Methods/Approaches chapter of Teaching ESOL: 13 A Historical Overview

K ey Issu es ❖ Historical overview of methods and approaches to teaching English as a foreign/ ❖ The Grammar-Translation Method ❖ The Direct Method ❖ The Audio-Lingual Method ❖ ❖ The ❖ ❖ The ❖ The Communicative Approach

For centuries, people have used formal education as a way to learn new languages. Over time, the methods and approaches have evolved to theories of and educational theory. In addition to adjustments to the theories, changes to the populations of students and their objectives for learning new languages have also changed. More and more the students in mainstream classes are speakers of other languages. Language acquisi- tion methods and strategies are no longer limited to the language-learning classroom. These techniques can be used in a variety of settings depending on the needs of the students.

91 The Grammar-Translation Method of studying, the students were unable to speak the language. It became clear that using the grammar- The grammar-translation method (also known as the translation method by itself is ineffective. The stu- classical method) is a method of language teaching dents needed to play a more active role in their lan- that emphasizes grammar rules and one-to-one vo- guage acquisition in order to actually use the cabulary translation. Grammar rules are taught language for communication purposes. through presentation and explicit instruction. In- Although this method is unsuccessful when used struction in this style of language teaching is in the in isolation, there are some opportunities to use students’ native language. Student practice the gram- pieces of the grammar-translation method with lan- matical rules through translation exercises between guage learners in the mainstream classroom today. the native and target language. Vocabulary lists, Often language learners develop a fossilization of dictionary definitions, and memorization strate- errors when learning in an immersion setting. When gies—which are frowned upon in other language chatting with their peers, students’ errors often go teaching methods—are the main focus of this style uncorrected. Using the grammar-translation method, of language teaching. teachers can encourage the students to practice spe- Grammar-translation first began based on a be- cific grammatical points that they have trouble with. lief that different kinds of knowledge were stored in separate sections of the brain. Mathematic knowl- edge, for example, was thought to be located in one Mainstream Classroom Use area, art in another, language in another, and so on. Emilio is having trouble understanding present It was believed that studying different subjects was participle verbs. He confuses his tenses, misuses a good way of exercising the brain. Thus, learning the participles, and has trouble understanding this another language provided the necessary mental grammatical concept when he hears it or reads it. exercise to develop the part of the brain believed to Since Emilio’s teacher has some knowledge of his be reserved for languages. home language, Spanish, she is able to share com- At this time, the main goal for learning a lan- parisons between the two languages to help him to guage was not for speaking and/or communication. positively transfer this prior knowledge to his work The driving force was to exercise the mind and at in English. the same time to be able to read in that language. Exercise: Translate the following sentences The languages taught in those early days were Latin from Spanish to English. and Greek, so another reason for studying foreign languages was to appreciate the classics in their ❖ Mi abuela ha corrido tres maratones.— original language. Translation: My grandmother has run three When educators first started using this method, marathons. communicating in the language was not a goal. ❖ Pedro ha comido cinco rebanadas de pizza.— Therefore, classes were taught primarily in the stu- Translation: Pedro has eaten five slices of dents’ native language and the teacher made no ef- pizza. fort to emphasize correct pronunciation of the lan- ❖ Ruth ha vivido en México seis años.— guage. Grammar study was the focus of the lessons, Translation: Ruth has lived in Mexico for six with much rote memorization of grammatical as- years. pects such as verb conjugations and recitation of rules that described language functions. Educators This adaptation of the grammar-translation soon began to notice that because the primary em- method can help to distinguish what elements posi- phasis was on reading and translating passages, the tively or negatively transfer between Emilio’s lan- conjugation of verbs, and explanation and memori- guages. While this method is not recommended as zation of grammatical rules their students were not the sole approach for a language teacher, it is possi- learning to use the language. Even after many years ble to use adapted versions of the grammar-transla-

92 Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching tion method as a supplement for specific skills that In addition, cultural aspects of the countries need further practice. where the target language is spoken are also in- cluded in the lessons. For example, when studying Spanish, students would discuss the sports that are The Direct Method widely practiced in Spain or Latin America. This The direct method began as a complete departure also allows for discussions regarding geography, from the grammar-translation method. Instead of climate, cultural traditions, and other elements that focusing on reading and writing, this method fo- foster a richer conversation in the target language. cused on speaking and listening. Students recognize their new language as a tool with The emphasis is on the direct associations the which they can communicate. Reading and writing student makes between objects and concepts and the are also taught from the beginning. corresponding words in the target language. The use The most widely known application of the direct of the native language is avoided; the use of the tar- method is practiced at the Berlitz language schools get language is emphasized at all times. In this located throughout the world. Berlitz classes are method, the primary goals are for students to think generally for highly motivated adults who need to and speak the language; thus, no use of the native speak a foreign language for business purposes. Al- language is allowed. Teachers use objects, visuals, though many of the techniques developed for the and realia to provide the comprehensible input. In- direct method have also been used in other methods, struction revolves around specific topics. Aspects of applying the direct method in noncommercial grammar are taught inductively through the handling schools fell out of favor as early as 1920 (Richards of the topic. The basic focus of this method of lan- & Rodgers, 1986). The grammar-translation method guage instruction is that students learn their second dominated public school and university language language in a similar way to their first language. teaching in the United States until World War II. This method aims to prove that there is no need for a deep analysis of grammatical rules or spelling pat- terns. Instead, the students are taught that the sole Audio-Lingual Method purpose of language is communication. The United States involvement in World War II The direct method uses a lot of repetition to en- brought a significant change in the teaching of lan- courage students to learn new vocabulary and lan- guages in U.S. schools. It quickly became apparent guage patterns. It follows a five-step process: Show, that the grammar-translation method had not pro- Say, Try, Mold, Repeat. Using real life objects, pic- duced people who were able to speak the foreign tures, or flash cards, the teacher will present a vo- languages they had studied. The U.S. government cabulary word or grammatical structure. For exam- asked the universities to develop foreign language ple, using pictures of a child doing different actions programs that produced students who could com- the teacher can present the present progressive struc- municate effectively in those languages. ture. This use of cards can be modified for different Changes in the beliefs about how people learn verb tenses and different pronouns that will encour- impacted the teaching methodologies being devel- age the same vocabulary while slowly introducing oped. Based on theories of behaviorist psychology more grammatical structures. The practiced structure (refer to Chapter 1), the audio-lingual method could be “The boy is running.” By switching the (ALM) was developed. flash cards, the students can practice “The boy is In ALM, the emphasis was on the memorization sleeping,” “The boy is eating,” “The boy is danc- of a series of dialogues and the rote practice of lan- ing,” “The boy is smiling.” This can be practiced in guage structures. This method was based on the idea a question/answer structure by demonstrating and that language is speech, not writing, and language is asking: “The boy is sleeping. What are you doing?”, a set of habits. It was believed that extended practice “The boy is eating. What is Brooke doing?” of the dialogues would develop oral language profi- ciency. The use of the native language was avoided.

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview 93 The method became very popular in the 1960s. speaker of another language, seeing the instructions Language laboratories began to surge, and students while hearing the instructions will help to emphasize were required to listen to audiotapes and repeat dia- the language being used. One way to help students logues that captured aspects of daily living. In addi- to learn commands and steps in routines is to pro- tion, specific structural patterns of the language vide a smaller version of the same instructions that studied were embedded in those dialogues. Students they can use to follow along and to review during were required to participate in a number of practice their own time. The common phrases used in the drills designed to help them memorize the structures classroom will vary between different grade levels, and be able to plug other words into the structure. but some of these may include: For example, in a substitution drill, the structure May I go to the restroom? might have been: May I go to the nurse? I am going to the post office. Could you repeat the instructions? Please take out your notebooks. Students were then required to substitute the Turn and talk to your partner about . . . word post office for other words, such as supermar- Raise your hand when you are ready. ket, park, beach, or drugstore. The belief was that students, through much This type of exercise does not require extensive practice, would form a “habit” and be able to speak planning or preparation by the classroom teacher. the language when needed. Although the intent was Instead, this exercise can be written quickly onto an to develop fluent and proficient speakers by provid- index card that the student can keep on or in their ing much oral practice of the dialogues and the use desk. This type of exercise not only will be helpful of numerous drills to help in this endeavor, the real- for the student, but will also serve as a reminder to ity was that was not the out- teachers to be mindful of our language when provid- come. Years later, students who studied with the ing instructions to speakers of other languages. audiolingual method still remembered the dialogues but could not spontaneously speak the foreign lan- guage they had studied. Thus, the method was not Suggestopedia successful at accomplishing the main goal. It was Suggestopedia was developed by Bulgarian psychia- too prescriptive; there was no opportunity provided trist–educator Georgi Lozanov (1982), who wanted for true communication to take place in the ALM to eliminate the psychological barriers that people classroom. Students had been taught a script which have to learning. This method uses drama, art, phys- is not the manner in which natural speech is ical exercise, and desuggestive–suggestive commu- produced. nicative psychotherapy as well as the traditional modes of listening, speaking, reading, and writing to Mainstream Classroom Use teach a second language. The influence of the sci- ence of suggestology is clear in this method that Using scripts as the sole language exposure is not calls class meetings “sessions” (Freeman & Free- recommended, as described above, but there are op- man, 1998). portunities to use this style of language instruction In suggestopedia, the classroom atmosphere is in the mainstream classroom with newcomers. crucial. Creating a relaxed, nonthreatening learning A daily routine in a classroom often has com- environment is essential for its success. The goal is mon instructions that are repeated frequently. In- that students will assimilate the content of the les- structions in a typical classroom are given orally. In sons without feeling any type of stress or fatigue. addition to verbally giving instructions, teachers Classrooms are equipped with comfortable seat- with newcomers may choose to also write the in- ing arrangements and dim lighting in an effort to structions on the board and point to each step in the provide an inviting and appealing environment. process while describing it. For a student who is a Soothing music is employed to invite relaxation and

94 Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching allow students to feel comfortable in the language hearing classmates using the target language, stu- classroom. The use of the native language is also al- dents are exposed to age-appropriate language and lowed, especially to give directions and to create fluency that helps them to relate and join their peer that welcoming atmosphere. Based on the belief that groups more successfully. how students feel about learning will make a differ- ence in the learning process, suggestopedia takes into consideration the affective domain. It could be The Silent Way said that the philosophy of the little engine that Developed by Caleb Gattegno, the silent way re- could—“I think I can, I think I can, I know I can” quires that the teachers remain silent much of the (Piper, 1976)—is one of the basic underlying prin- time, thus its name. In this method, students are re- ciples of suggestopedia. If the students feel they can sponsible for their own learning. Based on the belief learn, they will. that students are initiators of learning and capable of The use of drama, songs, and games provides independently acquiring language, the silent way for much practice, yet in a less threatening and more provides a classroom environment in which this can enjoyable fashion. As in the ALM, dialogues are take place. The teacher models once, and the stu- employed, but they are presented in an enhanced dents are then given the opportunity to work to- fashion through creative dramatics. The rehearsing gether to try to reproduce what has been modeled. of roles provides the necessary practice, yet there is Beginners are initially taught the sounds of the a purpose for practicing. When people are preparing new language from color-coded sound charts. Next, for dramatic roles, they most likely spend much time teachers focus on language structures, sometimes rehearsing. using colored, plastic rods to visually represent parts Despite the advancements over the audio-lin- of words or sentences. As students begin to under- gual method, suggestopedia has not been widely stand more of the language, they are taught stories adopted in the United States. It is impractical for using the rods as props. At all stages of the method, large classes. In addition, current textbooks do not the teacher models as little as possible, and students embrace this methodology, thus making it difficult try to repeat after careful listening with help from for teachers to apply the principles in regular class- each other. The teacher leads them toward correct rooms. However, there are some basic principles of responses by nods or negative head shakes (Ibid). this method that can be adapted for mainstream The silent way is a fairly complex method that classrooms. requires the teacher to receive extensive training in the use of the methodology. Students also need to be Mainstream Classroom Use well versed in the use of the charts and the rods to participate effectively in the lessons. Because, ac- A classroom teacher may be able to provide speak- cording to research, teachers speak from sixty-five ers of other languages with a comfortable space dur- percent to ninety-five percent of the time in tradi- ing the day. Lowering the sense of stress in the tional classrooms, it is difficult to find teachers who classroom by providing a less threatening environ- are comfortable with the required “silence” of the ment will be helpful to developing a sense of confi- silent way, thus limiting the number of teachers dence for the speakers of other languages. Calm, available to teach employing this method. soothing music may be played during language arts lessons where the students are strictly focusing on language use. Also, using songs and role playing Mainstream Classroom Use activities with not only encourage the use of the tar- The silent way is a difficult method to use in a main- get language for the speakers of other languages, but stream classroom. But, one element that teachers also these activities encourage all speakers of Eng- can adapt for the language learners is to encourage lish to be language models. In some classrooms the them to trust themselves and their classmates in de- teachers is seen as the only language model. By veloping language skills. One policy often employed

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview 95 in mainstream classrooms with language learners is Student: Raises picture of sad girl. the “three then me” policy. The idea behind this Teacher: Stand up if you have a picture of strategy is that the student must ask three classmates two boys who seem happy. before asking for help from the teacher. This type of Student with the policy helps to remove the stereotype that the correct picture: Stands up. “teacher has all the answers.” Instead, students are Teacher: Place on the board the picture that encouraged to use the language together in order to shows a woman who seems find the answer they were seeking. surprised. Student with Walks up to the board and places the correct the picture on the magnetic board. Total Physical Response picture: The total physical response (TPR) method was de- Commands become more complex as the stu- veloped by psychologist James Asher (1977). This dents continue to develop listening comprehension method is based on the principle that people learn and knowledge of subject matter. For example, with better when they are involved physically as well as the assistance of pictures, students can be asked to mentally. In TPR, students are required to respond categorize modes of transportation by land, water, or nonverbally (physically) to a series of commands. air, or they could be asked to rearrange pictures to As the teacher gives a command and the students show the life cycle of a butterfly. respond physically, the teacher ascertains students’ Once students are able to respond to a series of comprehension of the command. Initially, the commands and can give the commands themselves, teacher begins with simple commands such as: the teacher can introduce the reading and the writing Teacher: Stand up! (teacher models) aspects of language. However, the emphasis in TPR Students: Respond by standing up. (physical is on listening comprehension until oral proficiency response, not verbal) is developed. Teacher: Walk to the front of the room. TPR is an appropriate method to use with stu- Students: Respond by walking to the front of the dents who are in the preproduction/silent stage of room. language development. Students who are not yet Teacher: Turn around and walk back to your speaking are able to be involved in lessons and re- seats. spond nonverbally. Thus, these students begin to feel Students: Respond by turning around and walking a sense of belonging and success as they participate to their seats. in the lessons. Students benefit from the involve- Teacher: Sit down. ment in the lessons, and the teachers are able to de- Students: Respond by sitting down. termine whether or not the students are developing listening comprehension. Once the students have practiced a number of TPR is somewhat limited within the confines of times, the teacher simply gives the command and the a classroom; however, with the use of pictures, and students respond. Eventually the students will give other types of manipulatives, a resourceful teacher the commands, thus developing oral proficiency. can bring the outside world into the classroom. For In TPR, teachers can use pictures, objects, and example, a teacher may prepare a transparency of a realia for students to manipulate as they respond picture that shows many actions. Each student gets a nonverbally. For example, the students are studying copy of the picture (black and white is acceptable a unit on “emotions.” The teacher can pass out pic- for this type of activity). The teacher uses the trans- tures of people displaying different emotions. Then, parency to demonstrate the actions following the the teacher can give the following commands: commands given. Students imitate and follow along. Teacher: Raise the picture of the girl who This is an excellent way to introduce verbs and new seems sad. vocabulary using TPR.

96 Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching Mainstream Classroom Use Teacher: Good, you’re correct. Today we are going Mainstream classroom teachers can demonstrate to discuss (point to mouth) three large new words to language learners using the TPR waterfalls (place image on the board) method without much extensive planning. here in our community (demonstrate community). Teacher: Class, for this activity we need to take out our science books. Please (demonstrat- The lesson that this teacher is using is not a lan- ing) take out your science books. guage lesson necessarily. However, the teacher is Students: Take out science books. aware that this language may be difficult for a Teacher: Next, please open (demonstrating) to speaker of another language. She does not have to page 68 (write 68 on board). slow down or provide follow-up exercises for the Students: Open textbook to page 68. student, but it is important that she is aware of her Teacher: Who would like to raise their hand (dem- word choices and movements to help demonstrate onstrating) to share (point to mouth) what new words for the newcomer. the notice (point to eyes) on page 68. TPR lessons are also fun and exciting for speak- Teacher: Thank you, Jimmy, for raising your hand ers of English. Many students will welcome the use (demonstrating). What did you notice of movement into their typical classroom activities. (point to eyes)? This type of lesson can easily be integrated into a Jimmy: I see a big waterfall with trees all around mainstream classroom without pointing out that this it. activity is designed to support language learners.

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview 97 Sample 1: Florida Waterbirds

List of Commands: 1. Look up at the clouds. 8. Wave to the pelican. 2. Show me the clouds. 9. Squawk like a laughing gull. 3. Jump in the water. 10. Pet the flamingo. 4. Swim over to the blue heron. 11. Get out of the water. 5. Stand like the blue heron. 12. Shake yourself off. 6. Flap your wings like a bird. 13. Wave “good-bye” to the birds. 7. Let’s count the birds in the picture

98 Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching Sample 2: In the Field

List of Commands: 1. Walk up to the scarecrow. 12. Pick up one more pear. 2. Walk around the scarecrow. 13. Bite off a piece from the pear. 3. Wave “hello” to the scarecrow. 14. Chew the piece of pear. 4. Touch the scarecrow’s hat. 15. Skip over to the other tree. 5. Wave “good-bye” to the scarecrow. 16. Get close to the trunk. 6. Walk up to the ball. 17. Step on and crush the leaves. 7. Pick up the ball. 18. Look up! 8. Put down the ball. 19. Wave to the squirrel. 9. Walk up to the pear tree. 20. Peek in the hole in the trunk. 10. Pick up two pears from the ground. 21. Walk past the scarecrow. 11. Place the pears in the basket. 22. Wave “good-bye” as you leave the field.

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview 99 Another way to use TPR is by the use of logical The Gouin series can be longer or shorter, de- sequences of actions, also known as Gouin series, pending on how much language the teacher wishes such as driving a car or taking a picture. to use at one time. Initially, the teacher models the The following are two examples. actions, and the students pantomime the actions. As soon as the teacher feels the students can respond Driving a Car without imitating the actions, the teacher simply I take my car key in my hand. describes the action, and the students respond by I walk to the car. demonstrating the actions (Curtain & Dahlberg, I unlock the car door or I use my remote to unlock 2004). the door. The following benefits of the Gouin series have I open the car door. been identified (Knop, in Curtain & Dahlberg, I get into the car. 2004): I close the door. I put on the seat belt. 1. It links language to action and visuals, leading I place the key in the ignition. to improved comprehension. I start the car. 2. It teaches appropriate verbal and physical I take off. behavior, making it especially useful for teaching cultural behaviors. 3. It is easy to recall because it has multiple Taking a Picture (Traditional) meaning reinforcers: I get the camera. ◆ Physical actions I open the film compartment of the camera. ◆ Visuals and props I place the film in the camera. ◆ Logical sequence I close the camera. ◆ Appeal to several senses I check to see that the camera is ready. ◆ Beginning, middle, and end I look through the lens of the camera. I focus. Gouin series are also a way of developing read- I take the picture. ing and writing skills. Once the students are able to say the series, the teacher can record the sentences Taking a Picture (Digital) on sentence strips. Students can then be introduced I get the camera. to the reading of the sentences. Students can illus- I check to see that the camera is ready. trate the series and write the actions illustrated. Il- I take the picture. lustrations can be compiled in book form or can be I check the picture. displayed sequentially in the classroom. I save the picture (or I delete the picture). Following is a sample Gouin series that has I load the picture onto the computer. been illustrated and described in print. I send the picture to my friend.

100 Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching Getting Ready for School

I wake up at 6:00 a.m. I get up and brush my teeth. I get dressed. I comb my hair.

I go to the kitchen. I have breakfast. I get my backpack. I walk to the bus stop.

Other benefits of the Gouin series include: with the opportunity to acquire language rather than forcing them to learn it. In this method, the key to 1. It elicits students’ interest and active comprehension and oral production is the acquisi- participation; tion of vocabulary. Thus, much opportunity for lis- 2. It gives an authentic experience using the target tening/speaking is given to students. Class time is language; and not devoted to grammatical lectures or mechanical 3. It facilitates the natural emergence and exercises. Any explanation and practice of linguistic development of oral communication (The State forms should be done outside of class for the most of New Jersey Curriculum Frameworks for part. Outside work is planned carefully and struc- World Languages, 2006). tured to provide the necessary practice with lan- guage forms. Although this was Terrell’s position in his earlier writings, he seemed to amend his position The Natural Approach in his latest writings (1991). He now suggests that Tracy Terrell (1977, 1981) developed the natural ap- there might be some benefit to providing form- proach based on Krashen’s monitor model (dis- focused instruction as a means of establishing form– cussed in detail in Chapter 10). The main goal of meaning relationships in communicative activities. this method is to develop immediate communicative Teaching grammar for the sake of grammar instruc- competency. Therefore, most classroom activities tion is not effective. However, clarifying it in con- are designed to encourage communication. Terrell text, using advanced organizers to tie it in with com- (1977) suggested that the entire class period be de- municative activities, does have some value. voted to communication activities rather than to ex- According to Terrell (1977), error correction is planation of grammatical aspects of language. The negative in terms of motivation and attitude; thus, he Natural Approach emphasizes providing the students does not advocate the correction of speech errors in

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview 101 the process of oral language development. This posi- In this example, the teacher has tried a few tech- tion reflects Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis, niques to help Sebastién understand the instruction. which says that when students experience an embar- Often as teachers we reuse the same vocabulary over rassing situation, the affective filter goes up, inter- and over again expecting different results. When rupting the language acquisition process. Thus, error working with language learners, it is important to correction would have a negative effect on the share different ways to give the same instruction in process. order to help them to learn new vocabulary. In this The natural approach bases language acquisition example, Sebastién’s teacher understood that he on the natural order of native language development. maybe didn’t understand the modal verb “would” so Because native language development follows a she tried again using “could.” When that didn’t progression, during the silent period, students would work, she tried to substitute “shut” with “close.” An be allowed to respond in their native language. The important follow-up with Sebastién would be to add emphasis is on listening comprehension, so if stu- “shut-close” to a personal word wall or student dic- dents respond in their native language, they are tionary to show him that he has learned a new word. demonstrating comprehension. At the same time, She could also use the instruction again with Sebas- students can be exposed to a wide variety of topics tién in the future to help reinforce the new word that and still be comfortable in the communication he learned. process.

Mainstream Classroom Use The Communicative Approach The communicative approach to language teaching In this method, teachers must provide comprehen- is based on several theoretical premises. sible input at all times for their language learners. The use of visuals (graphs, charts, pictures, objects, 1. The communication principle: Activities that realia), gestures, demonstrations, and motherese/ involve communication promote the parentese (slower speech, simpler language repeti- acquisition of language. tion, rephrasing, clear enunciation) is required. In 2. The task-principle: Activities that engage addition, the use of yes/no type questions, either/or students in the completion of real world tasks type questions, and questions that require short an- promote language acquisition. swers is strongly suggested in the beginning stages 3. The meaningfulness principle: Learners are of language acquisition. The use of total physical engaged in activities that promote authentic response (TPR) is emphasized, particularly during and meaningful use of language. the comprehension (silent/preproduction) stage. Making simple adjustments to our instruction The main goal in this approach is for the learner will help classroom teachers in a mainstream setting to become communicatively competent. The learner to provide their language learners with comprehen- develops competency in using the language appro- sible input and opportunities for language practice. priately in given social contexts. Emphasis is placed For example: on activities that allow the second language learner Teacher: Sebastién, would you shut the window to negotiate meaning in activities that require oral please? communication in the second language. Sebastién: I don’t understand. In the communicative approach, it is important Teacher: Could you shut the window. to create an “information gap” between speakers. Sebastién: I don’t understand. Thus, the need to communicate is authentic because Teacher: It is cold in our classroom (demonstrate). communication must take place to narrow the gap Please close the window (demonstrate). and accomplish the task (i.e., “I/we have what you need, and you have what I/we need to complete our

102 Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching task”). The task cannot be completed individually; prehensible. This is especially necessary in commu- partners must work together to successfully com- nicative settings. In cooperative groups, students plete the assigned task. receive repeated input from the members in the Classroom activities must be varied and must group, providing the necessary redundancy for lan- include interactive language games, information- guage learning to move from short-term comprehen- sharing activities, social interactions, need for im- sion to long-term acquisition. promptu responses, and the use of authentic materi- When analyzing the communicative approach, it als, such as the newspaper for oral discussions on could be said that peer output is less accurate than current events. teacher output. However, Kagan stated that in coop- Sauvignon (2002) suggests designing the cur- erative groups, frequent output produces language riculum to include language arts (or language analy- acquisition far more readily than formal input. The sis activities), language-for-a-purpose (content- same could be said of the communicative approach. based and immersion) activities, personalized Thus, the use of cooperative groups in a communi- language use, theatre arts (including simulations, cative approach environment should be strongly role-plays, and social interaction games), and lan- encouraged. guage use “beyond the classroom” (including plan- ning activities that take the learners outside the Mainstream Classroom Use classroom to engage in real-world encounters). The communicative approach embraces the Group and partner activities are great ways to allow principle of “learning by doing,” encouraging the language learners the opportunity to produce lan- use of English from the beginning of instruction. guage naturally and in a less stressful environment. Thus, language acquisition takes place as a result of The students will feel less pressure while working using the second language in meaningful communi- with only a few classmates, than they would if ex- cation from the onset in the process. pected to volunteer or speak to the whole class. In Kagan (1995), one of the greatest supporters of addition to the lowered affective filter, the students cooperative learning in the classroom, has described will also have age appropriate models of language how this strategy is very effective in ESL class- who exhibit language structures and forms that are rooms, particularly when using the communicative common for children their age. Participation in approach. According to Kagan, language acquisition small group or partner projects also encourages rela- is fostered by input that is comprehensible, develop- tionships with classmates that may not be fostered in mentally appropriate, redundant, and accurate. In the full class or independent work setting. Group cooperative groups, students need to be understood, and partner projects promote a comfortable and con- so they naturally adjust their input to make it com- fident working space for new learners. ❖

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview 103 Points to Remember ❖ In the grammar-translation method (also known as the classical method), the emphasis was on teaching grammar and employing translation to ascertain comprehension. ❖ The grammar-translation method did not produce speakers of the languages studied. ❖ In the grammar-translation method, much use of the native language was employed because the goal was not oral proficiency. ❖ In the grammar-translation method, teachers did not necessarily have to be fluent speakers of the target language because the focus was not on communication. ❖ The grammar-translation method dominated public schools and university language teaching in the United States until World War II. ❖ Today, unfortunately, there is still some evidence of the use of the grammar-translation method in some public schools. ❖ The direct method was a complete departure from the grammar-translation method. ❖ The direct method did not allow for the use of the native language in the classroom. ❖ The direct method required the use of visuals to convey meaning in an effort to eliminate translation. ❖ The emphasis in the direct method was on developing proficient thinkers and speakers in the target language. ❖ The direct method takes its name from the emphasis in the “direct” use of the target language. ❖ The most widely known application of the direct method is practiced at the Berlitz language schools. ❖ The audio-lingual method (based on behavioristic psychology) emphasized the use of habit forming as a way to develop language proficiency. ❖ The main goal of the audio-lingual method was to develop fluent speakers of the languages studied. ❖ In the audio-lingual method, the emphasis was on the rote memorization of dialogues. ❖ In the audio-lingual method, the belief was that much oral practice (dialogue memorization) would result in communicative competence. ❖ The audio-lingual method was unsuccessful because students could recite the dialogues but could not “communicate” in the target language. ❖ TPR stands for total physical response. ❖ In TPR, students are actively engaged in the language acquisition process by responding nonverbally (physically). ❖ TPR is an effective method to employ while second language learners are in the silent (comprehension/ preproduction) period. ❖ The TPR method allows teachers to ascertain comprehension long before second language learners are able to respond verbally. ❖ TPR is an effective method of including second language learners in lessons while in the silent period. ❖ TPR helps second/new language learners develop a sense of belonging and accomplishment while still in the silent period. ❖ Pictures, objects, and realia are effective to enhance and expand the use of TPR in the classroom.

104 Part Two: Principles and Practices in Language Teaching ❖ The natural approach is based on Krashen’s monitor model. ❖ The natural approach respects the ELL’s silent period. ❖ Error correction is discouraged in the natural approach. ❖ In the natural approach, the emphasis is on developing oral language proficiency. ❖ In the natural approach, the teaching of grammar/language forms is discouraged. ❖ In the natural approach, TPR is widely employed. ❖ The communicative approach emphasizes meaningful communication in the ESOL classroom. ❖ The communicative approach requires the use of varied activities where authentic communication takes place. ❖ The communicative approach embraces the principle of “learning by doing.” ❖ Cooperative groups provide a vehicle for language acquisition in the communicative approach. ❖ The communicative approach is based on the need for an “information gap” as a means to encourage meaningful communication. ❖ Although at times ineffective in isolation or difficult to apply to a classroom setting, mainstream classroom teachers can use elements of different language acquisition methods to help their language learners to be successful in their content classes.

Chapter 13: Methods/Approaches of Teaching ESOL: A Historical Overview 105