain. (For these and other examples, see IPCC shows that sea level rose on average The current ranges of Brickellia mosieri 2007, p. 30; and Solomon et al. 2007, 0.229 cm (0.090 in) annually between and Linum carteri var. carteri span such pp. 35–54, 82–85.) 1913 and 2013 (National Oceanographic a small geographic area—a narrow band Scientists use a variety of climate and Atmospheric Administration (no more than 4.0 km (2.5 mi) in width) models, which include consideration of (NOAA) 2013, p. 1). This equates to along the ridge approximately 30.1 km natural processes and variability, as approximately 22.9 cm (9.02 in) over the (18.7 mi) and 26.9 km (16.7 mi) in well as various scenarios of potential last 100 years. IPCC (2008, p. 28) length, respectively—that all levels and timing of greenhouse gas emphasized it is very likely that the populations could be affected by a (GHG) emissions, to evaluate the causes average rate of SLR during the 21st single event (e.g., hurricane). Four of the of changes already observed and to century will exceed the historical rate. seven remaining populations of L. c. var. project future changes in temperature The IPCC Special Report on Emission carteri have fewer than 20 individual and other climate conditions (e.g., Scenarios (2000, entire) presented a plants (see Table 2). B. mosieri Meehl et al. 2007, entire; Ganguly et al. range of scenarios based on the populations occur in higher numbers 2009, pp. 11555, 15558; Prinn et al. computed amount of change in the (Table 1) but are still not considered 2011, pp. 527, 529). Although climate system due to various potential

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amounts of anthropogenic greenhouse 2059), expansion of mangroves into Drier conditions and increased gases and aerosols in 2100. Each adjacent marshes in the Everglades variability in precipitation associated scenario describes a future world with (Ross et al. 2000, pp. 101, 111), and loss with climate change are expected to varying levels of atmospheric pollution of pine rockland in the Keys (Ross et al. hamper successful regeneration of leading to corresponding levels of global 1994, pp. 144, 151–155). In one Florida forests and cause shifts in vegetation warming and corresponding levels of Keys pine rockland with an average types through time (Wear and Greis SLR. The IPCC Synthesis Report (2007, elevation of 0.89 m (2.9 ft), Ross et al. 2012, p. 39). Although it has not been entire) provided an integrated view of (1994, pp. 149–152) observed an well studied, existing pine rocklands climate change and presented updated approximately 65 percent reduction in have probably been affected by projections of future climate change and an area occupied by South Florida slash reductions in the mean water table. related impacts under different pine over a 70-year period, with pine Climate changes are also forecasted to scenarios. mortality and subsequent increased extend fire seasons and the frequency of Subsequent to the 2007 IPCC Report, proportions of halophytic (salt-loving) large fire events throughout the Coastal the scientific community has continued plants occurring earlier at the lower Plain (Wear and Greis 2012, p. 43). to model SLR. Recent peer-reviewed elevations. During this same timespan, While restoring fire to pine rocklands is publications indicate a movement local sea level had risen by 15 cm (6.0 essential to the long-term viability of toward increased acceleration of SLR. in), and Ross et al. (1994, p. 152) found Brickellia mosieri and Linum carteri var. Observed SLR rates are already trending evidence of groundwater and soil water carteri populations, increases in the along the higher end of the 2007 IPCC salinization. Extrapolating this situation scale, frequency, or severity of wildfires estimates, and it is now widely held that to pine rocklands on the mainland is not could have negative effects on these SLR will exceed the levels projected by straightforward, but suggests that plants considering their general the IPCC (Rahmstorf et al. 2012, p. 1; similar changes to species composition vulnerability due to small population Grinsted et al. 2010, p. 470). Taken could arise if current projections of SLR size, restricted range, few colonies, and together, these studies support the use occur and freshwater inputs are not relative isolation. of higher end estimates now prevalent sufficient to prevent salinization. Alternative Future Landscape Models in the scientific literature. Recent Furthermore, Ross et al. (2009, pp. 471– studies have estimated global mean SLR 478) suggested that interactions between To accommodate the large uncertainty of 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) by 2100 as follows: SLR and pulse disturbances (e.g., storm in SLR projections, researchers must estimate effects from a range of 0.75–1.90 m (2.5–6.2 ft; Vermeer and surges) can cause vegetation to change scenarios. Various model scenarios Rahmstorf 2009, p. 21530), 0.8–2.0 m sooner than projected based on sea level developed at MIT and GeoAdaptive Inc. (2.6–6.6 ft; Pfeffer et al. 2008, p. 1342), alone. Alexander (1953, pp. 133–138) have projected possible trajectories of 0.9–1.3 m (3.0–4.3 ft; Grinsted et al. attributed the demise of pinelands on future transformation of the south 2010, pp. 469–470), 0.6–1.6 m (2.0–5.2 northern Key Largo to salinization of the Florida landscape by 2060 based upon ft; Jevrejeva et al. 2010, p. 4), and 0.5– groundwater in response to SLR. four main drivers: climate change, shifts 1.40 m (1.6–4.6 ft; National Resource Patterns of human development will in planning approaches and regulations, Council 2012, p. 2). also likely be significant factors Other processes expected to be human population change, and influencing whether natural affected by projected warming include variations in financial resources for communities can move and persist temperatures, rainfall (amount, seasonal conservation (Vargas-Moreno and (IPCC 2008, p. 57; USCCSP 2008, p. 7– timing, and distribution), and storms Flaxman 2010, pp. 1–6). The scenarios 6). (frequency and intensity) (discussed do not account for temperature, more specifically under Environmental The Science and Technology precipitation, or species habitat shifts Stochasticity, below). The Committee of the Miami-Dade County due to climate change, and no storm Massachusetts Institute of Technology Climate Change Task Force (Wanless et surge effects are considered. The current (MIT) modeled several scenarios al. 2008, p. 1) recognizes that significant MIT scenarios range from an increase of combining various levels of SLR, SLR is a very real threat to the near 0.09–1.0 m (0.3–3.3 ft) by 2060. temperature change, and precipitation future for Miami-Dade County. In a Based on the most recent estimates of differences with human population January 2008 statement, the committee SLR and the data available to us at this growth, policy assumptions, and warned that sea level is expected to rise time, we evaluated potential effects of conservation funding changes (see at least 0.9–1.5 m (3–5 ft) within this SLR using the current ‘‘high’’ range MIT Alternative Future Landscape Models, century (Wanless et al. 2008, p. 3). With scenario as well as comparing elevations below). All of the scenarios, from small a 0.9–1.2 m (3–4 ft) rise in sea level of remaining pine rockland fragments climate change shifts to major changes, (above baseline) in Miami-Dade County: and extant and historical occurrences of indicate significant effects on coastal ‘‘Spring high tides would be at about 6 Brickellia mosieri and Linum carteri var. Miami-Dade County. to 7 feet; freshwater resources would be carteri occurrences. The ‘‘high’’ range Prior to inundation, pine rocklands gone; the Everglades would be (or ‘‘worst case’’) MIT scenario assumes are likely to undergo habitat transitions inundated on the west side of Miami- high SLR (1 m (3.3 ft) by 2060), low related to climate change, including Dade County; the barrier islands would financial resources, a ‘business as usual’ changes to hydrology and increasing be largely inundated; storm surges approach to planning, and a doubling of vulnerability to storm surge. Hydrology would be devastating; landfill sites human population. Based on this has a strong influence on plant would be exposed to erosion scenario, pine rocklands along the coast distribution in these and other coastal contaminating marine and coastal in central Miami-Dade County, areas (IPCC 2008, p. 57). Such environments. Freshwater and coastal including one occurrence of L. c. var. communities typically grade from salt to mangrove wetlands will not keep up carteri at R. Hardy Matheson Preserve, brackish to freshwater species. From the with or offset SLR of 2 ft per century or would become inundated. The ‘‘new’’ 1930s to 1950s, increased salinity of greater. With a 5-ft rise (spring tides at sea level would come up to the edge of coastal waters contributed to the decline nearly +8 ft), Miami-Dade County will pine rockland fragments at the southern of cabbage palm forests in southwest be extremely diminished’’ (Wanless et end as well, translating to partial Florida (Williams et al. 1999, pp. 2056– al. 2008, pp. 3–4). inundation or, at a minimum, vegetation

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shifts in the pine rocklands in and coaps.fsu.edu/climate_center/ intense hurricanes. In addition to around Navy Wells. While sea level tropicalweather.shtml). Based on data climate change, weather variables are would not overtake other pine rocklands gathered from 1856 to 2008, Klotzbach extremely influenced by other natural in urban Miami-Dade County, changes and Gray (2009, p. 28) calculated the cycles, such as El Nin˜ o Southern in the salinity of the water table and climatological probabilities for each Oscillation with a frequency of every 4– soils would surely cause vegetation State being impacted by a hurricane or 7 years, solar cycle (every 11 years), and shifts in additional areas. In addition, major hurricane in all years over the the Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation. many existing pine rockland fragments 152-year timespan. Of the coastal States All of these cycles influence changes in are projected to be developed for analyzed, Florida had the highest Floridian weather. The exact magnitude, housing as the human population grows climatological probabilities, with a 51 direction, and distribution of all of these and adjusts to changing sea levels under percent probability of a hurricane changes at the regional level are difficult this scenario. Actual impacts may be (Category 1 or 2) and a 21 percent to project. greater or less than anticipated based probability of a major hurricane Freezing Temperatures upon high variability of factors involved (Category 3 or higher). From 1856 to (e.g., SLR, human population growth) 2008, Florida actually experienced 109 Occasional freezing temperatures that and assumptions made. hurricanes and 36 major hurricanes. occur in south Florida are a threat to When simply looking at current Given the low population sizes and Brickellia mosieri and Linum carteri var. elevations of pine rockland fragments restricted ranges of Brickellia mosieri carteri, causing damage or death to and occurrences of these plants, it and Linum carteri var. carteri, and the individual plants. Under normal appears that an SLR of 1 m (3.3. ft) will few isolated occurrences of L. c. var. circumstances, occasional freezing inundate the coastal and southern pine carteri within locations prone to storm temperatures would not result in a rocklands and cause vegetation shifts influences, these plants are at significant impact to populations of largely as described above. SLR of 2 m substantial risk from hurricanes, storm these plants; however, the small size of (6.6 ft) appears to inundate much larger surges, and other extreme weather. some populations means the loss from portions of urban Miami-Dade County, Depending on the location and intensity freezing events of even a few including all of Navy Wells and its of a hurricane or other severe weather individuals can reduce the viability of surrounding area, and with it, several event, it is possible that these plants the population. extant occurrences of Brickellia mosieri. could become extirpated or extinct. Conservation Efforts To Reduce Other The western part of urban Miami-Dade Hurricanes, storm surge, and extreme Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting County would also be inundated high tide events are natural events that Continued Existence (barring creation of sea walls or other can pose a threat to both plants. barriers), creating a virtual island of the Hurricanes and tropical storms can An IRC program included Miami Rock Ridge. After a 2-m rise in modify habitat (e.g., through storm reintroduction of both Brickellia mosieri sea level, approximately 75 percent of surge) and have the potential to destroy and Linum carteri var. carteri in an the remaining pine rockland would still entire populations. Climate change may effort to establish new occurrences of be above sea level but an unknown lead to increased frequency and these plants and increase population percentage of these fragments would be duration of severe storms (Golladay et sizes. To date, B. mosieri has been negatively impacted by salinization of al. 2004, p. 504; McLaughlin et al. 2002, reintroduced to at least one site (George the water table and soils, which would p. 6074; Cook et al. 2004, p. 1015). Both and Avery Pineland), although the be exacerbated due to isolation from plants experienced these disturbances status of these plants is currently mainland fresh water flows. Above 2 m historically, but had the benefit of more unknown (Gann 2013b, pers. comm.). (6.6 ft) of SLR, very little pine rockland abundant and contiguous habitat to Ex-situ conservation by FTBG consists would remain, with the vast majority buffer them from extirpations. With of seed collection of pine rockland either being inundated or experiencing most of the historical habitat having plants, including Brickellia mosieri and vegetation shifts. been destroyed or modified, the few Linum carteri var. carteri, to learn about remaining populations of these plants their germination, storage, and Environmental Stochasticity could face local extirpations due to cultivation requirements to help The climate of southern Florida is stochastic events. safeguard these plants from extinction. driven by a combination of local, Other processes to be affected by FTBG has 22 seed accessions of B. regional, and global events, regimes, and climate change, related to mosieri, and a total of 1,589 seeds were oscillations. There are three main environmental stochasticity, include provided to the National Center for ‘‘seasons’’: (1) the wet season, which is temperatures, rainfall (amount, seasonal Genetic Resources Preservation hot, rainy, and humid from June timing, and distribution), and storms (NGRCP) for long-term storage through October; (2) the official (frequency and intensity). Temperatures (Maschinski et al. 2009, p. 26). Of L. c. hurricane season that extends one are projected to rise from 2–5 °C (3.6– var. carteri, FTBG has 59 accessions, month beyond the wet season (June 1 9 °F) for North America by the end of and 2,643 seeds were provided to through November 30), with peak this century (IPCC 2007, pp. 7–9, 13). NGRCP for long-term storage season being August and September; Based upon modeling, Atlantic (Maschinski et al. 2009, p. 27). and (3) the dry season, which is drier hurricane and tropical storm Maschinski et al. (2009, p. 19 and 21) and cooler, from November through frequencies are expected to decrease indicate that both plants are capable of May. In the dry season, periodic surges (Knutson et al. 2008, pp. 1–21). By orthodox seed storage. Frozen B. mosieri of cool and dry continental air masses 2100, there should be a 10–30 percent seeds germinated at 55 percent after 1 influence the weather with short- decrease in hurricane frequency. week of storage, compared to 54 percent duration rain events followed by long Hurricane frequency is expected to drop of fresh seeds and 40 percent of periods of dry weather. due to more wind shear impeding initial desiccated seeds (Maschinski et al. According to the Florida Climate hurricane development. However, 2009, p. 19). Frozen L. c. var. carteri Center, Florida is by far the most hurricane winds are expected to seeds germinated at 75 percent after 4 vulnerable State in the United States to increase by 5–10 percent. This is due to months of storage, compared to 69 hurricanes and tropical storms (http:// more hurricane energy available for percent of fresh seeds and 71–88

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percent of desiccated seeds (Maschinski and Federal regulatory mechanisms Brickellia mosieri et al. 2009, p. 21). These results indicate (Factor D) are inadequate to protect Brickellia mosieri has been extirpated that seed storage may be a useful these plants from taking and habitat from approximately 13 percent of its strategy for future reintroductions and loss. Despite the existing regulatory historical range, and the primary threats supplementation of existing populations mechanisms, B. mosieri and L. c. var. of inadequate fire management (Factor to increase the numbers and sizes of carteri continue to decline. A) and competition from nonnative populations of these plants. As part of Other factors that are likely to invasive plants (Factor E) are currently FTBG’s Connect To Protect Network, threaten Brickellia mosieri and Linum active in the remaining populations. reintroduction of endemic pine carteri var. carteri in the future are Populations of B. mosieri are relatively rockland plants such as B. mosieri and small and isolated from one another, L. c. var. carteri is planned in corridors climate change (including SLR) and extreme weather events (hurricanes, and the species’ ability to recolonize (networks of private stepping-stone suitable habitat between populations is gardens and public rights-of-way) they frost events), especially as effects of unknown at this time. Because of the hope to create. these could be catastrophic on isolated, small populations of both plants (Factor current condition of the populations Cumulative Effects of Threats E). The majority of the remaining and life-history traits of the species, it The limited distributions and small populations of these plants are generally is vulnerable to natural or human- population sizes of Brickellia mosieri small and geographically isolated. The caused changes in its currently and Linum carteri var. carteri make narrow distribution of their populations occupied habitats. Existing regulatory them extremely susceptible to further in hurricane-prone south Florida makes mechanisms are inadequate to eliminate habitat loss, modification, and them more susceptible to extirpation or even reduce these threats (Factor D). degradation and other anthropogenic from a single catastrophic event. Numerous threats are occurring now threats. Mechanisms leading to the Furthermore, this level of isolation and are likely to continue in the decline of these plants, as discussed makes natural recolonization of foreseeable future, at a high intensity, above, range from local (e.g., lack of extirpated populations virtually and across the species’ entire range; adequate fire management, mowing, impossible without human intervention. therefore, we have determined the herbicides), to regional (e.g., species is currently on the brink of The above-described threats have had development, fragmentation, nonnative extinction. Because these threats are species), to global influences (e.g., substantial adverse effects on Brickellia placing the species in danger of climate change, SLR). The synergistic mosieri and Linum carteri var. carteri extinction now and not only at some effects of threats (such as hurricane populations and their habitats. point in the foreseeable future, we find effects on a species with a limited Although attempts are ongoing to this species meets the definition of an distribution consisting of just a few alleviate some of these threats at some endangered species rather than a small populations) make it difficult to locations, no populations appear to be threatened species. Therefore, we are predict population viability. While without one or more major threats. proposing to list it as an endangered species. These threats are currently these stressors may act in isolation, it is Proposed Determination more probable that many stressors are active, and will continue to affect the acting simultaneously (or in We have carefully assessed the best populations of B. mosieri into the combination) on populations of B. scientific and commercial information foreseeable future, and these threats will mosieri and L. c. var. carteri. available regarding the past, present, individually and collectively contribute to the species’ local extirpation and Summary of Threats and future threats to Brickellia mosieri and Linum carteri var. carteri. Section potential extinction. We have determined that the threats 3(6) of the Act defines an endangered Linum carteri var. carteri to both Brickellia mosieri and Linum species as ‘‘any species which is in L. c. var. carteri has been extirpated carteri var. carteri consist primarily of danger of extinction throughout all or a from approximately 30 percent of its habitat loss and modification through significant portion of its range’’ and urban and agricultural development, historical range, and threats of section 3(20) of the Act defines a lack of adequate fire management, inadequate fire management (Factor A) threatened species as ‘‘any species proliferation of nonnative invasive and competition from nonnative, which is likely to become an plants, and SLR. Threats described invasive plants (Factor E), as well as endangered species within the under Factor A—habitat loss, other anthropogenic disturbances foreseeable future throughout all or a fragmentation, and degradation (Factor E), are currently active in the significant portion of its range.’’ resulting from development and remaining populations. Populations of inadequate fire management, and Factor As described in detail above, both L. c. var. carteri are small, few in E—competition from nonnative invasive plants are currently at risk throughout number, and isolated from one another; plants, are believed to be the primary all of their respective ranges due to the the taxon’s ability to recolonize suitable drivers in the historical and recent immediacy, severity, and scope of habitat between populations is declines of B. mosieri and L. c. var. threats from habitat destruction and unknown at this time. Because of the carteri. L. c. var. carteri has also been modification (Factor A) and other current condition of the populations threatened by anthropogenic natural or manmade factors affecting and life-history traits of the taxon, it is disturbances which threaten their continued existence (Factor E), and vulnerable to natural or human-caused populations in disturbed habitats, such existing regulatory mechanisms are changes in its currently occupied as firebreaks and road rights-of-way, and inadequate to reduce these threats habitats. Existing regulatory both plants are suspected to be (Factor D). Although actions are ongoing mechanisms are inadequate to eliminate negatively affected by threats related to to alleviate some threats, no populations or even reduce these threats (Factor D). small, isolated populations (Factor E). appear to be free of major threats. As a Numerous threats are occurring now All of these threats are expected to result, impacts from increasing threats, and are likely to continue in the continue to impact populations of these singly or in combination, are likely to foreseeable future, at a high intensity, plants in the future. Current local, State, result in the extinction of these plants. and across the taxon’s entire range;

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therefore, we have determined the taxon recovery of these listed species, so that budgets, State programs, and cost-share is currently on the brink of extinction. they no longer need the protective grants for non-Federal landowners, the Because these threats are placing the measures of the Act. Subsection 4(f) of academic community, and taxon in danger of extinction now and the Act requires the Service to develop nongovernmental organizations. In not only at some point in the foreseeable and implement recovery plans for the addition, under section 6 of the Act, the future, we find this taxon meets the conservation of endangered and State of Florida would be eligible for definition of an endangered species threatened species. The recovery Federal funds to implement rather than a threatened species. planning process involves the management actions that promote the Therefore, we are proposing to list it as identification of actions that are protection and recovery of Brickellia an endangered species. The threats necessary to halt or reverse the species’ mosieri and Linum carteri var. carteri. described above are currently active, decline by addressing the threats to its Information on our grant programs that and will continue to affect the survival and recovery. The goal of this are available to aid species recovery can populations of L. c. var. carteri into the process is to restore listed species to a be found at: http://www.fws.gov/grants. foreseeable future, and these threats will point where they are secure, self- Although Brickellia mosieri and individually and collectively contribute sustaining, and functioning components Linum carteri var. carteri are only to the taxon’s local extirpation and of their ecosystems. proposed for listing under the Act at potential extinction. Recovery planning includes the this time, please let us know if you are development of a recovery outline interested in participating in recovery Significant Portion of Its Range shortly after a species is listed, efforts for these plants. Additionally, we We evaluated the current ranges of preparation of a draft and final recovery invite you to submit any new Brickellia mosieri and Linum carteri var. plan, and revisions to the plan as information on these plants whenever it carteri to determine if there is any significant new information becomes becomes available and any information apparent geographic concentration of available. The recovery outline guides you may have for recovery planning potential threats for either taxon. Both the immediate implementation of urgent purposes (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION plants are highly restricted in their recovery actions and describes the CONTACT). ranges, and the threats occur throughout process to be used to develop a recovery Federal agencies are required to their ranges. We considered the plan. The recovery plan identifies site- confer with us informally on any action potential threats due to habitat loss and specific management actions that will that is likely to jeopardize the continued modification from development, lack of achieve recovery of the species, existence of a species that is proposed adequate fire management, competition measurable criteria that determine when for listing. Section 7(a)(4) requires from nonnative plants, and SLR, as well a species may be downlisted or delisted, Federal agencies to confer with the as the threats of incompatible land and methods for monitoring recovery Service on any action that is likely to management and other human progress. Recovery plans also establish jeopardize the continued existence of a activities, hurricanes and other extreme a framework for agencies to coordinate species proposed for listing or result in weather, and small populations with their recovery efforts and provide destruction or adverse modification of restricted range. We found no estimates of the cost of implementing proposed critical habitat. If a species is concentration of threats because of the recovery tasks. Recovery teams listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) plants’ limited and curtailed ranges, and (comprising species experts, Federal requires Federal agencies to ensure that uniformity of the threats throughout and State agencies, nongovernmental activities they authorize, fund, or carry their entire ranges. Having determined organizations, and stakeholders) are out are not likely to jeopardize the that B. mosieri and L. c. var. carteri are often established to develop recovery continued existence of the species or endangered throughout their entire plans. When completed, the recovery destroy or adversely modify its critical ranges, it is not necessary to evaluate outline, draft recovery plan, and the habitat. If a Federal action may whether there are any significant final recovery plan will be available on adversely affect a listed species or its portions of their ranges. our Web site (http://www.fws.gov/ critical habitat, the responsible Federal endangered), or from our South Florida agency must enter into formal Available Conservation Measures Ecological Services Field Office (see FOR consultation with the Service. Conservation measures provided to FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). Federal agency actions within these species listed as endangered or Implementation of recovery actions plants’ habitat that may require threatened under the Act include generally requires the participation of a conference or consultation or both as recognition, recovery actions, broad range of partners, including other described in the preceding paragraph requirements for Federal protection, and Federal agencies, States, Tribal, include, but are not limited to, the prohibitions against certain practices. nongovernmental organizations, funding of, carrying out, or issuance of Recognition through listing results in businesses, and private landowners. permits for resource management public awareness and conservation by Examples of recovery actions include activities, development of facilities, Federal, State, Tribal, and local habitat restoration (e.g., restoration of road and trail construction, recreational agencies; private organizations; and native vegetation), research, captive programs and any other landscape- individuals. The Act encourages propagation and reintroduction, and altering activities on Federal lands cooperation with the States and requires outreach and education. The recovery of administered by the Department of that recovery actions be carried out for many listed species cannot be Defense, National Park Service, Fish and all listed species. The protection accomplished solely on Federal lands Wildlife Service, and U.S. Forest required by Federal agencies and the because their range may occur primarily Service; or the issuance of Federal prohibitions against certain activities or solely on non-Federal lands. To permits under section 404 of the Clean are discussed, in part, below. achieve recovery of these plants requires Water Act (33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq.) by the The primary purpose of the Act is the cooperative conservation efforts on U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; conservation of endangered and private, State, and Tribal lands. construction and management of gas threatened species and the ecosystems If these plants are listed, funding for pipeline and power line rights-of-way upon which they depend. The ultimate recovery actions will be available from by the Federal Energy Regulatory goal of such conservation efforts is the a variety of sources, including Federal Commission; construction and

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maintenance of roads or highways by hurricanes, tropical storms) or even Requests for copies of regulations the Federal Highway Administration; some of the other significant, long-term regarding listed species and inquiries and disaster relief efforts conducted by threats (e.g., climatic changes, SLR). about prohibitions and permits should the Federal Emergency Management However, through listing, we provide be addressed to the U.S. Fish and Agency. protection to the known populations Wildlife Service, Ecological Services The Act and its implementing and any new population of these plants Division, Endangered Species Permits, regulations set forth a series of general that may be discovered (see discussion 1875 Century Boulevard, Atlanta, GA prohibitions and exceptions that apply below). With listing, we can also 30345 (Phone 404–679–7140; Fax 404– to endangered plants. All prohibitions influence Federal actions that may 679–7081). of section 9(a)(2) of the Act, potentially impact these plants (see If Brickellia mosieri and Linum carteri implemented by 50 CFR 17.61, apply. discussion below); this is especially var. carteri are listed under the Act, the These prohibitions, in part, make it valuable if either species is found at State of Florida’s Endangered Species illegal for any person subject to the additional locations. With this action, Act (Florida Statutes 581.185) is jurisdiction of the United States to we are also better able to deter illicit automatically invoked, which would import or export, transport in interstate collection and trade. also prohibit take of these plants and or foreign commerce in the course of a Our policy, as published in the encourage conservation by State commercial activity, sell or offer for sale Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR government agencies. Further, the State in interstate or foreign commerce, or 34272), is to identify to the maximum may enter into agreements with Federal remove and reduce the species to extent practicable at the time a species agencies to administer and manage any possession from areas under Federal is listed, those activities that would or area required for the conservation, jurisdiction. In addition, for plants would not constitute a violation of management, enhancement, or listed as an endangered species, the Act section 9 of the Act. The intent of this protection of endangered species prohibits the malicious damage or policy is to increase public awareness of (Florida Statutes 581.185). Funds for destruction on areas under Federal the effect of a proposed listing on these activities could be made available jurisdiction and the removal, cutting, proposed and ongoing activities within under section 6 of the Act (Cooperation digging up, or damaging or destroying of the range of species proposed for listing. with the States). Thus, the Federal such plants in knowing violation of any The following activities could protection afforded to these plants by State law or regulation, including State potentially result in a violation of listing them as endangered species criminal trespass law. Certain section 9 of the Act; this list is not would be reinforced and supplemented exceptions to the prohibitions apply to comprehensive: by protection under State law. agents of the Service and State (1) Import any such species into, or Peer Review conservation agencies. export any such species from, the Preservation of native flora of Florida United States; In accordance with our joint policy on (Florida Statutes 581.185) sections (3)(a) (2) Remove and reduce to possession peer review published in the Federal and (b) provide limited protection to any such species from areas under Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), species listed in the State of Florida Federal jurisdiction; maliciously we will seek the expert opinions of at Regulated Plant Index including damage or destroy any such species on least three appropriate and independent Brickellia mosieri and Linum carteri var. any such area; or remove, cut, dig up, specialists regarding this proposed rule. carteri, as described under Factor D, or damage or destroy any such species The purpose of peer review is to ensure The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory on any other area in knowing violation that our proposed listing and critical Mechanisms. Federal listing increases of any law or regulation of any State or habitat designation are based on protection for these plants by making in the course of any violation of a State scientifically sound data, assumptions, violations of section 3 of the Florida criminal trespass law; and analyses. We will invite these peer Statute punishable as a Federal offense (3) Deliver, receive, carry, transport, reviewers to comment during this under section 9 of the Act. This or ship in interstate or foreign public comment period on our specific provides increased protection from commerce, by any means whatsoever proposed rule. unauthorized collecting and vandalism and in the course of a commercial We will consider all comments and for the plants on State and private lands, activity, any such species; information we receive during this where they might not otherwise be (4) Sell or offer for sale in interstate comment period on this proposed rule protected by the Act, and increases the or foreign commerce any such species; during our preparation of a final severity of the penalty for unauthorized (5) Introduce any nonnative wildlife determination. Accordingly, the final collection, vandalism, or trade in these or plant species to the State of Florida decision may differ from this proposal. plants. that compete with or prey upon Public Hearings We may issue permits to carry out Brickellia mosieri or Linum carteri var. otherwise prohibited activities carteri; Section 4(b)(5) of the Act provides for involving endangered and threatened (6) Release any unauthorized one or more public hearings on this plant species under certain biological control agents that attack any proposal, if requested. Requests must be circumstances. Regulations governing life stage of Brickellia mosieri or Linum received within 45 days after the date of permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.62 for carteri var. carteri; or publication of this proposed rule in the endangered plants, and at 50 CFR 17.72 (7) Unauthorized manipulation or Federal Register. Such requests must be for threatened plants. With regard to modification of the habitat of Brickellia sent to the address shown in FOR endangered plants, a permit must be mosieri or Linum carteri var. carteri on FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT. We will issued for activities undertaken for Federal lands. schedule public hearings on this scientific purposes or to enhance the Questions regarding whether specific proposal, if any are requested, and propagation or survival of the species. activities would constitute a violation of announce the dates, times, and places of The Service acknowledges that it section 9 of the Act should be directed those hearings, as well as how to obtain cannot fully address some of the natural to the Field Supervisor of the Service’s reasonable accommodations, in the threats facing Brickellia mosieri and South Florida Ecological Services Office Federal Register and local newspapers Linum carteri var. carteri (e.g., (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). at least 15 days before the hearing.

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Required Determinations Reduction Act of 1995 (44 U.S.C. 3501 Authors et seq.). This rule will not impose Clarity of the Rule The primary authors of this package recordkeeping or reporting requirements We are required by Executive Orders are the staff members of the South on State or local governments, Florida Ecological Services Field Office. 12866 and 12988 and by the individuals, businesses, or Presidential Memorandum of June 1, organizations. An agency may not List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 1998, to write all rules in plain conduct or sponsor, and a person is not Endangered and threatened species, language. This means that each rule we required to respond to, a collection of Exports, Imports, Reporting and publish must: (1) Be logically organized; information unless it displays a recordkeeping requirements, (2) Use the active voice to address currently valid OMB control number. Transportation. readers directly; National Environmental Policy Act (42 Proposed Regulation Promulgation (3) Use clear language rather than U.S.C. 4321 et seq.) jargon; Accordingly, we propose to amend (4) Be divided into short sections and We have determined that part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, sentences; and environmental assessments and as set forth below: (5) Use lists and tables wherever environmental impact statements, as possible. defined under the authority of the If you feel that we have not met these PART 17—[AMENDED] National Environmental Policy Act, requirements, send us comments by one need not be prepared in connection ■ 1. The authority citation for part 17 of the methods listed in ADDRESSES. To continues to read as follows: better help us revise the rule, your with listing a species as endangered or comments should be as specific as threatened under the Act. We published Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 1531– possible. For example, you should tell a notice outlining our reasons for this 1544; 4201–4245; unless otherwise noted. us the numbers of the sections or determination in the Federal Register ■ 2. Amend § 17.12(h) by adding entries paragraphs that are unclearly written, on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). for ‘‘Brickellia mosieri’’ and ‘‘Linum which sections or sentences are too References Cited carteri var. carteri’’, in alphabetical long, the sections where you feel lists or order under Flowering Plants, to the List tables would be useful, etc. A complete list of references cited in of Endangered and Threatened Plants, to Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (44 this rulemaking is available on the read as follows: Internet at http://www.regulations.gov U.S.C. 3501 et seq.) § 17.11 Endangered and threatened and upon request from the South wildlife. This rule does not contain any new Florida Ecological Services Office (see * * * * * collections of information that require FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). approval by OMB under the Paperwork (h) * * *

Species Historical range Family Status When listed Critical Special Scientific name Common name habitat rules

FLOWERING PLANTS

******* Brickellia mosieri .... Brickell-bush, Flor- U.S.A. (FL) ...... Asteraceae ...... E ...... NA NA ida.

******* Linum carteri var. Flax, Carter’s U.S.A. (FL) ...... Linaceae ...... E ...... NA NA carteri. small-flowered.

*******

* * * * * DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR ACTION: Proposed rule. Dated: September 25, 2013. Fish and Wildlife Service SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Rowan W. Gould, Wildlife Service (Service), propose to Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 50 CFR Part 17 designate critical habitat for Brickellia Service. mosieri (Florida brickell-bush) and [FR Doc. 2013–24173 Filed 10–2–13; 8:45 am] [Docket No. FWS–R4–ES–2013–0108; Linum carteri var. carteri (Carter’s 4500030114] BILLING CODE 4310–55–P small-flowered flax) under the Endangered Species Act (Act). We are RIN 1018–AZ64 proposing to designate as critical habitat Endangered and Threatened Wildlife approximately 1,071 ha (2,646 ac) for and Plants; Designation of Critical Brickellia mosieri and approximately Habitat for Brickellia mosieri (Florida 1,054 ha (2,605 ac) for Linum carteri var. Brickell-bush) and Linum carteri var. carteri. The critical habitat areas carteri (Carter’s Small-flowered Flax) proposed for these plants overlap, for a combined total of approximately 1,096 AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, ha (2,707 ac). The proposed critical Interior. habitat for both plants is located entirely

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