January 2021 Wastewater Management Mombasa
Mombasa 1
Executive summary
Welcome to Connecting Places Catapult: Urban Links Africa (ULA) market analysis.
ULA is an ambitious programme, funded by the UK government through the Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF) and delivered by Innovate UK and Connected Places Catapult. We work closely with six cities - Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu in Kenya; and Cape Town, Johannesburg and eThekwini (Durban) in South Africa - to tackle some of their key urban challenges and improve citizens’ lives. ULA does this by facilitating a sustainable collaboration between the UK, South Africa, and Kenya, bringing together cities and tech ecosystems through equitable partnerships and industry investment. We share here foundational research and analysis which describes the urban challenges we are focusing on and their context in each country.
Through discussion with city stakeholders we have finalised three urban challenges (one for each ULA city) in South Africa, and four urban challenges across the three Kenyan cities. The key challenges in South Africa are:
• Cape Town: building resilience in informal settlements • Durban: improving solid waste management and reducing pollution • Johannesburg:: adopting sustainable mobility approaches
The four key challenges selected to be addressed across the three Kenyan cities of Mombasa, Kisumu and Nairobi are:
• Solid waste management • Flooding • Wastewater management • Traffic management and active mobility
In this section of the project, we will give an over view of Mombasa. We examine the innovation potential of Mombasa comparing them with their global peers, examining their innovation ecosystem and their business attractiveness.
We then discuss initiatives that governments, private, local and international NGOs and other stakeholders have undertaken to address wastewater management. We examine recent and ongoing projects which attempt to tackle these problems in order to ensure that the collaborators we are supporting as part of ULA are able to learn from and build upon the efforts of others. Wastewater Management 2
Contents
1 Mombasa: Overview 3
2 Benchmarking Mombasa's Innovation Potential 5 2.1 Summary 6 2.2 Performance Review 6 2.3 Innovation Ecosystem 8
3 Wastewater Management 10 3.1 Overview 10
3.2 Expanding Population and lack of Investment in an Ageing Sewerage System 10 3.3 Key Institutions 12
3.3.1 Sewerage services 12
3.4 Impact of Sanitation Challenges 13 3.5 Who Is Doing What? 13
3.5.1 VEI and MOWASCO 14
3.5.2 AFD 14
3.5.3 World Bank 15
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1 Mombasa: Overview
Mombasa has a population of just over three million. Kenya’s oldest and second largest city is located on the coast, 450Km South of Nairobi.
Mombasa has historic links to Arabia, through centuries of trade. Influences which are still present and seen through language, religion and custom. Today, Mombasa’s largest industrial sectors are transport and manufacturing. Increasingly however, Mombasa’s economy has become reliant on its port and developing tourism industry.
Both the port of Mombasa and tourism rely on the city’s key natural assets, namely, the Indian ocean and the stunning mangrove forests it cultivates. Despite its proximity to the ocean, it is water (both its provision and treatment) that represents a large urban issue for the city.
Mombasa’s sewerage infrastructure is ill equipped to serve its ever-increasing population. Urbanisation has increased the city’s demand for infrastructure and services. Mombasa’s sewerage treatment facilities are old and dilapidated, serving only a fraction of the population.
The lack of systems to dispose of the wastewater in Mombasa means it often finds its way into natural environments. The result is that wastewater leaks into storm drains, and eventually wetlands and the ocean, with serious environmental, economic and human consequences. 1 Wastewater Management 4
The development of new approaches to manage water resources will help to address both the challenges of water provision and the leakage of wastewater into the natural environment.
This report discusses Mombasa’s attempts to address its waste-water management issues and considers the potential for innovative solutions to be developed locally. The first section of the report discusses Mombasa’s innovation potential, comparing and benchmarking the city against its global peers and examining its innovation ecosystem.
In the second section we look more deeply into waste-water management. We look at the role foreign investment and mentoring has played in addressing this challenge as well as local innovative solutions to waste-water treatment. 2 Wastewater Management 5
2 Benchmarking Mombasa's Innovation Potential
As East Africa’s largest port, ahead of Djibouti and Dar es Salaam, and with an economy up to now mostly based on manufacturing and transport, Mombasa has in recent years greatly benefited from national investment in digital and physical infrastructure, which helped it to position itself as one of East Africa’s pre-eminent gateways for traded activity. The coastal city’s economy has been further diversified as a result of significant growth of the tourism sector, illustrated by several airlines opening commercial flights to the city over the past five years.
This section benchmarks Mombasa’s performance relative to non-primary cities in the Global South, 7 non-primary cities in Sub-Saharan Africa and 7 other mid-sized coastal port cities with medium degree of global reach.
Table 1: Which cities is Mombasa most like?
Global Theme Most similar cities rank
147th Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic; Abuja, Nigeria; Izmir, Population (3.5m) Turkey
Economic 560th Colombo, Sri Lanka; Islamabad, Pakistan; Maputo, size (GDP) ($12bn) Mozambique
Innovation 102nd/107 Varanasi, India; Maputo, Mozambique; Manaus, Brazil intensity*
*No. of technology-enabled start-ups, scale-ups and established corporates per resident.
As a consolidated city-county, Mombasa’s population puts it on a par with other medium-sized metropolitan areas such as Santo Domingo, Abuja and Izmir. However, even relative to these cities, Mombasa’s demographics profile stands out for its very young population, with more than 75% of the population being younger than 35 years old, and for its high projected growth up to 2035, of over 40%.
The size of Mombasa’s economy is comparable to that of other regional port cities in the Global South such as Colombo and Maputo, while the number of technology-enabled firms relative to its population size puts it more on a par with smaller trading cities such as Varanasi and Manaus.
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2.1 Summary
Mombasa’s relative performance across innovation-related areas
Figure 1: Mombasa’s Ecosystem Dynamic
1
2.2 Performance Review
Mombasa can build on strong economic and demographic fundamentals in the next cycle of its development. With a population expected to grow by 41% up to 2035, Mombasa places 5th out of 37 Global South cities for forecast population growth. In addition to population growth, Mombasa has seen significant growth in its GDP, and the city ranks 3rd out of its global peers for growth in GDP per capita. These strong economic growth prospects have already contributed to a promising rise in foreign direct investment: Mombasa ranks in the top 20 among more than 40 Sub-Saharan African cities for growth in FDI over the past twenty years.
1 Based on 30 metrics and 180 data points. Peers and Sub-Saharan African leaders selected based on population size, productivity, global and regional status, and visibility in global benchmarks. Global peers : eThekwini, Fuzhou, Izmir, Maputo, Salvador, Surat, Yangon Sub-Saharan African comparators: Abuja, Bukoba, Kisangani, Kisumu, Mwanza, Pointe-Noire, Yaounde 2 Wastewater Management 7
However, as its population grows, Mombasa faces new imperatives to ensure that economic benefits are distributed across the population. Costs of utilities and internet are already very high, with Mombasa ranking 5th among its peers for the ratio of monthly cost relative to median monthly income, and the city is currently 38th out of 43 cities in the Global South for access to electricity. The city also falls in the middle of the pack for inclusion, 50th out of 80 cities, with almost half the population falling below the poverty line.
One key area for improvement relates to strengthening the resilience of fundamental city systems, as utilities networks struggle to keep up with growing demand. As a low-lying coastal city, Mombasa is at risk of major floods and deforestation of the mangroves is decreasing Mombasa’s resilience to natural disasters. The city is the 89th most fragile city out of 100 cities in the Global South in Igarapé Instituto’s Fragile Cities Index, a major study that takes into account exposure to natural disasters, conflict and social unrest, air pollution and electricity outages, among other factorsi.
Mombasa’s general performance is broadly in line with that of its peers but the city’s innovation ecosystem has yet to catch up.
2 Figure 2: Mombasa’s performance relative to best performing peer across key indicators
2 * Used as proxy for openness to global markets in absence of other data.
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2.3 Innovation Ecosystem
Mombasa’s innovation economy is slowly emerging, drawing inspiration from Nairobi’s success. The city’s core economy relies significantly on port activities as well as tourism, however this is not reflected in the innovation economy, with most companies working on small-scale mobile and internet-based services. The tech-enabled companies are nearly all clustered in Mombasa Island, the CBD, close to the universities, financial institutions and government services. With the Dongo Kundu Special Economic Zone, the first phase of which is to be completed by 2023, the county government hopes to attract more firms in logistics and specific industries such as agro-processing and the blue economy.
Mombasa’s innovation ecosystem benefits from relatively high-performing digital infrastructure compared to other cities globally, following national investments in fibre optic cables. The fast, reliable and robust internet infrastructure places the city 23rd out of 52 cities in the Global South for average fixed internet speed. Entrepreneurs can also take advantage of the wide availability of free Wi-Fi hotspots across the city, which boasts the 3rd highest number of hotspots among its peers. The county also benefits from 95% mobile network coverageii.
Mombasa’s support organisations are not as developed as in more mature ecosystems. They mostly provide space for entrepreneurs, some skills and training programmes and aim to curate a community through events but they lack major incubation and acceleration know-how to help start-ups develop their products for scaling-up or export or to access funding. The investment landscape is also very limited, with no visible VC firm or major corporate investment hub, thus driving many entrepreneurs to move to Nairobi instead. As part of Mombasa’s Vision 2035, the county’s investment agency is also hoping to establish an ICT incubation and innovation centre as a pathway to reduce unemployment and accelerate the transformation of Mombasa’s largest industries, which face competitive pressures and disruption from Covid-19.
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Map 1: Tech-enabled Companies in Mombasa
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3.1 Overview
Mombasa struggles with wastewater management. The city sewerage infrastructure is ill equipped to serve an increasing population. A lack of systems to dispose of wastewater means it often finds its way into natural environments. The result is wastewater leakage into storm drains, and eventually wetlands and the ocean, causing serious environmental and human consequences. Residents who use contaminated groundwater for domestic purposes are susceptible to health problems, as well as tourists who swim in polluted ocean waters, limiting the potential of a vital economic asset. Fishing communities have also suffered dwindling fish catches due to polluted waters, which damages livelihoods and highlights losses to marine biodiversity.
New technologies and solutions are required to support a dilapidated infrastructure as the city looks to the World Bank and other international donors to finance its wastewater management and sewerage infrastructure projects.
3.2 Expanding Population and Lack of Investment in an Ageing Sewerage System
According to the 1962 census, Mombasa had a population of 179,000, which has since increased to about 1,208,333 people, as per the 2019 census reportiii. Urbanisation has increased the demand for infrastructure and services, creating pressure on the existing sewerage infrastructure. It is estimated that utilities reach less than 60% of the population, with major parts of the city unserved. Compared to other major African cities, Mombasa ranks last in the reliability of water access, with households able to access water for fewer than 5 hours a day. Across Kenya, Mombasa produces the least water on a per- connection basis, about half of Nairobi and Kisumu’s production.
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Figure 3: Mombasa’s utility efficiency, relative to other sub-Saharan African cities
Source: Heymans, C. et al (2016) Providing Water to Poor People in African Cities Effectively: Lessons from Utility Reforms. World Bank.
Mombasa’s water sanitation systems were constructed long before Kenya’s independence and serve a privileged few. The sewers were designed to serve only one-third of the Island division. Currently, centralized treatment facilities for sewage in Mombasa process waste for only 15% of the population and only half of the city’s low-income residents have access to improved sanitation facilities. A good summary of the issues is available here:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7443061/pdf/main.pdf .
As of June 2020, neither of the county’s wastewater treatment plants located at Kizingo and Kipevu were operational. Most sewage is therefore discharged into the sea.
There is demand for approximately 200,000m3 of potable water each day in Mombasa but only 50,000m3 available through the piped system. The deficit is partially made up for by private boreholes and water kiosk operators. Borehole drilling has led to problems of saline incursion to the system and a recent (2017) assessment found 94% of water samples tested from the North coast exceeded safe limits for mineral contentsiv.
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3.3 Key Institutions
Waste-water management and sewerage is the responsibility of Mombasa Water Supply and Sanitation Company Limited (MOWASCO). The company took over the operations of water and sewerage service provision in Mombasa County in 2005. This was after finalizing negotiations on the water Service Agreement with the Coast Water Services Board and appointing the first Board of Directors. Owing to Corporate Management challenges under the appointed board of directors, the company failed to attain key performance indicators in the provision of water and sewerage services and was taken over by the Ministry of Water and Irrigation. Under a new board of directors, the company was incorporated and was finally operationalised in 2011v.
MOWASCO is mandated to provide cost effective and affordable quality water and sanitation services to the residents of Mombasa County and in addition is responsible for:
• Billing for water and sanitation services and ensuring timely collection of dues • Routine maintenance of water and sanitation services and infrastructure • Ensuring that standards and licensing requirements are compiled with as stipulated by the Service Provision Agreement signed with the Coast Water Services Boardvi
3.3.1 Sewerage services
Storm Water Drains and Foul Sewers in Mombasa were designed to carry flows separately to the ocean. Storm water is discharged directly to the ocean. Sewage is supposed to be treated before discharging to the sea.
The only serviced areas in Mombasa County where piped sewerage systems have been built are the West Mainland and Mombasa Island. These service areas include trunk sewers, pumping stations, and Kipevu and Kizingo Wastewater Treatment Worksvii. The other districts of Mombasa County (North Mainland, South Mainland) are not serviced. Sewerage connection tariffs are more expensive than in Nairobi and Kisumu, leading to some households and businesses illegally connecting to the stormwater drainage network, and raw sewage being released into the ocean.
A lack of funds for capital investment in infrastructure, inadequate resources for maintenance, uncoordinated institutional arrangements and weak legislation are factors that have contributed to a lack of serviced wastewater managed facilities.
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3.4 Impact of Sanitation Challenges
Mombasa’s lack of adequate facilities for wastewater has disastrous consequences for public health. Lack of sanitation facilities is causing the contamination of nearby waters affecting the health of Mombasa’s residents, tourists, and the city’s economy. A 2011 study into sewage pollution in the Coastal waters of Mombasa found that swimmers are at an increased risk of contracting illness due to bacteria and viruses present in sewage effluent (i.e. gastrointestinal disorders, giardiasis, amoebic dysentery and cholera)viii.
With seafood also at risk of contamination, the impact of poor wastewater management practices is also felt in the fishing and tourism industries.
3.5 Who Is Doing What?
To tackle Mombasa’s water and wastewater problems, several projects have been conceived and executed with the support of international donors and organisations (although progress has often been slow).
Map 2: Wastewater Management Systems in Mombasa
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3.5.1 VEI and MOWASCO
MOWASCO has formed a WOP (Water Operations Partnership) with Dutch water operator VEI. Backed by The World Bank, VEI has made a strategic plan for the years 2015-2030 which sets out the activities which must be implemented to increase access to water in Mombasa. A key focus of the partnership is the reduction of the level of non-revenue water (NRW) - in Mombasa only 50% of the water distributed by MOWASCO is actually paid forix.
District metered areas (DMA’s) were piloted in 2016 in six locations and considered an effective way of controlling and reducing NRW. The project was funded by loans from the World Bank and resulted in the repair of over 700 leaks and an increase in water supply and water distribution in upstream areas. Within one month the project managed to collect a debt of 4,957,424 Ksh (around 46,000 USD) from 933 active accounts. The project delivered a reduction of NRW from 65% to 48% within a period of three monthsx.
3.5.2 AFD
The French Development Agency have funded numerous projects related to the rehabilitation of Kenya’s coastal water and sanitation systems.
One example is Mombasa WASSIP, a seven-year project to help increase the capacity of water supply infrastructure at Baricho and Marere (like all of Mombasa’s water sources these are located outside of the county). The project was independently evaluated in 2019 by the IDIA and judged successful in terms of capacity building and core infrastructure upgrade. However, there were limited ‘last mile’ connections made as part of the project and ongoing concerns about a lack of technical capabilities within Mombasa to maintain the systemsxi.
Currently a 120 MN Euro project to construct a new dam and treatment facilities on the Mwache river is underway and due to complete in 2023. The project includes:
• The construction of a new dam on the Mwache river, close to Mombasa (with financing from the World Bank) • A new water treatment plant to produce potable water, with a capacity of 140,000 m3/day • The construction of transmissions pipes and reservoirs for treated waters; • The extension of the potable water network, the reduction of water leakages, and the improvement of sewage treatment for Mombasa.
The World Bank, which is financing the Mwache dam construction, reviewed the project in May 2019 and rated it ‘moderately unsatisfactory’ and ‘high risk’ but noted that “further but limited progress has been achieved over the past five months”xii. The project has still yet to commence, partly due to delays in arranging compensation for villagers required to relocate from the area where the dam is to be constructedxiii.
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3.5.3 World Bank
In addition to the Mwache dam project, the World Bank is financing the rehabilitation and expansion of water pipelines across the county, and the extension of Kipevu sewage treatment plant. The objective of this project is to expand access to, and improve the reliability of water supply in the West Mainland part of Mombasa County in order to decrease the incidence of water-borne and water related diseases, generate time savings for households and businesses and reduce non-revenue water in the water supply network.
West Mainland is located to the west of Mombasa and one of the four zones earmarked for network development and Non-Revenue Water (NRW) reduction implementation. The other three zones are Likoni, North Mainland and Island. Each of these Zones is targeted in NRW reduction strategy which seeks to measure, monitor and evaluate how efficiently the utility delivers services.
The design of the distribution network of West Mainland is based on new pipelines, using the existing distribution network which is in good condition, strategic interconnections between these two systems and revised interconnections within the old system. The project aims to increase capacity to meet demand in 2035xiv.
Another active project funded by The World Bank is intended to improve existing storm water outlets in Mombasa Island under the Kenya Water and Sanitation Development Project. The project’s main aim is to reduce the pollution of the Indian Ocean via the existing storm water outlets located at several locations within the island. Twelve sites have been selected for improvement. The improvements will involve the construction of grit removal chambers and coarse and fine screens to reduce the amount of wastewater making its way to the Indian Ocean, via illegal sewage connections made to the storm water system.
The project is ongoing at a cost $330mn with a targeted completion date of October 2022xvbut has had to undergo restructuring. The World Bank conducted a review at the end of 2019 and rated the project “moderately unsatisfactory” due to the slow progress of implementation. As of March 2020, minimal progress had been made on any of the project’s KPIsxvi.
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Case Study: Shimo la Tewa Wetland Demonstration Project Case study intro The Shimo la Tewa prison wastewater project is a collaborative project involving a company, GreenWater, and the National Environment Management Authority. It aims to use wetland technology to manage the prison’s wastewater and naturally remove harmful pollutants from the water.
The project will redesign, rehabilitate, improve and operationalise the Shimo La Tewa wastewater treatment system into an efficient and easy to maintain constructed wetland system for the treatment of sewage and wastewater at the prison facility. This will mitigate against low water discharge into Mtwapa creek and by so doing improve the water quality of the creek. Treated water 3 Wastewater Management 17
from the outlet of the system will be utilized for aquaculture and farming of horticultural crops in order to complement the nutritional requirement for the correctional facility and enhance food security.
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The project further intends to improve prison sanitation by rehabilitating the sewer line and bathrooms. Once complete and operational, the project is intended to come up with an efficient and sustainable constructed wetland that can be replicated or upscaled nationally and regionallyxvii.
See Appendix 1 for interview with Sarah den Haring, Director of GreenWater
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Table 2 gives an overview of projects addressing Mombasa’s wastewater management challenges.
Table 2: Key players and Developments in the Area
Organisation Overview Website
International Organisations
World Bank and French Rehabilitation of Kenyan coastal water Source Development Agency and sanitation systems
Timeline: 2008 – 2016
Cost: $60m
Status: Complete
World Bank World Bank is funding several projects http://documents1.worldba in Mombasa and Kenya in general nk.org/curated/pt/4275615
31200097207/pdf/West- Funding of project to improve water Mainland-RAP-Final-8th- drain and sewage system on Mombasa May-2018.pdf island and modernisation of the Kipevu Sewage Treatment plant.
Project is currently ongoing
Timeline: 2013 – 2022 Cost: £182.67mn Status: Active
Coastal Region Water and Security and http://documents1.worldba Climate Resilience Project to nk.org/curated/en/5275315 sustainably increase bulk water supply 59886407975/pdf/Resettle to Mombasa County and Kwale County ment-Action-Plan-for- Mwache-Multipurpose- Timeline: 2014 – 2021 Dam-Project.pdf Cost: £200mn Status: Active
The improving of existing storm water http://documents1.worldba outlets in Mombasa Island under the nk.org/curated/en/5143414 Kenya Water and Sanitation 87836900335/pdf/Environ Development Project. mental-and-Social-Impact- Assessment-for-Improving- Timeline: 2017 - 2022 the-Existing-Storm-Water- Cost: $330mn Status: Active Outlets-Outfall-and- Combined-Sewer- Overflows-in-Mombasa- Island.pdf 3 Wastewater Management 20
VEI – Dutch Water Dutch company VEI has engaged with https://www.vei.nl/partners Operators MOWASCO forming a WOP (Water /mowasco Operations Partnership). Under the
WOP, VEI mentors MOWASCO to improve water supply services in Mombasa. A key focus of the partnership was the reduction of the level of non-revenue water (NRW).
Local Organisations
Mombasa Water Supply Mombasa’s main water, sewerage and https://www.mombasawate & Sanitation Company sanitation supplier. It was partnered r.co.ke/ Limited with international Dutch operator VEI.
They are open to tenders.
Water Sector Trust The Kenyan State Corporation https://waterfund.go.ke/ Fund mandated to assist in financing water, sanitation and water resources
management projects to the underserved and marginalised rural and urban areas. It has worked with many international development partners including governments of Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Germany as well as the EU, World Bank, Saudi Development Fund.
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Water Sanitation for the Organisation that supports the utility https://www.wsup.com/wh Urban Poor (WSUP) company MOWASCO to develop its ere-we- capacity to manage water and work/kenya/mombasa/
sanitation services for low-income
residents
Completed a network extension project providing water access to https://www.wsup.com/blo 30,000 residents of Mombasa with the g/network-extension-in- support of The Coca-Cola Foundation, mombasa-provides-safe-
County Government of Mombasa and and-affordable-water-to- MOWASSCO. The partnership between 30000-residents/ The Coca-Cola Foundation, the County Government of Mombasa and WSUP is part of the Replenish Africa Initiative (RAIN), the Coca-Cola programme which aims to reach six (6) million people across the continent with improved access to safe water by the end of 2020
Green Water GreenWater is an environmental https://green-water.org/ consultancy firm specialising in wastewater treatment, environmental services and waste management. Formed in 2005, they provide environmental solutions to water and
sanitation issues across East Africa.
Their solutions include: waste-water treatment, rainwater collection systems, greywater treatment, natural swimming ponds, marine resource management and other water and wastewater treatments, as well as training courses in wastewater treatment. (see case study above)
3 Wastewater Management 22 Stuart Harper [email protected] Bob Burgoyne
Borane Gill [email protected]
Visit our website cp.catapult.org.uk Follow us on Twitter @CPCatapult
Email us [email protected]
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i Instituto Igarapé (2016) Fragile Cities Index,
ii Mombasa County Integrated Development Plan 2018-2022, https://cog.go.ke/media-multimedia/reportss/category/106-county- integrated-development-plans-2018-2022?download=304:mombasa-county-integrated-development-plan-2018-2022
iii https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001353475/raw-sewage-sucks-life-from-coast-beaches
iv https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7443061/pdf/main.pdf
v https://www.vei.nl/partners/mowasco
vi https://www.mombasawater.co.ke/
vii https://www.mombasawater.co.ke/images/downloads/KIPEVU%20RAP%20FINAL.pdf
viii http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1064.5067&rep=rep1&type=pdf
ix https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P145559
x https://vei.akvoapp.org/en/project/1611/update/15887/
xi https://www.afd.fr/en/ressources/evaluation-summary-mombasa-water-and-sanitation-service-improvement-project-mombasa- wassip-kenya?origin=/en/rechercher?query=Kenya
xii http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/fr/730031559115772237/text/Disclosable-Version-of-the-ISR-Coastal-Region-Water- Security-and-Climate-Resilience-Project-P145559-Sequence-No-09.txt
xiii https://www.the-star.co.ke/counties/coast/2020-08-03-kwale-to-issue-600-title-deeds-to-displaced-mwache-residents/
xiv http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/pt/427561531200097207/pdf/West-Mainland-RAP-Final-8th-May-2018.pdf
xv https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P156634
xvi https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project- detail/P156634#:~:text=The%20development%20objective%20of%20Water,and%20northeastern%20regions%20in%20Kenya.
xvii https://nairobiconvention.org/clearinghouse/node/395