An Investigation of Textiles at the Village Level in North- with Particular Reference to Design and Manufacturing Strategies

Anasee Pengsaa Stone

Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Art and Design, University of Canberra for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Design

February 2009

i Abstract

This research is set in the context of a collaborative agreement between the Industrial Design Department, University of Canberra and the Faculty of Applied Art and Design at Ubon Rajathanee University in the northeast or Isan region of Thailand. In this thesis the textile production of the region was studied with an objective of evaluating the potential for product design process to positively influence production outcomes. Traditional textile production techniques could be lost because these processes are complex and slow, and the current environment, both physical and operational, is changing rapidly. Product design and the design process are relevant to the industrial development of Thailand and village textile production could benefit from structured design and manufacturing strategies that have a consumer focus and improved production outcomes. From a critical review of the relevant literature, it was found that village weavers valued the traditions of their craft and traditional patterns and colours were important in terms of cultural identity and village social organization. Product design process or more specifically, the Generic Design Process (GDP) was reviewed and a model developed that adapted the GDP to the prevailing research environment. The findings led to a program of field research including village interviews where the major issue of the devaluation of traditional natural material dyeing techniques was identified. Field experiments tested alternative dyeing techniques which were evaluated in a survey by village weavers. During the field research care was taken to adapt to the way in which village weavers lived and worked as the two activities were closely interrelated. The degree of skill and knowledge residing in the aging women, who constitute the majority of village weavers, in extensive and profound, and is often described as an example of local wisdom. The theoretical and experimental work has been related, with appropriate results and conclusions, to the potential for maintaining traditional natural dyeing processes albeit with different preservation techniques. The findings from this research suggests that product design processes are appropriate for village production and that the tradition of natural material colour dyes will survive, new colours were created and the potential for new trade in preserved colour dye products. Substantial databases of useful relevant information have been compiled and recommendations are made for future research.

ii Acknowledgements

First of all, the author would like to thank my supervisor Dr Don Carson for having given so kindly of his time throughout all the stages of her stay in Australia. The author will forever be grateful to his caring, understanding, and limitless patience. The author wishes to thank Emeritus Professor Dr Elivio Bonollo for his astute supervision, valued guidance, and a huge encouragement to the author. The author is thankful to Dr Dianne Firth, Dr Bill Green, and the staff from Faculty of Arts and Design, University of Canberra. The author is grateful to Professor Dr Prakob Wirojanagud, the President of Ubon Rajathanee University and (the late) Associated Professor Dr Wiroj Srisuro, the foundation Dean of Faculty of Applied Arts and Design for giving the author the research opportunity. The author is also grateful to Assistant Professor Dr Janpen Intaraprasert, the Dean of Faculty of Science for her nice friendship and supervision, and for kindly providing Miss Jiranan Kanapan and Miss Wanwisa Songserm from Department of Chemistry to assist with the experimental program. The author also wishes to thank Dr Kanya Jungvimutipan and the staff from the Faculty of Applied Arts and Design. Special thanks are due to Mrs. Tuanjai Kaewvongsa and 30 villagers from Ban Pa-aw Moo 1-5 for assistance during the experiments and field survey of village opinions. Additional thanks to Mr. Pinai Hongtongdang, Ms. Urai Sroi-soon-gnern, and Ms. Marisa Vorakot- soong-nern for the case study in Nakhon Ratchasima. Importantly, this research occurred principally because of the generosity of the following people who gave interviews; Janhorm Tao-yeun, Vichai Jantawong, Lodd Jai-nan, Songyot Waree-sri, Noi Lapapan, Kanittha Sa-san, Lika Buttrarin, Janmorn Sai-hong, Duangjan Nantralohit, Onnta Sueb- phrom, Prapassorn Pluem-jit, Ammorn Pluem-jit, Punn Tree-jit, Vilai Tong-luan, Cheamjit Suppasorn, Udom Sa-ra-chat, Somporn Nantasan, Kampaew Meerawong, Jantra Chompoojak, Kamsorn Paj-ja, Yon Maliwong, Koom-pa Pan-sri, Pranom Khao- ngam, Ajan Viratum Trakool-ngoen-tai, Bot Tong-sook, Banyat Kleep-muang, Samreun Mee-kaew, Ra-nong Pra-win, Lamyai Dee-yak-dai, Boonmee Panya-ake, Amporn Tong- thisan. Finally, very special thanks are due to the author’s parents Professor Dr Prasit and Professor Dr Krisana Pengsaa, and the author’s husband Mr Gavin Stone and our precious little boy Anakin Tiger, for their enduring support, encouragement, and unconditioned love.

iv Table of Contents

Title Page i Abstract ii Certificate for Authorship of Thesis iii Acknowledgements iv Contents v List of Appendices x List of Figures xi Glossary of Thai Terms xii

Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Context and Scope of Research 3 1.3 Aims and Research Questions 5 1.4 Layout of the Thesis 6

Chapter 2: Literature Survey and Information Search Preamble 8 2.1 The Sufficiency Economy in Thailand 9 2.1.1 Background and context to the study 9 2.1.2 Sufficiency Economy 10 2.1.3 History of Royal and Government support for Textile Production 13 2.1.4 One One Product (OTOP) 14 2.1.5 OTOP: Structure and Management 15 2.1.6 OTOP Today 16 2.1.7 Findings 17 2.2 A Brief History of Textiles in Thailand Preamble 19 2.2.1 Archaeological aspects of Textiles 19 2.2.2 Thai Regional Costumes 21 2.2.3 Thai Textiles Today 27 2.3 Traditional Village Textile Technology Preamble 29

v 2.3.1 Textile production from silk and cotton 29 2.3.2 Weaving Equipment 31 2.3.3 Weaving Techniques and Patterns 33 2.3.4 Patterns 34 2.3.5 Current trends of Isan textile production 35 2.3.6 Findings 36 2.4 Relating colour to design Preamble 37 2.4.1 Colour as a basic variable in textile design 37 2.4.2 Colour and Tradition 39 2.4.3 Colour in Isan Textiles 41 2.4.4 Colours and the natural materials they are derived from 42 2.4.5 Findings from the survey of colour in Isan textiles 44

Chapter 3: Theoretical Development and Constructs 3.1 Preamble 45 3.2 Revue of research proposals in light of literature search findings 46 3.3 Developing a Research Strategy 48 3.3.1 Research Method – Pragmatic verses theoretical 48 3.3 2 Design theory, process and research 50 3.3.3 Models of the design process 52 3.3.4 Product Design and the Generic Design Process (GDP) 54 3.4 The Generic Design Process (GDP) and Design Research Methodology- A theoretical model for investigating the research questions 55 3.5 Summary of theoretical development and constructs 61

Chapter 4: Experimental Program: Research Methodology Surveys and Field Work Preamble 62 4.1 Introduction: Survey and Experimental Program – Scope and Context 62 4.2 Research Methodology Field Surveys and Experiments 65 4.2.1 Research Methodology Survey 1: Understanding textile production in Isan villages 67

vi (Ten Village Interviews) 4.2.2. Interview Theory and Ethical considerations 68 4.2.3 Survey 1: Interview Procedure 70 4.2.4 Survey 1: Details of Subjects 72 4.2.5 Survey 1: Interview Questions 72 4.2.6 Survey 1: Issues with Interview Process 73 4.2.7 Survey 1: Analysis of Data 75 4.3 Research Methodology Preamble - Experimental Program 77 4.3.1 Research Methodology: Survey 2 Part 1 Development of experiment Comparison of Natural Dye Preparations Techniques 79 4.3.1.2 Survey 2 Part 1: Background and benefits of the experiment 80 4.3.1.3 Survey 2 Part 1: Aims and Objectives 81 4.3.1.4 Survey 2 Part 1: Scope of the experiment 81 4.3.1.6 Survey 2 Part 1: Experiment Preparation and additional details 83 4.3.1.7 Analysis of Survey 2 Part 1: Comparison of Natural Dye Preparations Techniques 84 4.4 Analysis of Survey 2 Part 2: Analysis of Natural Dye Preparation Techniques Field Survey of Weavers Opinions 85 4.4.1 Introduction and objectives 85 4.4.2 Survey 2 Part 2: Methods and Analysis 85 4.4.3 Survey 2 Part 2: Details of Subject Samples 87 4.4.4 Survey 2 Part 2: Questions and Explanation for the Questions 87

Chapter 5: Analysis of Experimental Program Preamble 90 5.1 Introduction: Methodology supporting the evaluation of the experiments 90 5.2 Survey 1: Analysis of Understanding textile production in Isan villages Ten Village Interviews 91 5.2.1 Impact of an Aging Textile Worker Population 93 5.2.2 The Importance of Textile Production and Tradition in Isan 93 5.2.3 Village Textile Production: the people and how they work 94 5.2.4 Knowledge and Skill Acquisition 96

vii 5.2.5 Textile Workers and Village Organization 96 5.2.6 Textile Production 97 5.2.7 Survey1: Conclusions and Research directions 103 5.3 Introduction to Survey 2: Experimental Program Survey 2 Part 1: Comparison of Natural Dye Preparations Techniques 106 5.3.1.1 Organisation 108 5.3.1.2 Selection of Natural Material 108 5.3.1.3 Experimental Equipment and Procedure 109 5.3.1.4 Trial 110 5.3.2 Conclusions and Discussions 111 5.4 Survey 2 Part 2 Experimental Program: Analysis of Field Survey of Weavers Opinions 112 5.4.1 Survey 2 Part 2 Questions Part 1: Main Findings from the Individual Questions 113 5.4.2 Survey 2 Part 2 Questions Part 2: Main Findings from the Individual Questions 115

Chapter 6: Results and Discussions 6.1 Preamble 117 6.2 Understanding Village Textile Production 117 6.2.1 The Sufficiency Economy in Thailand 118 6.2.2 A Brief History of Textiles in Thailand 119 6.2.3 Traditional Village Textile Technology 120 6.2.4 Relating colour to design 121 6.3 Theoretical Development and Constructs The Integrated Design and Development Framework (IDDF) model 122 6.3.1 Results and Discussion: Task Clarification (TC) 122 6.3.2 Results and Discussion: Concept Generation (CG) 123 6.3.3 Results and Discussion: Evaluation and Refinement (ER) 123 6.3.4 Results and Discussion: Detailed Design (DD) 124 6.3.5 Results and Discussion: Communication of Results (CR) 124 6.4 Research Program 125 6.4.1 Developing field research methods 125

viii 6.4.1.2 Developing field research methods Survey 1: Understanding textile production in Isan villages 126 6.4.1.3 Developing field research methods Survey 2 Part 1: Experiment: Comparison of Natural Dye Preparations Techniques 127 6.4.1.4 Developing field research methods Survey 2 Part 2: Analysis of Natural Dye Preparation Techniques Field Survey of Weavers Opinions 128 6.5 Results and Discussions Survey 1: Analysis of Understanding textile production in Isan villages Ten Village Interviews 128 6.5.1 Theme 1: Impact of Aging Textile Worker Population 129 6.5.2 Theme 2: The Importance of Textile Production and Tradition in Isan 129 6.5.3 Theme 3: Village Textile Production: the people and how they work 129 6.5.4 Theme 4: Knowledge and Skill Acquisition 130 6.5.5 Theme 5: Textile Workers and Village Organization 130 6.5.6 Theme 6: Textile Production 130 6.6 Survey 2: Experimental Program Survey 2 Part 1: Comparison of Natural Dye Preparations Techniques Survey Trial 132 6.7 Survey 2: Experimental Program Survey 2 Part 1: Comparison of Natural Dye Preparations Techniques 133 6.5.6 Survey 2: Experimental Program Results of Survey 2 Part 2 Experimental Program Analysis of Field Survey of Weavers Opinions 134

Chapter 7: Findings and Conclusions Preamble 135 7.1 Findings and Conclusions: Integrated Design and Development Framework (IDDF) 136 7.2 Findings and Conclusions: Field Research Findings Field Surveys and Experiments 137

ix 7.2.1 Findings and Conclusions Survey 1: Analysis of Understanding textile production in Isan villages Ten Village Interviews 137 7.2.2 Findings and Conclusions Survey 2 Part 1: Comparison of Natural Dye Preparations Techniques 138 7.2.3 Survey 2: Experimental Program Findings of Survey 2 Part 2 Experimental Program Analysis of Field Survey of Weavers Opinions 140 7.3 Review of Findings in Relation to Original Aims 141 7.3.1 Proposal 1 141 7.3.2 Proposal 2 142 7.3.3 Proposal 3 142 7.4 Recommendation for Future Research 143

Chapter 8: References 145

Chapter 9: Appendices Appendix 2.3.1 Traditional Village Textile Technology 151 Appendix 4.2 Developing Appropriate Field Survey Research Methods for Village Product Development in North-Eastern Thailand 170 Appendix 4.2.2.1 Informed Consent Form 174 Appendix 4.2.2.2 Participant Information Sheet 176 Appendix 4.2.2.3 Cover Letter to University Ethics Committee 179 Appendix 4.2.2.4 Invitation to participate form 181 Appendix 4.2.4.1 List of Participating villages 183 Appendix 4.2.4.2 List of Subjects Demographic Data 184 Appendix 4.2.5.1 List of Interview Questions 187 Appendix 4.3.1 Experimental Plan 189 Appendix 4.3.1.1 Linking Village Textile Workers in north-eastern Thailand, Laos and Vietnam by Adapting Field Research Methods in Product Design 197 Appendix 4.3.1.2 Case Study Ban Pa-aw 2005 203 Appendix 4.3.1.4 Experimental Diary 212 Appendix 4.4.5A Survey 2.2 Questionnaire English version 230 Appendix 4.4.5B Survey 2.2 Questionnaire Thai version 236 Appendix 5.2A Analysis of Village Interview Data 239 x Appendix 5.2B Village Interview Data 275 Appendix 5.3 Images from Village Interviews 320 Appendix 5.3.1.3 Freeze Dry Process 355 Appendix 5.3.1.4 Images from Village Experiments 358 Appendix 5.3.1.4A Woven Silk Samples 379 Appendix 5.4A SPSS Analysis 381 Appendix 5.4B SPSS Supporting Data 394 Appendix 5.4C SPSS Raw Data 402

List of Figures Figure 2.2.1 Ban Chiang Archaeological Site in Thailand 19 Figure 2.2.2 Hill tribe people in Thailand 21 Figure 2.2.3 Lanna Village Costume 22 Figure 2.2.4 Pha Yok cloth of Southern Region 23 Figure 2.2.5 Textiles used in central court and in the villages 23 Figure 2.2.6 Traditional Pha Prae Wa textiles, Phu Tai traditional costume 23 Figure 2.2.7 Mudmee from Khon Kaen, Khit Sik of Khmer group from Surin 24 Figure 2.2.8 Isan tradition and costume 25 Figure 2.2.9 Styles of Isan clothes for male and female 26 Figure 2.3.10 HM Queen Sirikit plays a leading role in promoting Mudmee silk 28 Figure 2.3.1 Example of drawing art from a temple wall 29 Figure 2.3.2 Silk worm on the jaw 30 Figure 2.3.3 Silk reeling clay pot 30 Figure 2.3.4 Tradition Isan Loom (kee) 31 Figure 2.3 5 Traditional Akk for organizing threads 32 Figure 2.3.6 Traditional Hoang Kan Mee for Mudmee 32 Figure 3.3.3 Diagram of the Generic Design Process 53 Figure 3.4 Integrated Design and Development Framework (IDDF) 60 Figure 4.4.3 Graphic Rating Scale 86 Figure 5.3 Example of Data taken from Village Interviews 107 Figure 5.4.A Example of Data from Appendix 5.4: Survey 2 Part 2 112 Figure 5.4.B Example of Data in Bar Graph from Appendix 5.4: Survey 2 Part 2 113

xi Glossary of Thai Terms

Thai Terms and Description are based on Susan Conway1 text on Thai Textiles, and the author’s own understanding of Thai and Isan languages

Akk The equipment uses for rolling thread Ampoer District Ban (Moo Ban) Village Cheak Fuem Beam cord Cheak Khao Heddle shaft cord Cheak Mai Haab Hook or cord holder Cheak Tor Krueng Pook Loom-holding cord Chok Weaving technique whereby the warp yarns are picked out by hand to weave discontinuous supplement weft. Chok means ‘pick’ in Isan language. (see also Teen Chok) Dok Flower Dok Bua Lotus flower; represented religious symbol Dok Kaew A small white flower Dok Mali Jasmine flower; represented Mother’s Day Dok Pikul A small yellow flower Dok Ratchawat Khom A tiny diamond motif flower Ew Fai One of the cotton making process for separating the cotton seeds out of cotton fibre Fai Cotton Fuem Reeds with teeth; equipment for textile weaving Fun Wee Reeds; equipment for textile weaving Hang Krarok A technique of twisted two colours yarn in a weft or a warp where desirable Hoang Kan Mee An equipment for creating Mudmee patterns Hook Loom (Isan language)

1 Conway, S. (2001). Thai Textiles. London: The British Museum Press xii Ikat Malay-Indonesian words for a resist-dye process in which yarns are tied in selected areas to prevent penetration of dye and to form patterns when the yarn is woven Isan A word represented people and the region of North- eastern Thailand Jaw A large, flat, bamboo tray approximately 152 com in diameter with concentric compartments in which silk worms are placed to spin cocoons Jang Light (colour) Kee Loom (Central ) Khit A weaving technique using a continuous supplementary weft in geometric forms Kho A continuous supplementary pattern of many colours weft with the catch in different places creating a ream rolling river (Lai Nam Lai) (Kho in Thai word means to ‘hold together’) Khao Heddles (Isan language) Khmer Citizen of Cambodia Kob Feum Breast beam Kong Deed Fai An equipment for making cotton fluffy before the spinning process to get cotton fibre Krang Shellac used for red colour dye Kram Indigo colour Lai Pattern Lai Mak-rook Chequered or Scott patterns Lak Hua Khao Cloth beam pole Lanna A word represented people and the region of Lao Khang A Tai ethnic sub-group from Phichit province, also called Lao Nam Khang Liang Mai Raising silk worms Luang Same weaving style as Kho; in (Luang in Thai word means to ‘pull out’)

xiii Mai (Pha Mai) Silk Mai Wood Mai Haab Hook Beam holder Mai Hua Hook Cord rod Mai Kam Pan Cloth beam Mai Kand Kee Loom frame Mai Kue Kee Upper loom frame Mai Na Dak Warp beam Mai Poang Peng Extended warp wood support Mai Yeab Hook Treadles Mee Hole Type of Mudmee in Khmer style found in (see also Pha Hole) Moo Street number of the village Muk A weaving technique using a supplementary warp yarn to design the pattern of textile Mudmee A weaving technique using a resistance to dye on the yarns before weaves to produce the different shades of colours, known also as Ikat. Naak A mythical animal looks like a snake Naga A mythical serpent capable of assuming human forms Ngam Beautiful Ob-hang Oven-dried Ob-tak-dad Sun-dried Onn Light (colour) Pan Nang Weaver’s bench Pha Textile Pha Am-prom A Khmer style textile found in Surin province (Am- prom in Khmer language means ‘Prom Buddha’) Pha Biang Isan words of Pha Sa-bai Pha Hole A Khmer style textile found in Surin province (Hole in Khmer language means ‘spread’)

xiv Pha Khao-ma A rectangular textile used as a sash, turban, bathing wrap or as a cradle for a baby; usually in checkered patterns Pha Prae Wa A shoulder-sash worn by Phu Tai women in Northeast Thailand (see also Prae Wa) Pha Puen Plain woven textile Pha Sa-bai A rectangular textile worn over the shoulder or across the chest Pha Sin A woman’s woven tubular skirt with one or two side seams Pha Tor Woven textile Phu Tai Tai ethnic sup-group living in north-east Thailand, mainly in Kalasin, Sukolnakorn and Mukdahan Plook Mon Cultivate Mulberry tree Prae Wa A weaving technique using supplementary weft in the same technique of Chok. (Prae mean silk. Wa mean two metre) Rai Measurement of land: 1 rai = 0.16 ha. Saboo-daeng Bellyache bush (Central Thai language) Saboo-luead Bellyache bush (Isan language) Sao Pole Sao Kee Loom pole Sao Mae Kee Main loom pole Sa-roang Man’s tubular loincloth Sa-wang Bright (colour) Sen Dai Yarn, Thread Sen Dai Yuen Extended warp Siamnese Central Thai People Sin Central panel of a woman’s Pha Sin skirt Sirikit First name of the current Queen of Thailand Sod Fresh Suay Beautiful Suay Ngam Beautiful

xv Tai An ethnic group, made up of several sub-group, inhabit from Assam through Burma, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam and parts of southern China Tai Lao Tai ethnic group from Laos Tai Lue Tai ethnic group from Sibsong Panna, China Tai Phuan Tai Lao group from Xieng Khouang province, Laos Tai Yuan Tai ethnic group living in Lanna Takor Heddles (Central Thai language) Tambon Sub-district Teen Chok Hem border of a woman’s Pha Sin woven with a discontinuous supplementary weft Thai Citizen of Thailand Tor Pha Mai Weaving silk yarns Triam Sen Mai Preparing silk yarns Yok A weaving technique used to refer to various types of twill weave. The design is usually related add environment and religious beliefs

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