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Biological Control As an Integrated Control Method in the Management Biological control as an integrated control method in the management of aquatic weeds in an urban environmental and socio-political landscape Case study: Cape Town Metropolitan Area Thesis Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Ad Eundem Gradum at Rhodes University By Louise Stafford Department of Zoology and Entomology Rhodes University P. O. Box 94 Grahamstown 6140 Date: January 2014 i Abstract Aquatic weeds transform and degrade the ecosystems which they invade, impacting various aspects of their surroundings ranging from the community level to disrupting important processes affecting ecosystem services. All of the major aquatic weeds of South Africa are found in the Cape Town Metropolitan Area. Landowners, whether private or public, are legally obliged to manage the listed invasive species through applying environmentally acceptable methodologies. This thesis provides an overview of the strategic management options, prevention, early detection, rapid response and eradication of new invasions, and containment and control species of established species. It discusses the different control methods available for managing aquatic weeds, namely mechanical, manual, chemical and biological, and the integration of different methods to improve their effectiveness. Although various studies have shown that biological control is the most cost–effective, environmentally-friendly and sustainable method, it is not yet fully integrated into weed management programmes in South Africa. In addition, the successes achieved in other parts of the world with the control of water hyacinth through biological control have not been repeated in the urban environment, despite the fact that South Africa has the highest number of biological control agents available for the weed. Urbanisation puts pressure on the natural environment and ecosystem functioning. Nutrient-enriched waters support aquatic weed growth and pose a challenge to the management thereof, in particular with regard to integrating biological control into management programmes. The aims of this study were to determine the reasons for the lack of integration of biological control into weed management programmes in South Africa, to determine the feasibility of integrating biological control in aquatic weed management programmes in a complex urban environmental and socio-political landscape by means of three case studies in the Cape Town Metropolitan Area, which showed that biological control is feasible in urban environments and should be considered. Two surveys were conducted to determine the reasons for the lack of integration of biological control into weed management programmes. The surveys showed that there is a gap between research and implementation as a result of ii poor communication, non-supporting institutional arrangements and a lack of appropriate capacity and skills at the implementation level. Recommendations were offered to address these issues. iii Frontispiece © Louise Stafford © Louise Stafford The Diep River on 8 May 2012 prior to manual The Diep River on 1 August 2012 after manual clearing clearing © Louise Stafford © Louise Stafford The Diep River section where biological control is Diep River: Neochetina sp. damage is evident on integrated with manual control of water hyacinth the water hyacinth leaves iv © Louise Stafford © Louise Stafford Black River on 26 March 2012 prior to Black River on 10 June 2012 after manual manual and mechanical clearing and mechanical clearing © John Fowkes © John Fowkes Westlake River before biological control Westlake River after biological control v Acknowledgements I am grateful to the Drakenstein Trust for funding this study. I wish to express my utter and unreserved gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Martin Hill and co-supervisor Dr Julie Coetzee for agreeing to work with me and providing me with the insights I needed to make this project see the light of the day. I deeply appreciate their guidance and support. I am thankful towards Kay Montgomery for giving me the courage to take the leap and the words of wisdom when it was needed the most; Karin Winterbach for her resilience and for providing much-needed support to finish this project; my team at the City of Cape Town’s Invasive Species Unit for their perseverance and continued hard work while I was working on this thesis; my colleagues in the City of Cape Town’s Transport Roads and Stormwater Department for providing me with the information I needed, and for buying into a different way of managing aquatic weeds; John and Sandra Fowkes for taking the lead and showing the importance of public involvement in managing our natural resources, and for the information, support and encouragement you provided; and a heartfelt word of thanks to everyone who participated in the surveys: your contributions were invaluable for this study. Thank you Grant Andrews and Ulrike Irlich for helping me to get over the final hurdles, your contributions are invaluable. This thesis is dedicated to my sister, who was a true example of perseverance and of making progress against the odds. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS List of figures ........................................................................................................................................................................ ix List of tables ........................................................................................................................................................................... x Chapter 1 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 1 An Overview of Aquatic Weeds and their Impacts .................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Invasive species introduction pathways ................................................................................................... 2 1.2.1 Natural pathways ......................................................................................................................................... 2 1.2.2 Accidental pathways ................................................................................................................................... 3 1.2.3 Deliberate introductions .......................................................................................................................... 3 1.2.3.1 Aquarium trade and pet stores.......................................................................................................... 4 1.2.3.2 Internet and e-commerce ..................................................................................................................... 4 1.2.3.3 Horticulture industry .............................................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Metropolitan areas as hotspots for species invasion ......................................................................... 5 1.4 Aquatic weed problems around the world .............................................................................................. 5 1.5 Aquatic weed problems in South Africa..................................................................................................... 8 1.6 Aquatic weed problems in the Cape Town Metropolitan area ...................................................... 9 1.7 Aims of this study and structure of the thesis ..................................................................................... 12 Chapter 2 .................................................................................................................................................................................. 13 Regulatory Frameworks for Invasive Species Management in South Africa ............................................... 13 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................... 13 2.2 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ............................................................................................. 13 2.3 International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) ........................................................................... 13 2.4 International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures .................................................................... 14 2.5 The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 ................................................................. 14 2.6 The Agricultural Pests Act, No.36 of 1983 (APA) as amended ................................................... 14 2.7 The Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, 43 of 1983 (CARA) as amended ........ 15 2.8 National Water Act 36, of 1998 ................................................................................................................... 16 2.9 National Environmental Management Act 107, 1998 (NEMA) ................................................ 16 2.10 The National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 10, of 2004 (NEM:BA) 16 2.11 Discussion ........................................................................................................................................................... 17 Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................................................................................
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