Cultural Differences towards Sexual Advertising A comparative study between Swedish and South Korean students

Sara Hemmingsson Linnea Sjöberg

Bachelor Programme in International Business Administration 2020

Luleå University of Technology Department of Business Administration, Technology and Social Sciences Acknowledgements

This bachelor thesis has been made for the authors to obtain their degree from Luleå University of Technology in International Business Administration. While the authors have been working on this thesis, we have gained a lot of knowledge about culture and sexual advertising. We hope that those who read this thesis will find it interesting and that it increases their understanding of culture and how it influences the choice of marketing strategy.

We want to give a many thanks you to our supervisor Seyedeh Fatemeh Mostafavi Shirazi, who has always been available and contributed with help and advice during the work with this thesis. We want to thank everyone who has answered our questionnaire. We also want to thank each other for great cooperation and for being supportive.

We are very proud to have finished our bachelor thesis.

Luleå University of Technology, 2020-06-10

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Sara Hemmingsson

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Linnea Sjöberg

Abstract

This study has investigated whether cultural differences affect how one perceives sexual advertising. The study has focused on Sweden and South Korea, which showed great differences in Hofstede's cultural framework. Sweden, according to Hofstede, is considered to be a feminine country and has low uncertainty avoidance. In contrast to South Korea, which is considered masculine and is one of the most uncertainty avoiding countries in the world. The study examined whether these cultural aspects affect how the consumer perceives sexual advertising. To answer this, data was collected through a questionnaire, with Swedish and South Korean university students as respondents. The results showed that there were differences in how Swedish and South Korean participants experienced sexual advertising, although not as great differences as expected. The South Koreans proved to be more easily upset by the advertising than the Swedes, however, it turned out that no one felt interested in buying the promoted product, regardless of culture.

Keywords: Sexual advertising, Hofstede's framework, culture, shock advertising, level of sex appeal, perception, advertising strategy.

Sammanfattning

Denna studie har undersökt om kulturella skillnader påverkar hur man uppfattar sexuell marknadsföring. Studien har fokuserat på Sverige och Sydkorea, som visade på stora skillnader i Hofstedes kulturella ramverk. Sverige som enligt Hofstedes anses vara feminint och ha lågt osäkerhetsundvikande. I kontrast mot Sydkorea som anses vara maskulint och ha högt osäkerhetsundvikande. Studien undersökte om dessa kulturella aspekter påverkar hur konsumenten uppfattar sexuell marknadsföring. För att svara på detta samlades data in genom enkäter, med svenska och sydkoreanska universitetsstudenter som respondenter. Resultatet visade att det fanns skillnader i hur svenska och sydkoreanska deltagare upplevde den sexuella marknadsföringen, dock inte så stora skillnader som hade förväntats. Sydkoreanerna visade sig bli lättare upprörda av reklamen än svenskarna, dock visade det sig att ingen blev intresserad av att köpa den marknadsförda produkten, oberoende av kultur.

Nyckelord: Sexuell marknadsföring, Hofstedes ramverk, kultur, provokativ reklam, nivå av sexuell dragningskraft, uppfattning, marknadsföringsstrategi.

Table of contents

1. Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Background ...... 1 1.2 Problem discussion ...... 3 1.3 Overall Purpose ...... 4 1.4 Overview of Entire Thesis ...... 4

2. Literature Review...... 6 2.1 Culture ...... 6 2.1.1 Hofstede's six dimensions ...... 6 2.2 Advertising ...... 9 2.2.1 Shock Advertising ...... 9 2.2.2 Level of Sex Appeal ...... 10 2.4 Frame of reference ...... 11

3. Methodology ...... 13 3.1 Research purpose...... 13 3.2 Research approach ...... 13 3.3 Research strategy...... 15 3.4 Data collection...... 15 3.5 Data analysis ...... 18 3.6 Validity and Reliability ...... 19 3.7 Summary of methodology ...... 20

4. Empirical data ...... 21 4.1 Distribution of respondents ...... 21 4.2 Ad 1 ...... 22 4.3 Ad 2 ...... 25 4.4 Ad 3 ...... 28 4.5 Ad 4 ...... 31 4.6 Ad 5 ...... 34 4.7 Ad 6 ...... 37 4.8 Ad 7 ...... 40 4.9 Ad 8 ...... 43

5. Data analysis ...... 47 5.1 Objectification and Level of sex appeal...... 47 5.2 Norm violation and Shock advertising ...... 48

6. Findings and Conclusion ...... 50 6.1 Objectification and Level of sex appeal...... 50

6.2 Norm violation and Shock advertising ...... 51 6.3 Final Conclusions ...... 52 6.4 Limitations of the Research ...... 53 6.5 Implications for Theory ...... 53 6.6 Implications for Practitioners...... 54 6.7 Implications for Further Research ...... 55

7. References ...... 56

Appendix: Questionnaire about consumers' perception of sexual advertising...... I

List of Tables: Table 1: Frame of reference ...... 11 Table 2: Distribution of respondents...... 21 Table 3: Summary of the study’s results...... 52

List of Figures: Figure 1: Thesis Outline...... 5 Figure 2: South Korea vs Sweden comparing Hofstede's six dimensions ...... 7 Figure 3: Methodology summary...... 20 Figure 4: Ad 1 Makeup ...... 22 Figure 5: Objectified Makeup ...... 23 Figure 6: Level of sex appeal Makeup ...... 23 Figure 7: Offended Makeup ...... 24 Figure 8: Buying Makeup ...... 24 Figure 9: Ad 2, Dressing ...... 25 Figure 10: Objectified Dressing ...... 26 Figure 11: Level of sex appeal Dressing...... 26 Figure 12: Offended Dressing ...... 27 Figure 13: Buying Dressing ...... 27 Figure 14: Comparing ad 1 & 2 ...... 28 Figure 15: Ad 3, Hamburger 1 ...... 28 Figure 16: Objectified Hamburger 1 ...... 29 Figure 17: Level of sex appeal Hamburger 1...... 29 Figure 18: Offended Hamburger 1 ...... 30 Figure 19: Buying Hamburger 1 ...... 30 Figure 20: Ad 4, Hamburger 2 ...... 31 Figure 21: Objectified Hamburger 2 ...... 32 Figure 22: Level of sex appeal Hamburger 2...... 32 Figure 23: Offended Hamburger 2 ...... 33 Figure 24: Buying Hamburger 2 ...... 33 Figure 25: Comparing ad 3 & 4 ...... 34 Figure 26: Ad 5, Clothes 1 ...... 34 Figure 27: Objectified woman Clothes 1 ...... 35 Figure 28: Objectified men Clothes 1 ...... 35 Figure 29: Level of sex appeal Clothes 1...... 36 Figure 30: Offended Clothes 1 ...... 36 Figure 31: Buying Clothes 1 ...... 37 Figure 32: Ad 6, Clothes 2 ...... 37

Figure 33: Objectified woman Clothes 2 ...... 38 Figure 34: Objectified man Clothes 2 ...... 38 Figure 35: Level of sex appeal Clothes 2...... 39 Figure 36: Offended Clothes 2 ...... 39 Figure 37: Buying Clothes 2 ...... 40 Figure 38: Ad 7, Perfume 1...... 40 Figure 39: Objectified Perfume 1 ...... 41 Figure 40: Level of sex appeal Perfume 1 ...... 41 Figure 41: Offended Perfume 1 ...... 42 Figure 42: Buying Perfume 1 ...... 42 Figure 43: Ad 8, Perfume 2...... 43 Figure 44: Objectified Perfume 2 ...... 44 Figure 45: Level of sex appeal Perfume 2 ...... 44 Figure 46: Offended Perfume 2 ...... 45 Figure 47: Buying Perfume 2 ...... 45 Figure 48: Comparing ad 7 & 8 ...... 46

1. Introduction This chapter will present the topic of this thesis, sexual advertising, starting with a background of the subject area followed by a problem discussion. Later on, the overall purpose of the thesis will be presented.

1.1 Background Advertising is used to send product messages to consumers (Lu, Gou, Tang, & Zhang, 2016) where the goal of advertising is to change consumer attitudes for the benefit of the company (Haugtvedt, Schumann, Schneier, & Warren, 1994). The message is the heart of advertising, therefore, companies must choose which statement or concept the message should mediate, which is achieved by developing an advertising strategy (Keegan and Green, 2017). One part of the advertising strategy is to choose where it should appear. Companies can pay to distribute advertising messages through a variety of media such as websites, magazines, television advertising and outdoor advertising (Lu, et al., 2016). Advertisers should not only think about where the advertising will be seen, but also that the message can generate an emotional response and therefore they must choose the most appropriate advertising technique for that market (Sameti & Khalili, 2017).

Globalization has increased greatly over the last 40 years, which has led to many companies having the whole world as their market (Mayer, 2015). According to Harris (1996), this means that companies need to use international advertising, which gives them two choices when they want to advertise themselves. They can either have a standardized strategy or choose to have an adaptable strategy for individual markets. Harris (1996), wrote that standardized strategy is when a company uses the same strategy on all markets in which they are established. An adapted strategy is when a company changes their advertising to fit a unique market. According to Harris (1996), this choice is one of the most difficult choices for companies when it comes to international advertising. Those who prefer standardized advertising argue that the consumer needs and wants an ad that is international and works in every market. Those who are in favor of customized advertising argue that differences in local market conditions are so important that advertising must meet local needs (Harris, 1996). Using sex appeal in order to promote a brand or to sell a product (Wan, Luk &

1 Chow, 2014) is an increasing technique to gain a consumer’s attention (Wyllie, Carlson & Rosenberger, 2014). When using sex appeal in advertising, standardization or adaptation is essential, especially in international advertising (Anabila, Tagoe & Asare, 2015).

Sex appeal is a major advertising technique often used in brand’s international advertising campaigns (Fang, Hong & Jianyao, 2009). This technique of advertising is called sexual advertising, which is a part of shock advertising (Hyllegard, Ogle, & Yan, 2009). Sexual advertising has increased over the last three decades (Lass & Hart, 2004). Since sexual appeal attracts attention, is arousing and memorable, it is clear why companies continue to use it (ibid). According to Wan, et al., (2014), this type of advertisement has the purpose of giving a short-term arousement, an instinctual sexual interest. Most of the sexual advertisements consist of female nudity, since men are more easily aroused than women. An advertisement of female nudity draws women’s attention as well, however most often in a more competitive way (Wan, et al., 2014). Overall, the response of sexual appeal in advertising is different between men and women, most often the response is less favorable from women (Black & Morton, 2017). Research has shown that the use of sexual appeal in printed advertisements has increased sales, however there is a fine line between the response of consumers, whether it is perceived as appealing or offensive (Wyllie, et al., 2014).

Previous research says that there are significant differences in how various cultures perceive advertisements (Hoeken, Starren, Nickerson, Crijns & Van den Brandt, 2007), and that national culture has a significant influence on the consumers responding to sexual advertising (Lass & Hart, 2004). Culture is an important component of a successful advertising strategy and gives a deeper knowledge of the dynamics of a cultural system, which is the foundation for developing effective advertising strategy (Anabila, et al., 2015). A key factor that determines consumer behavior is culture (ibid.) Since various target groups will react differently to the advertising, it should be adapted so it relates to the target audience (Keegan & Green, 2017).

Hofstede describes culture as “the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another” (Hoe, Özkan, Tekeş & Üzümcüoğlu,

2 2019, p. 971). Hofstede’s cultural dimensions is a model that show cross-cultural differences (Luthar, & Luthar, 2007), its six dimensions are: individualism versus collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, long- term versus short-term orientation, masculinity versus femininity, power distance (Hoe, et al., 2019) and indulgence (Lanier & Kirchner, 2018).

1.2 Problem discussion International advertisers should adapt their advertising strategies due to cultural differences in foreign countries (Fang et al., 2009). According to previous research, there are strong differences in how different cultures perceive advertisements (Hoeken et al., 2007). According to Anabila et al., (2015), it is of great importance to consider the society’s view and level of acceptance or tolerance when determining the level of sex appeal in an advertisement. The level of sex appeal is often measured in degrees of nudity. The globalization has made cultures more welcoming towards things prevailing in other cultures, which has reinforced the use of sex appeals in advertising (Anabila et al., 2015).

According to Anabila et al., (2015), it is a well-known cliché that sex sells, and many advertisers are tempted to use erotic content in their advertisements because of this. This approach of advertising has taken such momentum that sexual advertising now leaves a mark of prestige and modernity. Anabila et al., (2015), further asserted that this has been so pervasive that the word sexy is now seen as synonymous with positive attributes such as beauty, trendy, and smartness. However, many perceive sexual advertising as inappropriate and unethical, especially in high cultural environments (Anabila et al., 2015). Using nudity or erotic appeals are seen as less favorable and creates confusion about the purpose of the advertisement (Lass & Hart, 2004). How the advertisement is perceived is an important issue that advertisers must consider while using sexual advertisements (Black & Morton, 2017). Several studies have shown that sexualizing women in advertising can negatively affect gender equality attitudes (Choi, Yoo, Reichert & LaTour, 2016). Despite opposition and the proven negative consequences sexual advertising has, companies continue to use rampant sexual images to advertise their products (Lass & Hart, 2004).

Using sex appeal as an advertising technique creates several issues on how it needs to be adapted within different cultures to achieve the desired effect (Fang, et al., 2009). Culture is the key factor for determining consumer behavior, therefore understanding culture is the foundation for

3 developing effective advertising strategy (Anabila et al., 2015). According to research, when developing national level strategies and campaigns, Hofstede's cultural dimensions must be considered (Hoe et al., 2019). There is previous research about how culture influences how sexual advertising is perceived. However, there is a lack of previous research regarding culture comparisons between an Asian country and a European country. To limit this report, the comparison will be made from two selected countries from two different continents.

Each country has its own history, social structure and instructions which means that there are unique ways to solve different issues (Wilson, Lindbergh, & Graff, 2014). South Korea has a long history of war and threats from North Korea. This story has influenced their culture, today they want to achieve prosperity and strength with the goal of being a lasting country (Kim, 2014). Sweden's history differs from South Korea with peace for over 200 years and with a neutral role during the World Wars (Wilson et al. 2014). The different histories of the two countries are one reason why the culture differ the way it does today. Since these two countries differ significantly, it is interesting to compare these countries and as to the authors knowledge, it has not been done before. Therefore, this report will focus on how differences in Sweden and South Korea's cultures affect how sexual advertising is perceived.

1.3 Overall Purpose Based on the discussion above, the purpose of this thesis is to describe cultural differences in consumers' perception towards sexual advertising. This thesis’ overall purpose has been developed as:

“To examine cultural differences towards sexual advertising, comparing Swedish and South Korean consumers.”

1.4 Overview of Entire Thesis This thesis contains six chapters, as shown in Figure 1 below. The first chapter presents the introduction, which consists of background, problem discussion and an overall purpose of the report. The second chapter is the literature review, where relevant theories will be described

4 followed by a frame of reference. This is followed by the third chapter, methodology, which contains information on how this study is conducted. Empirical data is the fourth chapter, where the collected data for this report will be presented, followed by the fifth chapter data analysis, where analyzes will be conducted by using the collected data. In the last chapter, findings and conclusions will be presented for this thesis.

Figure 1: Thesis Outline

5 2. Literature Review In this chapter, previous findings relevant to this thesis will be presented and discussed. First, culture will be discussed with relevant theory. Secondly, advertising will be addressed, followed by shock advertising and the level of sex appeal. This thesis’ literature review chapter will be completed with the frame of reference.

2.1 Culture According to Hofstede (1980), culture is a “collective programming of the mind” (Mintu, 1992, p. 362). Mintu (1992), discussed that the development of this programming comes from social environments and life experiences. Culture is therefore specific to a group or people's society (Mintu, 1992). Many definitions of culture contain these elements: values, beliefs, norms, stereotypes and ideologies (Alexandra, 2018). Where values are the core of culture, that develops at an early age (Mintu, 1992). Consumers respond to advertising messages in a way that is consistent to their cultural values and norms (Zhang & Neelankavil, 1997). Different cultures perceive advertising differently (Hoeken, et al., 2007). The customers need to know what the companies sell, and the advertisers need to communicate why their companies should be perceived positively. (Lee, 2019). A successful communication between these two is based on an understanding of shared meanings of culture (ibid).

2.1.1 Hofstede's six dimensions There are many different frameworks when studying cultures. However, Hofstede has developed the most useful framework with the six dimensions, used by many researchers (Țîmbalari, 2019). The framework's scale ranges from 0-100, where 50 is the mid-level. A score is considered low if it is below 50, and as high if it is above 50 on the scale (Hofstede Insights, 2019). Figure 2 illustrates differences between South Korea and Sweden regarding Hofested's six dimensions (Hofstede Insights, 2019).

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Figure 2: South Korea vs Sweden comparing Hofstede's six dimensions (Hofstede Insights, 2019)

According to Beugelsdijk, Maseland and Hoorn (2015), one disadvantage of Hofstede's framework is that the data collected was conducted through a survey in the late 1960s and early 1970s. When countries develop economically, it also predicts that cultural values will change, which is likely to affect the countries' scores in the Hofstede’s framework. This affects whether Hofstede's framework is still today a relevant tool to use in research (Beugelsdijk et al., 2015). New research has produced a comparison between newly collected data and the data that was produced in the Hofstede framework to see if it is a tool relevant to use today. The new data indicates that contemporary societies score higher on individualism and indulgence and that they have lower scores in power distance. The research showed that “cultural change is absolute rather than relative, meaning that countries’ scores on the Hofstede dimensions relative to the scores of other countries have not changed very much.” (Beugelsdijk et al., 2015, p. 223).

As explained by Keegan and Green (2017), power distance is about the extent in a society which the less powerful people accept and expect the power to be distributed unequally. High power distance is when the members of society accept major differences in power where the respect for the authorities is great. Low power distance is when the members of society do not accept major differences in power which means that, for example, they are not afraid to contradict their manager (Keegan & Green, 2017).

7 According to Pergelova and Angulo-Ruiz (2017), “Individualism/collectivism is defined as people looking after themselves and their immediate family only, versus people belonging to in-groups that look after them in exchange for loyalty” (Pergelova & Angulo-Ruiz, 2017, p. 873). In cultures that are defined by individualism, people are "I" – conscious, because their identity is linked to the person. Unlike cultures that are collectivistic, where people identify themselves to the social system that they belong to which makes them "we" – conscious. Individualist cultures are cultures with low context and people prefer clear communication, while collectivist cultures are cultures with high context with indirect communication styles (Pergelova & Angulo-Ruiz, 2017).

Whether a culture have long-term orientation versus short-term orientation depends on how members of society maintain links to their past while addressing challenges in the present and the future (Hofstede Insights, 2019). Long-term orientation is when people in a society look to the future and value thrift and persistence, while short-term orientation is when people value tradition and the past (Keegan & Green, 2017).

Indulgence versus restraint is about the extent of free expression that a society allows (Wild & Wild, 2016). It is about the degree to which people of a society try to control their wishes and impulses (Sun, Yoo, Park & Hayati, 2019). According to Hofstede Insights (2019), indulgence is when a society has free satisfaction of basic and natural human drives that are related to the enjoyment of life and having fun. The opposite of this is restraint, which is when a society suppresses the satisfaction of needs regulated by strict social norms (Hofstede Insights, 2019).

“Masculinity versus femininity reflects the cultural tendency for differentiating gender roles” (Hoe et al., 2019, p. 972). Based on Hofstede Insights (2019), the masculinity side of the dimension is represented by a competitive society where achievement, heroism, self-reliance and material rewards for success are important. The opposite of this is femininity, which is represented by a more consensus-oriented society where cooperation, modesty, taking care of the weak and quality of life are important (Hofstede Insights, 2019). According to Nelson and Paek (2005), differences in gender equality, masculinity or femininity also gives information regarding sexual norms. On a cultural level, masculine countries have moralistic attitudes about sexuality while feminine countries do not. Hofstede said that masculine countries have a stronger taboo on sexual issues

8 than feminine countries (Nelson and Peak, 2005). As shown in Figure 2, South Korea with a score of 39, is a masculinity country. Sweden with a score of 5, is a femininity country.

Uncertainty avoidance, “is a key cultural dimension with high relevance for international marketing” (Messner, 2016, p. 298). As explained by Wild and Wild (2016), uncertainty avoidance is about the extent to which a culture avoids uncertainty and ambiguity. Cultures with high uncertainty avoidance are characterized by the fact that members of a society value safety and believe in strong rules and procedures. (Wild & Wild, 2016). In these countries, it is important to maintain rigid codes of belief and behavior, and they are intolerant of behaviors and ideas that are opposed to Orthodox rules (Hofstede Insights, 2019). Cultures with low uncertainty avoidance are characterized by the fact that members of society tend to be open to new ideas and changes (Wild & Wild, 2016). In these countries, deviations from the norm are more easily tolerated and people believe that there should be no rules than those which are necessary and if the rules do not work should they be abandoned or changed (Hofstede Insights, 2019). As can be seen in Figure 2, Sweden with a score of 29 on this dimension has a very low preference for avoiding uncertainty. South Korea has a high score regarding uncertainty avoidance, with a score of 85, “South Korea is one of the most uncertain avoidance countries in the world” (Hofstede Insights, 2019).

2.2 Advertising

Advertising is used by brands to inform and influence attitudes and behaviors (Lee, 2019) and is one of the most important marketing instruments (Deleersnyder, Dekimpe, Steenkamp, & Leeflang, 2009). Different advertising strategies can motivate and persuade consumers (Lopez & Veiga, 2019). Advertisers must choose the appropriate advertising technique for the chosen market, since the advertisements message can generate an emotional response (Sameti & Khalili, 2017).

2.2.1 Shock Advertising

According to Parry, Jones, Stern, and Robinson (2013), shock advertising is an advertising method defined as “an attempt to surprise an audience by deliberately violating norms for societal values and personal ideals. . . to capture the attention of a target audience” (Parry et al., 2013, p. 112). When discussing shock advertising, terms as ‘offensive’, ‘taboo’ and ‘sex and decency issues’

9 often appears. Parry et al., (2013), further asserted that the purpose of using shocking imagery in advertisements is to bring an emotional response to the ad, where the shocking imagery can include obscene sexual references, violence or profanity. Several studies show the rise of shock advertising, however, the views of the advertising strategy are divergent. The technique is seen as creative for some viewers, whereas others think of it as gimmicky. Shock advertising is a valid strategy that particularly helps new products and brands. However, the technique may cause negative attitudes towards the brand (Parry et al., 2013). Hence, an advertisement with a low value of shock or offensiveness will not likely accomplish the brand-processing goals. However, an advertisement with a high value of shock or offensiveness may lead the customer to ignore the advertisement, product or brand due to becoming upset or disgusted (Urwin & Venter, 2014).

According to Urwin and Venter (2014), the consumer's norms play a part in how the shock advertisement will be perceived. Norms can be defined as what is seen as acceptable and unacceptable behavior in a group, which are formed in the process of social learning. These norms are used when evaluating people, objects, ideas, actions and advertisements. If an advertisement, for example, breaches the norms of visual decency and is considered offensive, a norm violation has occurred. Consumers that have been exposed to shock advertisements that violate their norms, have felt guilt, shame and in some cases mental disturbance. Norm violation may induce anger and provocation, which are said to give the desire to hurt or boycott the product or brand (Urwin & Venter, 2014).

2.2.2 Level of Sex Appeal The level of sex appeal is often measured in degrees of nudity and is of great importance of how the consumer will perceive the advertisement (Anabila, et al., 2015). Nelson and Paek (2008), has described the degree of nudity in levels of 0-4, where the levels are described as below:

❖ Level 0: no sexual appeal/fully clothed. ❖ Level 1: subtle sexual nuance (e.g. slightly opened or opened lips with lipstick or sexy male lips). ❖ Level 2: suggestively clad (e.g. wearing open shirts/full-length lingerie/muscle shirts/mini- skirts or, for males tight clothing which enhances the figure, hiked pants that expose the thigh).

10 ❖ Level 3: partially clad (e.g. show under-apparel/three-quarter length or shorter lingerie/bikinis, bodysuits, briefs, or male models showing bare backs, muscle shoulders, abs, and/or thighs). ❖ Level 4: nudity (e.g. bare bodies/wearing translucent under apparel or lingerie, male models wearing only a towel).

According to Nezlek, Krohn, Wilson and Maruskin, (2015), the context of sex appeal is typically grounded and has been developed from the Objectification Theory. Objectification occurs when a person's physical characteristics are in focus and with the neglect of their psychological characteristics (Nezlek et al., 2015). Nezlek et al. (2015), discusses the fact that to intentionally heighten emphasis of a person's physical characteristics within this context, may lead to objectification. Self-objectification is a possible consequence of the objectification created in visual mass media (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997).

Self-objectification is when people tend to value and perceive their bodies focusing on physical attributes. The person then tends to think of themselves as more of an object than a person (Nezlek et al., 2015). According to Nezlek et al. (2015), one of the Objectification theory’s most important aspects is “that in contemporary society women are objectified more often than men” (Nezlek et al., 2015, p. 3). The use of images of female bodies in the media increases the likelihood of objectification (Nezlek et al., 2015).

2.4 Frame of reference This section presents the frame of reference, which will be a guide for the data collection and analysis. The frame of reference includes relevant concepts for this study and is based on the literature in the previous chapter. Table 1 below shows the three main subjects of this study, the concepts discussed in each subject and the references and authors. To understand how differences in culture dimensions affect consumers' views on sexual advertising, the authors have chosen to focus on the most relevant dimensions of the Hofstede’s Framework for this thesis. Therefore, masculinity versus femininity and uncertainty avoidance will be the main focus. The reason why these two dimensions are the most relevant is because they are connected to norms and how they differ between different cultures. As mentioned above, masculinity versus femininity are linked to sexual norms, which is an important focus of this study. Uncertainty avoidance is important when

11 writing about international marketing (Messner, 2016), and is therefore relevant since this study looks at how different cultures perceive advertising.

Table 1: Frame of reference

Subject Concepts References/ authors

Culture differences Masculinity versus femininity - Nelson & Paek (2005) the cultural tendency for Hofstede Insight (2019) differentiating gender roles.

Uncertainty avoidance - the extent to which a culture avoids uncertainty and ambiguity.

Shock advertising Norm violation - Occurs when a Urwin & Venter (2014) norm is breached, and something is considered offensive.

Level of sex appeal Degree of nudity - Often used Nelson & Paek (2008) when measuring the level of sex Nezlek, Krohn, Wilson & appeal. Maruskin, (2015)

Objectification - when a person's physical characteristics are in focus and with the neglect of their psychological characteristics.

12 3. Methodology This chapter will present the chosen methodologies, as research purpose, research approach, research strategy, data collection and data analysis. This in order to be able to answer the overall purpose of this thesis. Finally, the validity and reliability of this thesis will be discussed.

3.1 Research purpose Methodology is the component behind understanding the process of knowledge creation and all research is based on its science and philosophy (Israel, 2007). According to Adams, Raeside and Khan (2014), research methodology explains and helps to understand the concept of knowledge. It also explains how knowledge can be obtained in different ways, which is vital when attempting to understand how knowledge and answers are created and what might be wrong with it. Adams et al., (2014), further asserted that for achieving different outcomes of a study, there are different types of research studies, such as; explanatory-, predictive- and descriptive research. Based on this study’s purpose, a descripto-explanatory research was the most suitable. A descripto-explanatory research is often used in business and management research, where the phenomena and data are clearly described. Followed by an explanation and conclusion of the described data (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2009). The descriptive part of this study had its focus on describing and illustrating the collected data, based on the frame of reference. The explanatory part was based on the descriptive data, with the focus to explain the connection between the chosen concepts. The aim was to explain the relationship between the concepts in sexual advertising and the chosen cultural dimensions. This was followed by an explanation and conclusion of the described data.

3.2 Research approach When addressing a scientific problem, there are two research methods, induction and deduction (Molander, 2003). It is also necessary to decide whether the data collection process should be carried out by qualitative or quantitative methods (David & Sutton, 2011). In this section, these concepts will be further described and then the choices for this study will be presented.

Induction or deduction Based on Molander (2003), there are two different methods when studying a thesis purpose, these are induction and deduction. Induction is when a conclusion is based on several observations and

13 not through rational extensions of pre-existing theory. Inductive method is built up by observation, pattern, hypothesis and then theory. Deduction is to be able to derive a conclusion according to logical conclusion rules through logical premises. The Deductive method consists of theory, hypothesis, observations and then confirmation (Molander, 2003).

For this thesis, deduction has been used since the overall purpose of the thesis has been designed through analyzes of existing theories and models and then examined in reality. A frame of references was developed that was based on previous research and applied when the authors collected and analyzed the data. The questionnaire was developed through the frame of references in order to answer the thesis purpose.

Qualitative or quantitative According to David and Sutton (2011), when a study is to be conducted, there are two different methods for collecting data, quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative methods are descriptive and explanatory at a basic level and are based on systematic collection of data. Quantitative surveys are used at both strategic and operational levels, and data is usually collected through survey surveys. Common qualitative data collection methods are in-depth interviews and case studies (David & Sutton, 2011). To obtain data for this study, quantitative methods has been used. Data collection was conducted through internet surveys where people from the selected countries were asked to participate, along with information obtained from theories and models.

The advantage of the online surveys is that it was totally anonymous for the participants. Sex is a sensitive topic for many, which can make it embarrassing to talk about with people you do not feel safe with. Had the study been conducted through a qualitative method, interviewers would have been face to face with the authors when answering the questions. In such cases, this could have led to incorrect answers if the respondents were not comfortable answering the questions. As can be seen in Figure 1, Sweden is an individualistic country while South Korea is a collectivist country, which makes the communication different between the countries. Sweden is an individualistic country where communication is direct, meanwhile South Korea is a collectivist country and uses indirect communication. This would therefore, in interviews, may have led to the Swedes saying exactly what they are thinking, while the South Koreans might choose to talk around their feelings, which can lead to misconceptions.

14 3.3 Research strategy The research strategy is used to answer the overall purpose and to meet the objectives. Which strategy to choose depends on the research questions and objectives, the amount of time and the extent of existing knowledge and other available resources (Saunders et al. 2009). This thesis focused on a comparative survey strategy due to the overall purpose comparing two different cultures with the use of a survey. Undertaking a comparative study contributes a better understanding when analyzing the difference between cultures (Rafiee, Spooren & Sanders, 2018). The survey strategy is often obtained when using a questionnaire administered to a sample and when the data is standardized it allows easy comparison. A survey strategy is easy to explain and understand and the data collected can be used to suggest possible reasons for relationships between variables (Saunders et al. 2009). Using a comparative survey study is the most suitable strategy in this thesis since the main factor of the study was to compare two different cultures and to understand and explain the cultural differences towards sexual advertising. This was studied using a survey to obtain answers who can easily be compared and understood.

3.4 Data collection Data collection is usually divided into two different categories, these are primary and secondary sources. Primary sources consist of first-hand information or original data. Secondary sources, in turn, build on primary sources, by summing, analyzing or critically examining them (David & Sutton, 2011). The secondary sources for this study were theories and previous research through books and articles. To find secondary sources, the authors searched for previous research through the Business Source Premier database. The previous research used for this study were always scholarly (peer reviewed) journals to make sure they were reliable. The books used were literature from previous courses at Luleå University of Technology

The primary source in this study was the questionnaire that was answered by participants from the selected countries. A questionnaire is a technique for data collection where people are asked to answer the same set of questions in a selected order (Saunders et al. 2009). According to Saunders et al. (2009), “The design of a questionnaire differs according to how it is administered and, in particular, the amount of contact you have with the respondents” (Saunders et al. 2009, p. 362). There are two different options of questionnaires: self-administered and interviewer-administered.

15 To collect data for this thesis self-administered questionnaires have been used since such questionnaires are normally completed by the respondents. There are three different variants of self-administered questionnaires: internet and intranet-mediated questionnaires, delivery and collection questionnaire, and postal questionnaire (Saunders et al. 2009). To reach the respondents internet-mediated questionnaires have been used since the questionnaire was done through Google Form.

The design of the internet-mediated questionnaire will influence the response rate and the reliability and validity of the data collected (Saunders et al. 2009). It was therefore important that there was a clear design of the questionnaire, that there was a clear explanation with the purpose of the questionnaire and that the questions were carefully designed. To secure this, a test questionnaire was performed to make sure that the questions and pictures together were well formulated without confusing the respondent.

For the questionnaire, eight ads were selected by the authors based on the level of sex appeal and on what was displayed in the advertisement. The authors googled sexual advertising and chose the ads they perceived as most suitable for this study, based on the frame of reference. To each ad the same questions were asked. The authors formulated the questions themselves and they were created from the frame of reference. Then the respondents would answer and have an opinion about the questions in the questionnaire. According to Saunders et al. (2009), it is common to use rating questions when collecting opinion data. To do this, it is common to use the Likert-style rating scale, where the respondent may agree or disagree with statements made through a four-, five-, six- or seven-point scale (Saunders et al. 2009). The use of a four-point scale is an optimal alternative (Leung, n.d.), therefore, the authors chosen to use a four-point scale. When the questions were connected to the level of sex appeal, the degree of nudity was used, which is a scale of 0-4 (Nelson & Paek, 2008).

Sample selection “The full set of cases from which a sample is taken is called the population” (Saunders et al. 2009, p. 212). For this thesis overall purpose, it is impossible to collect data from the entire population, as it requires answers from all people in Sweden and South Korea. Therefore, the authors decided to only study university students since most respondents belong to the same generation and that

16 the level of education does not affect their answers. However, it is not possible to examine all university students either, therefore, this sample selection also must be reduced. As stated in Saunders et al. (2009), to reduce the amount of data needed, there are sampling techniques that provide a variety of methods. There are two different sampling techniques available when conducting a study: probability and nonprobability. Probability samples are when the probability of each case from the population is known and is generally the same for all cases. It is possible to answer research questions and accomplish goals that require a statistical estimate of the population's characteristics from the sample. Non-probability samples are when the probability of each case being selected from the total population is unknown and it is unfeasible to answer research questions or accomplish goals which require statistical conclusions about the characteristics of the population. It is still possible to generalize from non-probability samples about the population, but not for statistical reasons. (Saunders et al. 2009).

For this thesis non-probability samples were used. There are a number of different options to choose how to reach those who answer the questionnaire. Among non-probability samples it is quota, purposive, snowball, self-selection and convenience (Saunders et al. 2009). The Swedish students were reached by sending the questionnaire through Facebook Messenger to fellow students at Luleå University of Technology. To get more answers and also students from other universities in other parts of Sweden they were asked to send the questionnaire to other students they knew in Sweden. To reach students from South Korea, e-mails were sent to exchange students from South Korea. They were asked to send the questionnaire to other students they knew in South Korea. This is called snowball sampling (ibid).

The questionnaire was sent to five South Koreans and 25 Swedes who then passed it on. In total, 64 university students from Sweden and 39 from South Korea responded. Therefore, the size of this study was 103 university students from the two countries. The university students who answered the internet-mediated questionnaire were in the age range of 18 to 35. It was essential that all respondents were university students, so everyone had almost the same academic education. Because the respondents were in the same age range and had the same academic background, no general factors were needed to be taken into concern when analyzing the data.

17 For the analysis to be significant, it was considerable that both men and women responded to the survey. Therefore, the survey was sent to all genders, in total 59 women and 44 men answered the questionnaire. It was also important that the respondents from Sweden represented Swedish culture and vice versa for those from South Korea, it was of great importance that the respondents had grown up in the country that they represented. If they had only lived in the country for a short time, there was a risk that they would have grown up with a different culture which could have affected their response.

3.5 Data analysis After all empirical data was collected, the next step was to examine if the data indicated cultural differences towards sexual advertising comparing Swedish and South Korean students. According to Saunders et al. (2009), before the quantitative data has been processed and analyzed, it provides almost nothing. Therefore, in order for the data to provide information and to convey something, the data must be processed (Saunders et al. 2009). The empirical data for this study is known as numerical data, as the data could be measured numerically, since the authors were studying differences between two groups, looking at frequencies. The values are measured as quantities, which means that the data can be analyzed using a wide range of statistics (ibid.). Further, the data is ranked (ordinal) data, as the answers could be classified into more than two sets, since the answers were divided between the Swedes and the South Koreans. As well as the survey's four- point Likert-scale had a built-in ranking, but the distance between the answers cannot be determined (ibid.).

When analyzing the ranked data, the authors counted the numbers of occurrences in each category of a variable. The data was analyzed by creating simple tables, charts and diagrams that showed the frequency of occurrence, as they helped to describe and investigate the relationships within the data. The variables were categorized into Swedish and South Korean results to find out what the relationships between the cultural differences towards sexual advertising were. When analyzing the data, the variables in the frame of reference was the significant component.

18 3.6 Validity and Reliability To ensure good quality of a research validity and reliability are established as central tenets (Jordan, 2018). Great attention has to be paid towards validity and reliability to reduce the risk of getting the answer wrong (Saunders et al. 2009). Therefore, this section will explain the two concepts and their great importance of the credibility of the study.

Validity Validity is concerned with whether the study measures what it actually intends to measure, that the findings really are what they appear to be about (Saunders et al. 2009). All chosen methods in this study have been adapted to suit the overall purpose. In this study, validity was achieved through the questionnaire’s simple questions, which the risk of being misinterpreted has been minimized through test questionnaires to then develop the optimal questions. In order to further avoid misinterpretations, some less general terms have been defined in the questionnaire. To strengthen the validity of this qualitative study, the questions were directed to answer the overall purpose, which led to the questions measuring what the study intended to measure. The authors have taken the chosen theories in the framework into account when forming the questionnaire. A threat to the validity in this study is that the questionnaire was written in English, which is neither of the respondents first language.

Reliability Reliability refers to how precise a study measures what it intends to measure and regardless of who or when the study is performed, it should deliver the same results (Saunders et al. 2009). The questionnaire in this study was conducted individually and anonymously to increase the reliability, which the respondents were informed of. The respondents were also warned that the images used in the questionnaire might be perceived as offensive. The questionnaire was designed with response options to prevent bias from the authors to occur when analyzing the results. The reliability was further strengthened with that all participants had to fulfill certain criteria. All participants were enrolled in a university, to ensure that the level of education does not influence the result. The participants were raised in either Sweden or South Korea to be able to speak for the country's culture. The majority of the participants were in the age 18-35 years old and therefore, the analysis of the data did not have to take generational differences into consideration.

19 3.7 Summary of methodology An overview of the thesis’ chosen methodology is presented in Figure 3 below. This to make the chosen methodology clearer for the reader.

Figure 3: Methodology summary

20 4. Empirical data In this chapter, the collected data will be presented to answer this thesis’ purpose. The aim of the thesis was to investigate differences in how consumers from Sweden and South Korea perceive sexual advertising. This thesis’ overall purpose is:

“To examine cultural differences towards sexual advertising.”

The primary data has been collected through an internet-mediated questionnaire. The collected data will be presented through different sections for each ad that has been used in the questionnaire. To clarify the results, the collected data will be presented in tables and figures.

4.1 Distribution of respondents The distribution of country of origin, gender and age of the respondents is presented in Table 2 below. The questionnaire was answered by 103 university students. To ensure that only the sample selection answered the questionnaire, the first question was used to confirm that the respondent was a university student. If someone answered “no”, they would not be able to continue the questionnaire (see Appendix 1).

Table 2: Distribution of respondents

N=103 SOUTH KOREAN N=39 SWEDISH N=64

Variables Frequency Ratio (%) Frequency Ratio (%) (Number of (Number of people) people)

Gender Female 28 27.2% 31 30.1 %

Male 11 10.7 % 33 32 %

Other 0 0 % 0 0 %

Age 18-25 36 35 % 51 49.5 %

26-30 3 2.9 % 11 10.7 %

31-35 0 0 % 2 1.9 %

21 35+ 0 0% 0 0 %

4.2 Ad 1

Figure 4: Ad 1 Makeup Source: Retrieved from Ehandel, 2019 (Accessed 19-05-20)

This advertisement was the first one used in the questionnaire (see Figure 4), which is a commercial for makeup and is according to the Degree of nudity a level 1. Following questions and collected data is regarding this advertisement.

Objectification and Level of sex appeal First, the respondent was asked if they considered the person in the picture to be objectified. The results are presented in Figure 5 below, which shows that 38,46% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 53,85% agreed that the person in the advertisement was objectified, 7,69% disagreed and 0% strongly disagreed. Whereas the Swedes answered that 39,07% strongly agreed, 32,81 % agreed, 20,31% disagreed and 7,81% strongly disagreed.

22

Figure 5: Objectified Makeup

Further, the perceived level of sex appeal was examined, which in Figure 6 below, showed that 0% of the South Koreans rated the ad as level 0, 10,26% as level 1, 17,95% as level 2, 48,72% as level 3 and 23,07% as level 4. Whereas the Swedes answered that 3,12% rated the sex appeal used in this ad as level 0, 17,19% as level 1, 25% as level 2, 43,75% as level 3 and 10,94% as level 4.

Figure 6: Level of sex appeal Makeup

Norm Violation and Shock advertising The respondent was then asked if they were offended by the advertisement. The results are presented in Figure 7 below, which shows that 17,95% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 64,1% agreed that they were offended by the ad, 15,39% disagreed and 2,56% strongly disagreed.

23 Whereas the Swedes answered that 7,81% strongly agreed, 21,88 % agreed, 32,81% disagreed and 37,5% strongly disagreed.

Figure 7: Offended Makeup

Further, the respondent was asked if the ad made them interested in buying the product, which is shown in Figure 8 below. The results show that 0% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 0% agreed that the ad made them interested in buying the product, 10,26% disagreed and 89,74% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 0% strongly agreed, 6,25 % agreed, 12,5% disagreed and 81,25% strongly disagreed.

Figure 8: Buying Makeup

24 4.3 Ad 2

Figure 9: Ad 2, Dressing Source: Retrieved from The Society Paget, 2013 (Accessed 19-05-20)

This advertisement was the second one used in the questionnaire (see Figure 9), which is a commercial for dressing and is according to the Degree of nudity a level 2. Following questions and collected data is regarding this advertisement.

Objectification and Level of sex appeal The respondent was asked if they considered the person in the picture to be objectified. The results are presented in Figure 10 below, which shows that 30,77% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 61,54% agreed that the person in the advertisement was objectified, 7,69% disagreed and 0% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 59,39% strongly agreed, 29,69 % agreed, 9,36% disagreed and 1,56% strongly disagreed.

25

Figure 10: Objectified Dressing

Further, the perceived level of sex appeal was examined, which in Figure 11 below, showed that 0% of the South Koreans rated the ad as level 0, 7,69% as level 1, 66,67% as level 2, 25,64% as level 3 and 0% as level 4. Whereas the Swedes answered that 1,56% rated the sex appeal used in this ad as level 0, 1,56% as level 1, 12,5% as level 2, 40,63% as level 3 and 43,75% as level 4.

Figure 11: Level of sex appeal Dressing

Norm violation and Shock advertising The respondent was then asked if they were offended by the advertisement. The results are presented in Figure 12 below, which shows that 0% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 69,23% agreed that they were offended by the ad, 17,95% disagreed and 12,82% strongly

26 disagreed. Whereas the Swedes answered that 6,25% strongly agreed, 18,75 % agreed, 35,94% disagreed and 39,06% strongly disagreed.

Figure 12: Offended Dressing

Further, the respondent was asked if the ad made them interested in buying the product, which is shown in Figure 13 below. The results show that 2,57% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 15,38% agreed that the ad made them interested in buying the product, 58,97% disagreed and 23,08% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 1,56% strongly agreed, 9,38% agreed, 20,31% disagreed and 68,75% strongly disagreed.

Figure 13: Buying Dressing

After all questions about ad 1and 2 were asked, the respondents were asked to answer the question whether they experienced the sexual advertisement differently depending on whether it was a male or a female in the picture. The results are presented in Figure 14 below, that shows that 69,23% of South Koreans experienced that the ad was worse if there was a woman in the

27 picture , 0% that perceived it worse for the man, and 30,77% that it was no difference depending on gender. 45,31% of the Swedes answered that it was worse for the woman, 12,5% that they perceived sexual advertising worse for the man and 42,19% that there was no difference between the genders.

Figure 14: Comparing ad 1 & 2

4.4 Ad 3

Figure 15: Ad 3, Hamburger 1

Source: Retrieved from The Boeskool, 2014 (Accessed 19-05-20)

This advertisement was the third used in the questionnaire (see Figure 15), which is a commercial for hamburgers and is according to the Degree of nudity a level 3. Following questions and collected data is regarding this advertisement.

28 Objectification and Level of sex appeal The respondent was asked if they considered the person in the picture to be objectified. The results are presented in Figure 16 below, which shows that 33,33% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 35,9% agreed that the person in the advertisement was objectified, 28,21% disagreed and 2,56% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 62,5% strongly agreed, 35,9% agreed, 6,25% disagreed and 6,25% strongly disagreed.

Figure 16: Objectified Hamburger 1

Further, the perceived level of sex appeal was examined, which in Figure 17 below, showed that 0% of the South Koreans rated the ad as level 0, 17,95% as level 1, 38,46% as level 2, 25,64% as level 3 and 17,95% as level 4.Whereas the Swedes answered that 0% rated the sex appeal used in this ad as level 0, 0% as level 1, 9,38% as level 2, 39,06% as level 3 and 51,56% as level 4.

Figure 17: Level of sex appeal Hamburger 1

29 Norm violation and Shock advertising The respondent was then asked if they were offended by the advertisement. The results are presented in Figure 18 below, which shows that 33,33% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 12,82% agreed that they were offended by the ad, 48,72% disagreed and 5,13% strongly disagreed. Whereas the Swedes answered that 7,81% strongly agreed, 21,88 % agreed, 31,25% disagreed and 39,06% strongly disagreed.

Figure 18: Offended Hamburger 1

Further, the respondent was asked if the ad made them interested in buying the product, which is shown in Figure 19 below. The results show that 0% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 1,56% agreed that the ad made them interested in buying the product, 23,08% disagreed and 76,92% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 1,56% strongly agreed, 4,69 % agreed, 15,62% disagreed and 78,13% strongly disagreed.

Figure 19: Buying Hamburger 1

30 4.5 Ad 4

Figure 20: Ad 4, Hamburger 2

Source: Retrieved from The Mary Sue, 2014 (Accessed 19-05-20)

This advertisement was the fourth used in the questionnaire (see Figure 20), which is a commercial for hamburgers and is according to the Degree of nudity a level 3. Following questions and collected data is regarding this advertisement.

Objectification and Level of sex appeal The respondent was asked if they considered the person in the picture to be objectified. The results are presented in Figure 21 below, which shows that 0% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 20,51% agreed that the person in the advertisement was objectified, 53,85% disagreed and 25,64% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 32,81% strongly agreed, 21,87 % agreed, 34,38% disagreed and 10,94% strongly disagreed.

31

Figure 21: Objectified Hamburger 2

Further, the perceived level of sex appeal was examined, which in Figure 22 below, showed that 15.38% of the South Koreans rated the ad as level 0, 58,97% as level 1, 23,08% as level 2, 2,57% as level 3 and 0% as level 4. Whereas the Swedes answered that 4,69% rated the sex appeal used in this ad as level 0, 15,62% as level 1, 37,5% as level 2, 26,56% as level 3 and 15,63% as level 4.

Figure 22: Level of sex appeal Hamburger 2

Norm violation and Shock advertising The respondent was then asked if they were offended by the advertisement. The results are presented in Figure 23 below, which shows that 0% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 15,38% agreed that they were offended by the ad, 46,16% disagreed and 38,46% strongly disagreed. Whereas the Swedes answered that 1,56% strongly agreed, 15,63% agreed, 32,81% disagreed and 50% strongly disagreed.

32

Figure 23: Offended Hamburger 2

Further, the respondent was asked if the ad made them interested in buying the product, which is shown in Figure 24 below. The results show that 10,26% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 0% agreed that the ad made them interested in buying the product, 43,59% disagreed and 46,15% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 0% strongly agreed, 6,25% agreed, 14,06% disagreed and 79,69% strongly disagreed.

Figure 24: Buying Hamburger 2 After all questions about ad 3 and 4 were asked, the respondents were asked to answer the question, whether they experienced the sexual advertisement differently depending on whether it was a male or a female in the picture. The results are presented in Figure 25 below, that shows that 71,8% of the South Koreans answered that it was worse for the woman, 7,69% that they perceived sexual advertising worse for the man and 20,51% that there was no difference between the genders. 70,31% of the Swedes answered that it was worse for the woman, 4,69% that they

33 perceived sexual advertising worse for the man and 25% that there was no difference between the genders.

Figure 25: Comparing ad 3 & 4

4.6 Ad 5

Figure 26: Ad 5, Clothes 1

Source: Retrieved from Business Insider, 2013 (Accessed 19-05-20)

This advertisement was the fifth used in the questionnaire (see Figure 26), which is a commercial for clothes and is according to the Degree of nudity a level 2. Following questions and collected data is regarding this advertisement.

34 Objectification and Level of sex appeal The respondent was asked if they considered the woman in the picture to be objectified. The results are presented in Figure 27 below, which shows that 76,92% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 17,95% agreed that the person in the advertisement was objectified, 5,13% disagreed and 0% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 84,38% strongly agreed, 10,94% agreed, 1,56% disagreed and 3,12% strongly disagreed.

Figure 27: Objectified woman Clothes 1

The respondent was asked if they considered the man in the picture to be objectified. The results are presented in Figure 28 below, which shows that 2,56% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 35,9% agreed that the person in the advertisement was objectified, 23,08% disagreed and 38,46% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 26,56% strongly agreed, 34,38% agreed, 20,31% disagreed and 18,75% strongly disagreed.

Figure 28: Objectified men Clothes 1

35

Further, the perceived level of sex appeal was examined, which in Figure 29 below, showed that 0% of the South Koreans rated the ad as level 0, 0% as level 1, 0% as level 2, 38,46% as level 3 and 61,54% as level 4. Whereas the Swedes answered that 0% rated the sex appeal used in this ad as level 0, 3,12% as level 1, 3,12% as level 2, 21,88% as level 3 and 71,88% as level 4.

Figure 29: Level of sex appeal Clothes 1

Norm violation and Shock advertising The respondent was then asked if they were offended by the advertisement. The results are presented in Figure 30 below, which shows that 69,23% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 7,79% agreed that they were offended by the ad, 23,08% disagreed and 0% strongly disagreed. Whereas the Swedes answered that 43,75% strongly agreed, 17,19% agreed, 14,06% disagreed and 25% strongly disagreed.

Figure 30: Offended Clothes 1

36 Further, the respondent was asked if the ad made them interested in buying the product, which is shown in Figure 31 below. The results show that 0% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 0% agreed that the ad made them interested in buying the product, 20,51% disagreed and 79,49% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 1,56% strongly agreed, 4,69% agreed, 9,37% disagreed and 84,38% strongly disagreed.

Figure 31: Buying Clothes 1

4.7 Ad 6

Figure 32: Ad 6, Clothes 2

Source: Retrieved from Trendwalk, 2016 (Accessed 19-05-20)

This advertisement was the sixth used in the questionnaire (see Figure 32), which is a commercial for clothes and is according to the Degree of nudity a level 3. Following questions and collected data is regarding this advertisement.

37 Objectification and Level of sex appeal The respondent was asked if they considered the woman in the picture to be objectified. The results are presented in Figure 33 below, which shows that 51,28% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 28,21% agreed that the person in the advertisement was objectified, 12,82% disagreed and 7,69% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 43,75% strongly agreed, 25% agreed, 17,19% disagreed and 14,06% strongly disagreed.

Figure 33: Objectified woman Clothes 2

The respondent was asked if they considered the man in the picture to be objectified. The results are presented in Figure 34 below, which shows that 7,69% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 25,64% agreed that the person in the advertisement was objectified, 35,9% disagreed and 30,77% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 12,5% strongly agreed, 42,19% agreed, 29,69% disagreed and 15,62% strongly disagreed.

Figure 34: Objectified man Clothes 2

38

Further, the perceived level of sex appeal was examined, which in Figure 35 below, showed that 0% of the South Koreans rated the ad as level 0, 0% as level 1, 28,2% as level 2, 53,85% as level 3 and 17,95% as level 4. Whereas the Swedes answered that 1,56% rated the sex appeal used in this ad as level 0, 1,56% as level 1, 21,88% as level 2, 43,75% as level 3 and 31,25% as level 4.

Figure 35: Level of sex appeal Clothes 2

Norm violation and Shock advertising The respondent was then asked if they were offended by the advertisement. The results are presented in Figure 36 below, which shows that 23,08% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 38,46% agreed that they were offended by the ad, 28,21% disagreed and 10,25% strongly disagreed. Whereas the Swedes answered that 7,81% strongly agreed, 18,75% agreed, 31,25% disagreed and 42,19% strongly disagreed.

Figure 36: Offended Clothes 2

39

Further, the respondent was asked if the ad made them interested in buying the product, which is shown in Figure 37 below. The results show that 0% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 0% agreed that the ad made them interested in buying the product, 56,41% disagreed and 43,59% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 3,12% strongly agreed, 15,63% agreed, 29,69% disagreed and 51,56% strongly disagreed.

Figure 37: Buying Clothes 2

4.8 Ad 7

Figure 38: Ad 7, Perfume 1

Source: Retrieved from Linkr Education, 2016 (Accessed 19-05-20)

This advertisement was the seventh used in the questionnaire (see Figure 38), which is a commercial for a perfume and is according to the Degree of nudity a level 4. Following questions and collected data is regarding this advertisement.

40 Objectification and Level of sex appeal The respondent was asked if they considered the person in the picture to be objectified. The results are presented in Figure 39 below, which shows that 82,05% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 0% agreed that the person in the advertisement was objectified, 0% disagreed and 17,95% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 89,06% strongly agreed, 4,69% agreed, 1,56% disagreed and 4,69% strongly disagreed.

Figure 39: Objectified Perfume 1

Further, the perceived level of sex appeal was examined, which in Figure 40 below, showed that 0% of the South Koreans rated the ad as level 0, 0% as level 1, 0% as level 2, 7,69% as level 3 and 92,31% as level 4. Whereas the Swedes answered that 0% rated the sex appeal used in this ad as level 0, 0% as level 1, 0% as level 2, 10,94% as level 3 and 89,06% as level 4.

Figure 40: Level of sex appeal Perfume 1

41 Norm violation and Shock advertising The respondent was then asked if they were offended by the advertisement. The results are presented in Figure 41 below, which shows that 79,49% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 0% agreed that they were offended by the ad, 20,51% disagreed and 0% strongly disagreed. Whereas the Swedes answered that 31,25% strongly agreed, 20,31% agreed, 18,75% disagreed and 29,69% strongly disagreed.

Figure 41: Offended Perfume 1

Further, the respondent was asked if the ad made them interested in buying the product, which is shown in Figure 42 below. The results show that 7,69% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 10,26% agreed that the ad made them interested in buying the product, 10,26% disagreed and 71,79% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 1,56% strongly agreed, 9,38% agreed, 14,06% disagreed and 75% strongly disagreed.

Figure 42: Buying Perfume 1

42 4.9 Ad 8

Figure 43: Ad 8, Perfume 2

Source: Retrieved from Actually, 2020 (Accessed 19-05-20)

This advertisement was the eighth used in the questionnaire (see Figure 43), which is a commercial for a perfume and is according to the Degree of nudity a level 4. Following questions and collected data is regarding this advertisement.

Objectification and Level of sex appeal The respondent was asked if they considered the person in the picture to be objectified. The results are presented in Figure 44 below, which shows that 82,05% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 0% agreed that the person in the advertisement was objectified, 10,26% disagreed and 7,69% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 81,25% strongly agreed, 15,63% agreed, 1,56% disagreed and 1,56% strongly disagreed.

43

Figure 44: Objectified Perfume 2

Further, the perceived level of sex appeal was examined, which in Figure 45 below, showed that 5,13% of the South Koreans rated the ad as level 0, 2,56% as level 1, 0% as level 2, 17,95% as level 3 and 74,36% as level 4. Whereas the Swedes answered that 1,56% rated the sex appeal used in this ad as level 0, 0% as level 1, 0% as level 2, 7,81% as level 3 and 90,63% as level 4.

Figure 45: Level of sex appeal Perfume 2

Norm violation and Shock advertising The respondent was then asked if they were offended by the advertisement. The results are presented in Figure 46 below, which shows that 30,77% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 15,38% agreed that they were offended by the ad, 28,21% disagreed and 25,64% strongly

44 disagreed. Whereas the Swedes answered that 21,88% strongly agreed, 28,12% agreed, 20,31% disagreed and 29,69% strongly disagreed.

Figure 46: Offended Perfume 2

Further, the respondent was asked if the ad made them interested in buying the product, which is shown in Figure 47 below. The results show that 0% of the South Koreans strongly agreed and 10,26% agreed that the ad made them interested in buying the product, 25,64% disagreed and 64,1% strongly disagreed. The Swedes answered that 0% strongly agreed, 4,69% agreed, 14,06% disagreed and 81,25% strongly disagreed.

Figure 47: Buying Perfume 2

After all questions about ad 7 and 8 were asked, the respondents were asked to answer the question, whether they experienced the sexual advertisement differently depending on whether it was a male or a female in the picture. The results are presented in Figure 48 below, that shows that 25,64 %

45 of the South Koreans experienced that the ad was worse if there was a woman in the picture, 7,69% that perceived it worse for the man, and 66,67% that it was no difference depending on gender. 26,56% of the Swedes answered that it was worse for the woman, 7,81% that they perceived sexual advertising worse for the man, and 65,63% that there was no difference between the genders.

Figure 48: Comparing ad 7 & 8

46 5. Data analysis

In this chapter, the primary data will be analyzed and connected to theory in the frame of references. The analysis will lead to the overall purpose of the thesis being answered. Firstly, an analysis of the section objectification and level of sex appeal will be made, followed by the section norm violation and shock advertising. In the first section, the answers will be analyzed through a masculinity vs femininity perspective. The second section, uncertainty avoidance will be the perspective.

5.1 Objectification and Level of sex appeal National culture has a significant influence on the consumers responding to sexual advertisements (Lass & Hart, 2004). According to Nezlek et al. (2015), the Objectification Theory is typically the foundation of the context of sex appeal (Nezlek et al., 2015). The level of sex appeal is of great importance of how the consumer will perceive the advertisement and is often measured in degrees of nudity (Anabila, et al., 2015). To examine these theories and the possible connection between the two, the respondent was first asked if they perceived the person in each advertisement to be objectified. The South Koreans and the Swedes perceive the majority of the people in the advertisements as objectified, however, the South Koreans showed more unified answers, especially when the person in the advertisement was female. The Swedish responses were very widespread, regardless of the gender of the person in the advertisement. The results show that the South Koreans more often perceive the woman as objectified than the man. The Swedish respondents do not show any differences in responses depending on the person in the advertisement's gender.

Then, a question was asked where the respondent rated the level of sex appeal that they experienced in the advertisement. When the level of sex appeal in the advertisement was level 4, both South Koreans and Swedes perceived the ad as level 4. According to the degree of nudity, when the level of sex appeal was low, both South Koreans and Sweden rated the level of sex appeal as higher. The Swedes however, often perceived the level of sex appeal as higher than the South Koreans did. Advertisements with level 3 were often rated as lower for respondents from both countries. The result shows that the higher perceived level of sex appeal the more united were the

47 answers. Especially Ad 1 (Figure 4) and 5 (Figure 26) shows that the perceived level of sex appeal was significantly higher than the actual level.

“In contemporary society women are objectified more often than men”, is one of the Objectification theory’s most important aspects (Nezlek et al., 2015, p. 3). The likelihood of objectification increases with the use of images of female bodies in the media (Nezlek et al., 2015). The respondents were asked to compare two ads placed against each other. The respondents would answer if they experienced the sexual advertising differently depending on whether the person in the picture was male or female. This was done for Ad 1 and Ad 2, Ad 3 and Ad 4, and Ad 7 and Ad 8. The result of the first comparison shows that the South Koreans and the Swedes felt that the ad with a female was worse. The male ad had a higher level of sex appeal, however, the South Koreans perceived the female ad as higher and the Swedes the female ad as lower. The result of the second comparison shows that both the South Koreans and the Swedes experienced the ad with the female to be worse. The result of the last comparison shows that the majority of the South Koreans and the Swedes felt that there was no difference depending on gender, the minority considered it worse for the woman.

A masculine country should have stronger taboo regarding sexual issues (Nelson & Peak, 2005). South Korea with a score of 39 regarding masculinity versus femininity, is a masculinity country and Sweden with a score of 5, is a feminine country. Based on Nelson and Peak (2005), South Korea, which is a masculine country, should be less acceptable towards sexual advertising. However, in the question in the questionnaire where respondents were allowed to rate their perceived the level of sex appeal, the South Koreans usually responded that they felt that level of sex appeal was lower than Swedes. Sweden, which is a country characterized by femininity, should actually be more accepting towards sexual advertising. Which, however, is the opposite of what the majority of Swedes answered to the question of the perceived level of sex appeal.

5.2 Norm violation and Shock advertising

According to Urwin and Venter (2014), the consumer’s norms play a part in how shock advertising will be received, and if a norm violation occurs, the advertisement may be considered as offensive. To every advertisement shown in the questionnaire, the question if the respondent felt offended by

48 the advertisement was asked. The South Koreans answered that they perceive the majority of the advertisements to be offensive, and the answers were unified. The Swedes showed more widespread answers but did not perceive most of the advertisement to be offensive. If the offensiveness in the advertisement is of high value, it may lead the consumer to ignore the product or brand, due to becoming upset (Urwin & Venter, 2014).

The previous discussed question was connected to the last question asked to each ad, if the respondent felt that the advertisement made them interested in buying the product. Shock advertising is a method to attempt to surprise the consumer by deliberately violating norms to capture their attention (Parry et al., 2013). The South Koreans answered that none of the advertisements made them interested in buying the product. The Swedish answers also show that they were not interested in buying the advertised product.

Uncertainty avoidance, “is a key cultural dimension with high relevance for international marketing” (Messner, 2016, p. 298). South Korea with a score of 85 regarding uncertainty avoidance, is a country with high uncertainty avoidance. Sweden with a score of 29 is a country with low uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede Insights, 2019). High uncertainty avoidance cultures are characterized by strong rules, procedures, (Wild & Wild, 2016) and intolerance to behaviors that are opposed to Unorthodox rules (Hofstede Insights, 2019).

As previously mentioned, in the questionnaire, the respondents were asked if they were offended by the various advertisements. According to Hofstede Insights (2019), students from South Korea should be more offended by the advertisements as the ads are breaking the South Koreans norms of strict rules and intolerance of Unorthodox behavior (Hofstede Insights, 2019). The answers from South Koreans are unified and most students felt offended by the most ads. According to Hofstede Insights (2019), cultures with low uncertainty avoidance are characterized by higher tolerance to norm violation and rapid changes in rules (Hofstede Insights, 2019). The Swedes should therefore be less offended by the ads because they are used to breaking and accepting different norms. The result reinforces this, because the Swedes' answers are varied and only few students were offended by the various advertisements.

49 6. Findings and Conclusion

For this thesis final chapter, a summarize of the most important results, findings and conclusions will be presented. The overall purpose of this thesis was to examine cultural differences towards sexual advertising, comparing Swedish and South Korean students. The results of the empirical data will be discussed in the perspective of the variables in the frame of reference. Further, limitations and recommendations will end this chapter.

6.1 Objectification and Level of sex appeal

Based on the analysis of the empirical data in the previous chapter, a conclusion of objectification and level of sex appeal in perspective of Hofstede’s masculinity versus femininity can now be drawn. In contemporary society, women are more often objectified than men, and the use of female images in the media increases the likelihood of objectification, according to the Objectification Theory (Nezlek et al., 2015). This study has supported that aspect of the theory, where the South Koreans considered the females in the advertisements to be more objectified than the men. When examining the gender of the person in the advertisements impact of the sexual advertising, both South Koreans and Swedes experienced that the female version of the sexual advertisement was worse. When the level of sex appeal increased to its highest level, the South Koreans as well as the Swedes, considered it to be no difference depending on gender.

The degree of nudity is an often-used measurement of the level of sex appeal (Anabila, et al., 2015). This theory appears to partially agree to this study’s results, where some advertisements with a low level of sex appeal was perceived as much higher, for both South Koreans and Swedes. This seems to have a connection to whether the respondent felt that the person in the picture was objectified or not. What the advertisement displays seems to have a greater impact of the perceived level of sex appeal than the degree of nudity, this especially based on Ad 1 (Figure 4) and Ad 5 (Figure 26). As mentioned earlier, according to Hofstede's masculinity versus femininity dimension, the South Koreans should be less acceptable towards sexual advertising, but according to the questionnaire collected responses, they considered the level of sex appeal to be lower than the Swedes did (Nelson & Peak, 2005).

50 The collected data about level of sex appeal from the questionnaire contradicts Hofstede's framework, which may be because the framework was developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s (Beugelsdijk et al., 2015). Beugelsdijk et al. (2015), research showed that a comparison between two different countries is still relevant through Hofstede's dimensions as all countries have developed since the framework was created (Beugelsdijk et al., 2015). However, this can be explained by the fact that the countries have developed differently during these 50 years, for example through development of society or change of generations. The results of this study can also be affected by the sample selection, since the respondents was young people with a university education.

6.2 Norm violation and Shock advertising How shock advertising will be perceived depends on the consumers norms, and the advertisement may be considered as offensive when a norm violation occurs (Urwin & Venter, 2014). Based on the analysis, the South Koreans showed unified answers that they were offended by most advertisements used in the questionnaire. Whereas the Swedes showed more widespread answers and were not offended by most advertisements. As mentioned earlier, according to Hofstede’s uncertainty avoidance dimension, the South Koreans should be more offended by the ads since their norms are stricter and more easily violated, unlike the Swedes (Hofstede Insights, 2019). The results from the questionnaire shows that the South Korean students are more often offended by the different ads than the Swedes. The results also show that the South Koreans are more unified in all their answers. As Sweden is a country with low uncertainty avoidance with deviations from the norm, it is therefore reasonable that the Swedes have more varied answers regarding this. The results therefore support Hofstede’s framework.

By deliberately violating norms, the method of shock advertising attempts to surprise the consumer to capture their attention (Parry et al., 2013). Neither the South Koreans nor the Swedes answered that the advertisement made them interested in buying the promoted product. Norm violation may induce anger and may give the consumer the desire to hurt or boycott the brand or product (Urwin & Venter, 2014). Which seems to be the case for the South Koreans as they were offended by the various ads. However, the Swedes do not support this theory, since they were not particularly offended but still do not feel interested in buying the promoted product. Of course, the fundamental

51 interest in the product may have played a part in this question, as the interest in the product may not have existed from the beginning.

6.3 Final Conclusions

How sexual advertisement is perceived is mainly influenced by the consumers national culture (Lass & Hart, 2004). This study used a questionnaire, with South Korean and Swedish university students as respondents, to examine cultural differences towards sexual advertising. South Korea is a country defined with a masculine culture and with high uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede Insight, 2019). Sweden is a country defined with a feminine culture and low uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede Insight, 2019). According to the respondents, there seems to be cultural differences between South Koreans and Swedes, regarding norm violation.

The South Koreans showed to be more easily offended than the Swedes, although, the higher value of shock used in the advertisement, the more united answers came from both cultures. The South Koreans overall show more united answers in all questions, as well as they showed to be more negatively set regarding using female bodies in sexual advertising. Whereas the Swedes showed widespread answers, with no differences depending on gender used in the advertisement. Thus, cultural differences affect how consumers perceived sexual advertising, but the countries turned out to have more similarities than the Hofstede framework showed. A conclusion of the study’s results is presented in Table 3 below.

Table 3: Summary of the study’s results

Variables South Korea Sweden Masculinity & High Femininity & Low Uncertainty avoidance Uncertainty Avoidance

Masculinity vs Objectification Females more No difference depending Femininity objectified on gender

Level of sex Perceived level to be Perceived level to be appeal lower higher

Uncertainty Norm violation Norms easily violated, Norms not easily violated, avoidance united answers widespread answers

52 Shock Not interested in the Not interested in the advertising promoted product promoted product

6.4 Limitations of the Research

The following limitations should be noted concerning this thesis.

❖ Since this study is based on two different cultures, getting a hold of enough respondents from each culture, especially considering the current circumstances. ❖ This study was conducted in English, which is neither of the comparing countries' first language. This might have affected the result as misunderstandings in the questionnaire may have emerged. ❖ The sample of this thesis was small and narrow, only having university students as respondents. To get a more reliable result, a larger sample can be done.

6.5 Implications for Theory Previous studies had been done in this subject but not so much regarding the cultural differences chosen in this study. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to extend the literature and to further examine how different cultures perceived sexual advertising. The overall purpose of the report was answered together with the frame of references, which contained all important theories related to the stated purpose. The results of this study confirmed certain theories in the frame of reference, but also contradicted some theories. The findings of the questionnaire confirmed that cultural differences affect how sexual advertising is perceived and that the respondent’s norms play a big part in how the advertisement is perceived. Although, the degree of nudity does not seem to be a reliable measurement when measuring the level of sex appeal. This study showed that what is being displayed in the advertisement seems to have a greater impact of the perceived level of sex appeal. The theories used in this study should be investigated further to see if they are still relevant and whether new theories should be developed.

53 6.6 Implications for Practitioners The implications for practitioners are based on the collected data and finding for this thesis, that companies should consider when choosing to use sexual advertising to reach their customers. The use of sexual appeal in printed advertisements has increased sales, however the responses of consumers can either be perceived as appealing or offensive (Wyllie, et al., 2014). This is something that marketers must consider when choosing to use sexual advertising.

The question is whether sexual advertising still works in the 21th century, with the emergence of feminism and the increased morale of human beings. According to the collected data and findings for this thesis, it shows that regardless of whether the respondents have been offended or not by the advertisement, they are not interested in buying the promoted product. This applies regardless of whether the respondents are from South Korea or Sweden. Therefore, after studying this topic, marketers should consider other marketing strategies to reach their potential customers.

A first step to highlight the problem of sexual advertising and objectification is to talk about it, which this thesis may contributed to. Although the perception of sexual advertising may vary within other cultures, this study will hopefully increase knowledge and create awareness of the problems of objectifying both women and men in advertising. To be able to draw a more general conclusion about how different cultures perceive sexual advertising, more research about this topic is needed.

Recommendations Following recommendations may be given to advertisers after this study regarding sexual advertisers: ❖ Know your market, so the consumers reactions towards the ad get the desired effect ❖ When using sexual advertising, focus on adjusting what is being displayed in the advertisement more than the degree of nudity ❖ When conducting the advertisement towards different cultures, know that it should be adapted

54 ❖ When using sexual advertising, the advertisement should be well thought out since the risk of getting an undesired response is high ❖ Consider using other advertising strategies than sexual advertising

6.7 Implications for Further Research When conducting a study with similar purpose, the following implications for further research could be taken into consideration.

❖ Compare other cultures

❖ Collect data through qualitative methods, for example interviews instead of questionnaires

❖ Study the differences and why they exist, between cultures and sexual advertising ❖ Investigate other marketing strategies besides shock advertising

❖ Conduct a similar study, but instead conduct it from the marketers’ point of view.

❖ Another aspect that would be interesting to investigate is how the perception of sexual advertising differs between generations.

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60 Appendix: Questionnaire about consumers' perception of sexual advertising.

1. Are you a University student? - Yes - No

2. Which country did you grow up in? - Sweden - South Korea

3. Which gender do you identify with? - Female - Male - Other

4. How old are you? - 18-25 - 26-30 - 31-35 - 35+

Ad 1: questions 5-10 apply to this ad

5. I consider the person in this picture to be objectified.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

6. The ad is making me uncomfortable.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

7. I am offended by this ad.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

8. How would you rate the level of sex appeal (how sexualized) used in this ad?

Min 0 1 2 3 4 Max

9. It is clear to me that this ad is trying to sell makeup.

I Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

10. This ad makes me interested in buying the product.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

Ad 2: questions 11-16 apply to this ad.

11. I consider the person in this picture to be objectified.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

12. The ad is making me uncomfortable.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

13. I am offended by this ad.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

14. How would you rate the level of sex appeal (how sexualized) used in this ad?

Min 0 1 2 3 4 Max

15. It is clear to me that this ad is trying to sell dressing.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

16. This ad makes me interested in buying the product.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

Ad 1 and 2: question 17 apply to these ads.

II 17. Do you experience sexual advertising differently depending on whether the person in the picture is male or female? - Yes, worse for the woman - Yes, worse for the man - No difference depending on gender

Ad 3: questions 18-22 apply to this ad

18. I consider the person in this picture to be objectified.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

19. The ad is making me uncomfortable.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

20. I am offended by this ad.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

21. How would you rate the level of sex appeal (how sexualized) used in this ad?

Min 0 1 2 3 4 Max

22. It is clear to me that this ad is trying to sell hamburger.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

23. This ad makes me interested in buying the product.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

Ad 4: questions 24-29 apply to this ad.

24. I consider the person in this picture to be objectified.

III Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

25. The ad is making me uncomfortable.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

26. I am offended by this ad.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

27. How would you rate the level of sex appeal (how sexualized) used in this ad?

Min 0 1 2 3 4 Max

28. It is clear to me that this ad is trying to sell hamburger.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

29. This ad makes me interested in buying the product.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

Ad 3 and 4: question 30 apply to these ads.

30. Do you experience sexual advertising differently depending on whether the person in the picture is male or female? - Yes, worse for the woman - Yes, worse for the man - No difference depending on gender

Ad 5: questions 31-37 apply to this ad.

31. I consider the woman in this picture to be objectified.

IV Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

32. I consider the men in this picture to be objectified.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

33. The ad is making me uncomfortable.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

34. I am offended by this ad.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

35. How would you rate the level of sex appeal (how sexualized) used in this ad?

Min 0 1 2 3 4 Max

36. It is clear to me that this ad is trying to sell clothes.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

37. This ad makes me interested in buying the product.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

Ad 6: questions 38-44 apply to this ad.

38. I consider the woman in this picture to be objectified.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

39. I consider the man in this picture to be objectified.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

40. The ad is making me uncomfortable.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

41. I am offended by this ad.

V Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

42. How would you rate the level of sex appeal (how sexualized) used in this ad?

Min 0 1 2 3 4 Max

43. It is clear to me that this ad is trying to sell clothes.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

44. This ad makes me interested in buying the product.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

Ad 7: questions 45-49 apply to this ad.

45. I consider the person in this picture to be objectified.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

46. The ad is making me uncomfortable.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

47. I am offended by this ad.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

48. How would you rate the level of sex appeal (how sexualized) used in this ad?

Min 0 1 2 3 4 Max

49. It is clear to me that this ad is trying to sell perfume.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

50. This ad makes me interested in buying the product.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

Ad 8: question 51-56 apply to this ad

VI

51. I consider the person in this picture to be objectified.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

52. The ad is making me uncomfortable.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

53. I am offended by this ad.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

54. How would you rate the level of sex appeal (how sexualized) used in this ad?

Min 0 1 2 3 4 Max

55. It is clear to me that this ad is trying to sell perfume.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

56. This ad makes me interested in buying the product.

Strongly agree 1 2 3 4 Strongly disagree

Ad 7 and 8: question 57 apply to these ads.

57. Do you experience sexual advertising differently depending on whether the person in the picture is male or female? - Yes, worse for the woman - Yes, worse for the man - No difference depending on gender

VII