T. Emre Şerifoğlu 8 The Cide-Şenpazar Region in the Iron Age (ca. 1200 to 325/300 BC)
The Iron Age (1200-330 BC) is one of the least understood periods in our survey area, which is located in the northwest corner of the region known as Paphlagonia in Greek and Roman sources.1 The archaeological evidence for the Iron Age of Cide and Şenpazar consists of a small and difficult to interpret assemblage of pottery fragments from caves and surface scatters, whose dating has been largely marred by a lack of strong typological comparanda. Instead, technological and morphological characteristics distinct from securely datable earlier and later ceramic traditions had to be used to assign pottery, with varying degrees of certainty, to the Iron Age. The situation in Cide and Şenpazar is not very different to most other regions of northern Anatolia, whose Iron Age past remains similarly little understood. However, excavations further south at Alişar Höyük, Boğazköy, Gordion, Çadır Höyük and Kerkenes Dağ (von der Osten 1930a; 1937; Summers and Summers 1998; Genz 2001; 2004; 2006a; 2006b; 2011: 332-335; Gorny 2006; Ross 2010; Omura 2011), and regional surveys in Çankırı and Kastamonu (Matthews and Glatz 2009; Johnson 2011) provide us with a general idea of the material culture and chronology of the north-central Anatolian Iron Age and constitute important reference points for the assessment of the Cide and Şenpazar material. The Iron Age coastal cultures of Sinop, Samsun and Amasya have been explored through surveys and excavations at İkiztepe and Oluz Höyük (Alkım et al. 1988, 2003; Işın 1998; Özsait 2002; Dönmez 2010; Doonan 2004; Özsait and Özsait 2010). In the following discussion, I use the common tripartite division of the Iron Age. Following the Gordion chronology, the Early Iron Age spans from 1200 to 950 BC, the Middle Iron Age from 950 to 550 BC and the Late Iron Age from 550 to 330 BC (Voigt 2002; 2005; De Vries et al. 2005). However, it should be noted that these dates are subject to an on-going debate on the absolute chronology of the Anatolian Iron Ages (Kealhofer and Grave 2011: 418-20).
1 Paphlagonia is delimited by the river Halys (Kızılırmak) to the east, Galatia and Phrygia to the south, Bithynia and Mariadi to the west, and the Black Sea to the north during the Roman period, and this broad description can also be used to define the borders of this cultural area in the Iron Age (Strab. 12. 3. 9). North and North-Central Anatolia in the Iron Age – The Historical Perspective 213
8.1 North and North-Central Anatolia in the Iron Age – The Historical Perspective
After the collapse of the Hittite empire at the end of the Late Bronze Age, some scholars see Anatolia descend into a ‘dark age’, which corresponds to what we define as the Early Iron Age (1200-950 BC) (Drews 1993: 3-11; Muscarella 1995: 91-2; Bryce 1998: 374-9). Not much is known about the historical events and political developments that occurred during this phase because no textual sources have been preserved. However, one can speculate that Anatolia was fragmented among local polities and that some of these managed to transform themselves into regional kingdoms during the course of Iron Age. The regions of Cide and Şenpazar are unlikely to have been conquered or controlled by the Hittites and this mountainous coastal area may have already been ruled by local polities during the Late Bronze Age (chapter 7). The collapse of the Hittite empire must have had some impact on the area as political and military pressure coming from the south came to an end. However, with few sites excavated in north-central Anatolia that span this transitional phase, we know as yet very little of the Early Iron Age in the region (Genz 2003; Kealhofer et al. 2009: 275-80). The Middle Iron Age (950-550 BC) is marked by the formation of the Phrygian kingdom in northwest Anatolia and the beginning of Greek colonisation in the Black Sea, which gained momentum towards the end of the period and resulted in the establishment of colonies all along the Anatolian Black Sea coast. Although the origins of the Phrygians are still debated, there is a general consensus that they came to west- central Anatolia during the Early Iron Age and settled along the banks of the Sakarya (the Classical Sangarios) river (Barnett 1975: 417-23; Carrington 1977; Tsetskhladze 2005: 212; Bryce 2009: l-lI). Shortly after their arrival, these groups managed to unite politically and establish a polity centred around the town of Gordion (Roller 2011: 562-3). The rapid development and political and military expansion of this polity fundamentally shapes the Anatolian Middle Iron Age. Phrygia became a regional power, controlling most of central and western Anatolia during the eighth century BC (Muscarella 1995; Voigt and Henrickson 2000). In the late-eighth century BC, during the reign of King Midas, the most famous ruler of this kingdom whose name lives on in Greek mythology, the kingdom was strong enough to fight the Neo-Assyrian empire for control over Cilicia (Akurgal 1962: 372-3; Barnett 1975: 428; Prag 1989; Mellink 1991: 622-4; Vassileva 1997; Roller 2011: 563). However, even at this point in history, when Phrygia controlled large parts of the region of Paphlagonia, it is highly unlikely that their kingdom included the western and central Pontic mountains and the coast to the north. The Phrygian kingdom could not halt the waves of Cimmerians, who invaded Anatolia in the early seventh century BC (Hellmuth 2008; De Vries 2011a: 53-4; Tsetskhladze 2011: 115-120). As a result of this regional instability and possibly attacks on major Phrygian centres, Phrygia lost control over much of Anatolia and 214 The Cide-Şenpazar Region in the Iron Age (ca. 1200 to 325/300 BC)
shrank to its core territory around Gordion (Grayson 1991: 92; Mellink 1991: 624, 629; Ivantchik 2005: 110-12; Bryce 2009: 166; De Vries 2011b: 13-5). The resulting power vacuum allowed the Lydians, centred on Sardis, to gradually expand their territories eastwards (Barnett 1975: 438-9). Simultaneously, Lydia was in conflict with the Ionians along the Aegean coast (Mellink 1991: 647-8). After Lydia defeated the Cimmerian invaders in the late seventh century BC, during the reign of king Alyattes, Lydia managed to expand into Phrygia and by the beginning of the sixth century BC, it reached as far as the Kızılırmak river, the Classical Halys, which remained its eastern border until 547 BC (Hdt. 1. 28; Harmatta 1996: 181; Mellink 1991: 647-53; Bryce 2009: lI). During the final third of the seventh century BC, Ionians from the western coast of Anatolia began to establish colonies on the Black Sea coast (Tsetskhladze 1994; 2002: 81; 2011: 119; Greaves 2007; Mitchell 2010). It is probably not a coincidence that colonisation began after Lydia became the main power in western Anatolia (Akurgal 1962: 373-5). The vast majority of the Black Sea colonies were founded during the sixth century BC, when north-central Anatolia was a border area first between the Lydians and the Medes and subsequently between the Lydians and the Persians. For the Ionian cities, an expanded Lydian realm limited their possibilities to expand their agricultural hinterlands, which they needed in order to sustain their growing populations (Tsetskhladze 1994; 2010: 199). Although the Phrygian kingdom appears not to have controlled the mountains and the coasts of north-central Anatolia, its collapse removed all potential military and political pressures on the region. For Lydia, centred on the Aegean, Cide and Şenpazar must have been extremely peripheral and of little interest. This very remoteness made the area a suitable target for Ionian colonisation. Colonial settlements were typically founded on sheltered locations, which could be easily defended against attacks from land and sea, were located close to fertile agricultural lands, and provided a base from whence expeditions to gather natural resources could be mounted (Carpenter 1948; Graham 1971; Butyagin 2007: 8-11). Greek political and cultural influence in the region appears to have gradually increased. However, a cultural ‘Hellenisation’ of the coastal areas did not occur prior to the mid-late first millennium BC. The Greek colonists of the Iron Age appear to have adapted to local circumstances and became an integral part of the local economy (Tsetskhladze 2002). With the exception of a small number of diagnostic Archaic Greek pottery types, there is little that would allow the definition of a distinctive Greek Black Sea cultural tradition and, as a result, the identification of early colonial populations until the Late Iron Age. By contrast, Greek mythology provides considerable detail about the establishment of colonies (Braund 2002). One interesting example is the story of Herakles expelling the Amazons from Sinop in order to settle Greeks there (Tabula Albana FGH 40 F.1a; Braund 2010: 18-9). This city also had a foundation myth about a nymph named Sinope, who gave it her name (Hind 1988; Braund 2002: 74). However, North and North-Central Anatolia in the Iron Age – The Historical Perspective 215
Strabo (Strab. 12. 3. 11) claims that the people of Sinop thought of Autolycus as its founder, and that the Milesians settled there much later. The Milesian colony at Sinop, which can be safely identified with modern Sinop, was one of the first Ionian colonies founded on the Turkish central Black Sea coast (Drews 1976: 18; Doonan 2004: 69-92). As a major commercial centre, Sinop subsequently also founded its own colonies along the Black Sea coast (Bryce 2009: 655; Tsetskhladze 2009). Kytoros, which can be located at Gideros harbour to the west of modern Cide, was one of Sinop’s new foundations (Avram et al. 2004: 955, 959; Doonan 2006; Mitchell 2010: 93) and trading centre (emporion) (Strab. 12. 3. 10). Others have suggested that it was founded directly by Milesians (Burstein 1976: 12-5, 76, 79). Kytoros was famous for its boxwood, which is mentioned in various ancient Greek sources (Strab. 12. 3. 10, Apollon 2. 942; McGing 1986: 1; Ersal 1994: 28; Avram et al. 2004: 959; Şenol 2006: 40; Arslan 2007: 52) and in the following Hellenistic period, the high-quality boxwood tools and furniture from this area became an important trade commodity (Hannestad 2007: 96-7; see also chapter 9). The copper sources of the Pontic mountains may also have been exploited by Greek colonists (De Jesus 1978: 98; Koçak 2006: 44-5, 60). During the Late Iron Age (550-330 BC), much of Anatolia was under Achaemenid control, which ended with the conquests of Alexander the Great. Northern Anatolia became a part of the Achaemenid empire after Croesus of Lydia was defeated by Cyrus in 547 BC. The Lydian kingdom was then turned into two satrapies: one with Sardis and the other with Daskyleion as their capitals (Dandamaev 1989: 20-27; Briant 2002: 36-7). The parts of Paphlagonia, which were under Persian control, were incorporated into the ‘major’ satrapies of Phrygia and Cappadocia (Cook 1983: 78; Brosius 2010: 29, n.3). Quintus Curtius Rufus mentions the existence of a ‘minor’ satrapy of Paphlagonia, with Ancyra (modern Ankara) at its southern edge, suggesting an administrative re-organisation of Achaemenid Paphlagonia (Curt. Alex. 3. 1. 22). However, Persia most likely exerted relatively little direct political control over the Pontic mountains and the Paphlagonian coast, but instead ruled the area through local dynasts, who were more or less autonomous and mostly loyal to their imperial overlords (Cook 1983: 182, 201; Burtstein 1976: 26-72). It should also be noted that due to its peripheral location, some Paphlagonian rulers could resist imperial orders and demands. One example is Otys, king of the Paphlagonians, who did not heed the order of Artaxerxes II to attack the Spartans headed by Agesilaos that were roaming in the area (Cook 1983: 214). At the same time, there are no reports hinting at any sort of trouble for Achaemenid rule on the Black Sea. Herodotus reports that Paphlagonians of the minor satrapy of Daskyleion (Hellespontine Phrygia, also Xen. Hell. 4. 1. 15) served in the army of Xerxes I in 480 BC in his Greek campaign (Hdt. 7. 72; Cook 1983: 201). Artoxares, a Paphlagonian eunuch, is known to have become a wealthy high official, and part of the private circle of king Artaxerxes (Cook 1983: 129-30, 136). Paphlagonian soldiers fought to take back Lydia from Antigonus, a general of Alexander, even after Darius 216 The Cide-Şenpazar Region in the Iron Age (ca. 1200 to 325/300 BC)
was defeated at Issus (Curt. Alex. 4. 1. 34-35; Briant 2002: 829). Textual sources also indicate that Persian and Paphlagonian nobles intermarried (Sekunda 1991: 141). At the end of the sixth century BC, Persia gained control over the Hellespont and with it, maritime trade between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (Dandamaev 1989: 157). This might have contributed to the Ionian revolt of the early fifth century BC, as it affected shipments between the Ionian cities and their Black Sea colonies (Barron 1962; Evans 1963; Walinga 1984). Persian control over the Hellespont did not equate, however, with Persian control over the Black Sea coast. In the early fourth century BC, Datame, the satrap of Cappadocia, defeated Thuys, the king of the Paphlagonians, and possibly a cousin of Datame, and expanded his control as far as the Black Sea coast (Cook 1983: 182, 217, 221; Hornblower 1994: 221; Briant 2002: 198-9, 650-51). Datame had coins minted at Sinop following his conquest, which suggests a temporary foothold in the area. He subsequently revolted against Achaemenid rule, but was eventually defeated (Cook 1983: 221; Alram 1986: 110, no. 344; Moysey 1986: 25, pls. 5, 61; Briant 2002: 666). The coins struck by Persian generals at Sinop around 332 BC as well as amphorae bearing sealings with Persian names and Sinopean subjects of Darius, indicate that this part of the Black Sea coast was under firm Achaemenid control (Xen. Anab. 4. 24. 4; Curt. Alex. 6. 5. 6; Akurgal and Budde 1956; Burstein 1976: 70; Hornblower 1994: 221; Briant 2002: 699). Alexander the Great, for instance, did not perceive Sinop as a part of the Greek league (Burstein 1976; Hornblower 1994: 221; Briant 2002: 699). Alexander never conquered Paphlagonia as he turned south to Cilicia from Phrygia (Cook 1983: 202, 226; Hornblower 1994: 805). Even after the battle of Issus the area was partially under Persian control (Curt. Alex. 4. 1. 34-35; Hornblower 1994: 808; Briant 2002: 829, 831). Only with Persia’s defeat at Gaugamela did the Achaemenid political and military hold over the region begin to wane (Cook 1983: 227-8; Dandamaev 1989: 326-7; Hornblower 1994: 860). At the end of the fourth century BC, Kytoros was united with the colonies at Sesamos, Kromna and Tieion to form the polis of Amastris (Strab. 12. 3. 10; Burstein 1976: 76, 79; Otto et al. 1991: 95-6; Cohen 1995: 383; Stolba 2003: 279; Avram et al. 2004: 925-6, 960). This union is a clear indication that Kytoros already had close ties with the other Greek colonies in the area at the end of the Iron Age and that it was important enough to be a peer in this union.
8.2 North and North-Central Anatolia in the Iron Age – The Archaeological Evidence
The study of the central and north-central Anatolian Early Iron Age, its material culture and relationship with the preceding period’s cultural traditions is as yet in its infancy. At Boğazköy, wheelmade Late Bronze Age pottery continued to be produced following the abandonment of the city by the Hittite court, but now these vessels were North and North-Central Anatolia in the Iron Age – The Archaeological Evidence 217
also burnished (Genz 2004; 2005). At Gordion, Late Bronze Age pottery is gradually replaced by a new, undecorated handmade tradition of simple bowls, jars and pots, which are mostly burnished with occasional incisions/impressions (Kealhofer and Grave 2011: 431). Based on formal and technological similarities with Early-Middle Bronze Age pottery, some scholars have proposed the possibility of cultural continuity in marginal regions of the Hittite empire, such as the Pontic mountains, and the re-emergence of these traditions following Hittite collapse (Genz 2004: 49; 2005: 82; Glatz and Matthews 2005; chapter 7). By contrast, surveys and excavations in the Turkish central Black Sea region, to date, have not yielded any distinctive Early Iron Age material. This could be interpreted in a number of ways. The first possibility is that local ceramic traditions existed, but have yet to be recognised; the second is that we are dealing with an aceramic period in this area; and another still is that the region was de facto devoid of settlement during the Early Iron Age (Işın 1998: 110; Dönmez 2003: 214; 2005: 68; Matthews 2009: 152). Whatever the underlying cause of this intriguing pattern, the evidence suggests dramatic cultural changes in the wider region following the end of the Late Bronze Age (Sherratt 1998; Singer 2000; Yakar 2006). These are not restricted to pottery alone, but can be traced also in house architecture at sites such as Boğazköy, Çadır Höyük, Gordion and Kaman-Kalehöyük, where the Early Iron Age is characterised by semi-subterranean structures. At Gordion, the paucity of Early Iron Age pottery has often been related to the migration of the Phrygians into the area (Voigt 1994: 276; Henrickson 1994; Muscarella 1995: 94; Voigt and Henrickson 2000: 46; Voigt 2002: 192). Red wares decorated with triangles, trees, and dots make their appearance at the end of the Early Iron Age at both Çadır Höyük and Boğazköy-Büyükkaya. Ceramics with similar motifs from Oluz Höyük, dated to the end of the Early Iron Age or the start of the Middle Iron Age, may also belong to this tradition (Dönmez 2010: 292, fig. 42-3). A popular type of cooking pot from the later part of the Early Iron Age has distinctive horseshoe shaped handles and strainers (Seeher 2000; Kealhofer and Grave 2011: 427). The assemblages from Boğazköy and Gordion provide us with a good understanding of the Middle Iron Age pottery of north-central Anatolia. In this period, wheelmade pottery becomes common and a great variety of forms were manufactured with a special emphasis on jugs and juglets (Kealhofer and Grave 2011: 420-21; Genz 2011: 346, 349). It seems that some Early Iron Age traditions also survived into this period, but new wares and forms including trefoil jugs, whole-mouth jars with interior rim-ledge, and craters also appear (Henrickson 1994: 111; Bossert 2000; Genz 2004: 48). Painted wares became popular at Gordion (Sams 1994; Kealhofer and Grave 2011: 431-2), Pazarlı (Koşay and Akok 1957), and are also attested at surveyed sites in Tokat and Sivas (Durbin 1971). No painted ceramics were found during surveys in the regions further to the north, however, including the Project Paphlagonia survey, 218 The Cide-Şenpazar Region in the Iron Age (ca. 1200 to 325/300 BC)
where other Middle Iron Age pottery types were found. This might hint at regional cultural differences (Burney 1956; Marro et al. 1998; Matthews 2009: 153). The only exception to this are the painted beak-spouted jugs from Amisos near Samsun, which together with examples of local pottery, can be compared to central Anatolian types (Bossert 2000; Summerer 2005a: figs. 8-10; 2005b). Undecorated north-central Anatolian ceramics are also reported from Sinop (Nohutluk) and found together with early sixth century BC east Greek and Attic vases. These finds are probably best understood as indicators of a trade link with the Kızılırmak basin rather than as a north-central Anatolian cultural sphere extending into this coastal area (Akurgal and Budde 1956: 49, pls. 2-3; Doonan 2004: 4-14, 88-9). The common brown on buff pottery of this period were mostly decorated either with geometric designs or with stylised animals (Kealhofer and Grave 2011: 421). The Alishar IV silhouette style pottery decorated with stylised animals and circles, which appear at the beginning of the Middle Iron Age, can also be linked with this pottery tradition which is found at Alişar Höyük, Çadır Höyük, Gordion and Kaman-Kalehöyük (Akurgal 1955: pls. 1-7; Young 1960: 235, pl. 58, fig. 15; Kenneth 1994; Matsumura 2001; Genz 2001; 2011: 349). Pottery with decorations similar to examples from Late Iron Age levels at Oluz Höyük possibly belong to a later continuation of the same tradition (Dönmez 2010: 290, figs.36-40). The ceramic hallmark of this period is the so-called Phrygian grey ware, which refers to vessels with a fine, mineral tempered fabric and a burnished, soapy textured shiny surface (Summers 1994: 241; Matsunaga and Nakai 2000). The best examples of this pottery come from Gordion, but some types are also found in north-central Anatolia, in particular vessels with crater rims with interior ledges (Sams 1994; Summers 1994; Voigt et al. 1997: 14; Matthews 2009: 153-4). Examples from Boğazköy- Büyükkale, Maşat Höyük, Kültepe, and Kaman-Kalehöyük can be dated to the eighth century BC, although they may have appeared slightly earlier at Boğazköy (Genz 2004: table 6). This ware was most common in west-central Anatolia. Sites to the east and south of the Kızılırmak river have yielded relatively few examples (Sams 1994: 177; Matsumura 2000: 121, 2001: 101; Omura 2000: 47, 2001: 48). In areas where grey wares are not common, brown on buff decorated wares were more popular (Kealhofer and Grave 2011: 420-21). In the north, the Delice river is generally thought to delimit the extent of this tradition (Omura 2002: 61), and although grey ware has been found further to the north, finds densities are much lower than in the more southerly regions and close to the Phrygian heartland (Kealhofer 2005). There are no grey ware finds reported from Sinop (although a small number of sherds were identified as Late Phrygian: Işın 1998: 98, 110, table 1). A vessel from Oluz Höyük, probably dating to the very end of the Middle Iron Age, may belong to this ware (Dönmez 2010: 284, fig. 32), as does pottery from Yüklütepe in the Gökırmak valley of Kastamonu (Johnson 2011: 196). The area surrounding Yüklütepe also has many tumuli, which have been assigned to the Phrygian period and tradition. The majority of surveyed sites with evidence for Phrygian grey ware in Kastamonu North and North-Central Anatolia in the Iron Age – The Archaeological Evidence 219
however, tend to be located near the Araç Çay, to the north of the Ilgaz mountains (Marro et al. 1996: 284; Kuzucuoğlu et al. 1997: 288; Marro et al. 1998: 322; Dönmez 2006: 17). Grey ware pottery is reported from nine sites in Çankırı (Matthews 2009: 153-4) and in the adjacent province of Çorum, grey wares and painted Iron Age pottery increase further in frequency (Yıldırım and Sipahi 2004: 310). The process of consolidation of the Ionian Black Sea colonies, which were first established during the late seventh century BC, seems to have started during the sixth century BC. Amphorae from Heraclea Pontica, and Sinopan amphorae, amphora stamps, and coins dating to subsequent centuries, can be found all along the Black Sea coast and beyond in the Mediterranean, but not in inland Anatolia. Greek colonial settlements in the Black Sea, thus, maintained close maritime contact, but contact and exchange appears not to have significantly penetrated the mountainous hinterland of the Turkish coast (Garlan 2000; Monakhov 2003: 123-60; Tsetskhladze 2009; Finkielsztejn 2011). Native settlements such as Amisos and İkiztepe had closer cultural ties with inland Anatolia (Tsetskhladze 2007: 173, 186-91; Summerer 2007: 29). However, Archaic Greek pottery found at sites in the Kızılırmak bend indicates that there was some interaction between the north-central Anatolian and the Aegean worlds in this period (Summerer 2007). Examples of Greek pottery include a bird-bowl, dating to the mid-seventh century BC, now in Amasya Museum, Milesian and Corinthian pottery from Boğazköy, a fragment of a Milesian vase from Alişar Höyük, and a Protogeometric sherd from Kaman-Kalehöyük. Earlier imports may well have arrived from the Aegean rather than the Black Sea (Boysal 1959; Summerer 2005a: fig. 1-3; Tsetskhladze 2007: 165-73, 2010: 200). Mycenaean pottery found at Boğazköy and Maşat Höyük point to an overland connection in the Late Bronze Age (Bittel 1976: 9-14; Özgüç 1980). At Akalan, which is 18km inland from Amisos, two late seventh century BC Milesian jugs (middle wild goat style II) were found together with local pottery, which are similar to the examples found at Amisos (Macridy 1907: 5; Summerer 2005b: 135). The early east Greek bird-bowl mentioned above was probably part of a funerary assemblage and was found in the village of Dalsaray near Mecitözü, further inland (Summerer 2007: 30, fig. 1). The Milesian and Corinthian pottery from Boğazköy and a Milesian vase fragment from Alişar Höyük are from the mid-seventh century BC. A fragment of an Attic crater from Kaman-Kalehöyük is from the sixth century BC. At Kaman-Kalehöyük, however, much earlier protogeometric sherds are also attested (von der Osten 1937: pls. 3, 9; Bossert 2000: pl. 143, 1351, 1350a-c; Matsumura 2000: fig. 28). Late Archaic style architectural terracottas found at sites along the course of the Kızılırmak also give an idea about the nature of north-central Anatolian-Greek cultural interactions in this period (Summerer 2005b; 2007: 31). The motifs on clay revetment plaques found with roof tiles and simas2 at Akalan include guilloches,
2 These are architectural elements placed at the edges of roofs, and have an upturned shape and act as a gutter. 220 The Cide-Şenpazar Region in the Iron Age (ca. 1200 to 325/300 BC)
meanders and lotus-palmettes similar to the Amisos examples. One example also contained scenes depicting Herakles and Pholos (Macridy 1907; Summerer 2005a: 1-2, fig. 4-6, pl. 69; 2007: fig. 3). Lion simas resembling Milesian examples were both found at Akalan and Köyiçi Tepesi, which is further inland in Ladik district (Summerer 2007: fig. 4; 2008: 269-70). However, Köyiçi Tepesi, where revetment plaques painted with guilloche and lotus motifs similar to those at Akalan were found, also yielded a relief plaque depicting the Anatolian theme of two antithetical wild goats with a tree in between. This is probably a scene adapted from Ionian vase paintings (Summerer 2005b; 2007: 32, fig. 5) and may reflect increasing Anatolian cultural influences as one moves away from the sea. At Pazarlı Tepe, however, only Greek-style roof tiles, including painted terracotta relief plaques, antefixes, spouted eave tiles and square shaped revetment plaques, were encountered (Özsait 2003: 276; Summerer 2005b). This makes Pazarlı, which is located 40km north of Boğazköy, clearly different from the examples mentioned above and more similar to Gordion and Düver (Koşay 1941). The plaques at the site, which also yielded terracotta peg mosaics similar to the ones from the Archaic levels of Gordion, do not depict floral decorations but only warriors with Ionian helmets and the scene with wild goats flanking a tree (Koşay 1941: 14-5, pl. 8, 21-3; Young 1965: 12; Summerer 2007: fig. 6-7). This seems to suggest a cultural watershed between coastal and inland traditions along the Tavşan mountains and with Pazarlı closely associated with the coastal sphere. Kaman-Kalehöyük also yielded painted simas and spouted eave tiles similar to those from Pazarlı, but the Boğazköy roof tiles lack decoration. No tiles were found at Alişar Höyük, Maşat Höyük, Eskiyapar, Kerkenes Dağ and Kuşaklı (Meyer 1940: fig. 18-20; Åkerström 1966: 190-91, fig. 63; Summerer 2007: 33-4). Archaic red slip cover tiles found together with grey ware sherds at Yüklütepe in the Gökırmak valley to the north of the Ilgaz mountains (Johnson 2011: 196) also form part of the north-central Anatolian or Phrygian tile tradition, which reached its maturity in the sixth century BC (Glendinning 2002). This is a hybrid style incorporating Ionian and Anatolian elements. Examples from Gordion, for instance, are decorated with geometric designs, hunting scenes, hybrid creatures and lions. The general absence of such tiles from the region to the north of the Kızılırmak points to limited Phrygian cultural presence or influence. An exception is the Samsun area further north, which constitutes a strategic communication corridor to and from the Black Sea, where Phrygian roof tiles are attested. To sum up, we can recognise an increasing Greek cultural presence in and influence on the material culture of the Turkish Black Sea coast and to a lesser degree also the northern regions of central Anatolia. Greek colonists were interested in acquiring minerals such as sinopis (a type of red ochre) and a yellowish red pigment called sandarak from the Samsun area and the Kızılırmak basin. The resulting trade may in part explain the spread of Greek pottery and architectural features along this part of the coast and up-river (Lepik-Kopaczynska 1958: 86; Mehl 1987: 119-20; Summerer 2007: 35). Archaeological evidence for the Late Iron Age is scarce from northern Anatolia. The increasing level of west Anatolian ceramic influence manifests itself in painted The Iron Ages in Cide and Şenpazar 221
decorations on white panels, polychrome decorations, red banded wares and distinctive ceramic types found at Gordion, Boğazköy, Çadır Höyük and Kerkenes (Voigt et al. 1997: fig. 30; Genz 2001: fig. 4; Kealhofer et al. 2010: 75-6; Kealhofer and Grave 2011: 421, 427, 432). In Gordion, fine wares reflect a level of Achaemenid influence but the more common utilitarian wares show continuity from the Middle Iron Age (Henrickson 1993: 147; 1994: 113-4; Voigt et al. 1997: 16; Voigt and Young 1999: 192). The most diagnostic pottery type from this period is the Achaemenid-style carinated bowl, which was found in surface assemblages around Gordion and in inner Paphlagonia, and which resembles Achaemenid metal vessels from Hasanlu in western Iran (Henrickson 1994: fig. 10.9b; Dyson 1999: 102, fig. 1; Matthews 2009: 156, fig. 5.14:3, 5.16:9-10). A Late Iron Age painted pottery tradition from İkiztepe appears to be confined to the coastal region (Bilgi 1999). Another popular Late Iron Age pottery group, which appears to have its roots in the Middle Iron Age and may well have evolved from grey ware traditions, consists of black polished (black lustrous) wares. Examples found at Boğazköy, Çadır Höyük, Gordion and Kaman-Kalehöyük were produced in and distributed from several regional production centres (Henrickson et al. 2002; Kealhofer et al. 2008: 202-3, 2009, 2010; Matsumura 2008; Kealhofer and Grave 2011: 426, 428, 432). Vessel surfaces are not burnished or polished but achieve their lustrous finish through a sintered slip. The majority of attested examples are table wares with bowls, goblets, small pots and jugs the most popular forms (Kealhofer et al. 2008: 203). The Achaemenid fortress of Kaletepesi in the Gökırmak valley has yielded a fourth century BC black gloss kantharos and a fine black burnished phiale (Johnson 2011: 197-8). The use of this ware to produce Achaemenid pottery types shows that both Achaemenid and northwest- central Anatolian ceramic traditions were known north of the Ilgaz mountains. At Gordion, spouted eave tiles became common during this period but no clear parallels are attested from adjacent regions (Glendinning 1996). A piece showing a part of a lion with a curled tail, which was found during the Project Paphlagonia survey, was dated to the Late Iron Age (Matthews 2009: 156, fig. 5.7, 5.14:17).
8.3 The Iron Ages in Cide and Şenpazar
Archaeological evidence from Cide and Şenpazar, which can be dated with varying degrees of confidence to the Iron Ages, comes from both cave and surface contexts. Iron Age pottery was found in the Okçular and Abdulkadir valleys, Okçular Kale İni (S24), the Çamdibi area, Kılıçlı Mağarası (S88/S93), Derebağ Köy Mağarası (S188) and the Aybasan area. Most notable in terms of overall patterns is the almost complete absence of Iron Age pottery finds from the coastal area, which may well be due to taphonomic processes. Some geologists, on the basis of data from the northern shores of the Black Sea, have proposed a dramatic sea level rise at the end of the Iron Age that would have submerged many first millennium BC sites (Fedorov 1972; 1977; 222 The Cide-Şenpazar Region in the Iron Age (ca. 1200 to 325/300 BC)
Kondrashov 1995; Porotov 2007; Balabanov 2009). More recent studies, however, suggest that sea levels did not change quite so dramatically overall, but that parts of the Black Sea coast are affected by microtectonics, causing localised coastal changes (Brückner et al. 2010; Fouache et al. 2012; section 2.1.3). Iron Age finds are more readily attested in the hinterland valleys of Çamdibi, Aybasan and the cave of Derebağ Köy Mağarası in the northeast of the survey region. Kılıçlı Mağarası in the Çamdibi area is the only location, which appears to be in use throughout the Iron Age. At all other sites, such as Okçular Kale Ini and Derebağ Köy Magarası, occupation or use appears to have been more punctuated. Before embarking on a more detailed discussion of the Cide and Şenpazar ceramic data, it is worth reiterating here that the Iron Age material collected in the course of the Cide Archaeological Project (CAP) are few in number and very difficult to date with accuracy. As a result, all dates put forward here are to be regarded as tentative and the division into Early, Middle and Late Iron Age as provisional. Much of the dating presented here is based on the generalisation that handmade pottery was produced primarily during the Early Iron Age, and that wheelmade pottery dates to the later phases of the Iron Age. Iron Age dates were also assigned through comparisons with earlier and later pottery traditions from the Cide region and, where possible, published comparanda.
8.3.1 Iron Age I
Evidence for the Early Iron Age comes primarily from the cave sites of Derebağ Köy Mağarası (S188) and Okçular Kale İni (S24) (Fig. 8.1). The pottery is coarse, dark purple brown3 and dark brownish red4 in colour (Fig. 8.2). Medium coarse examples have a brownish grey5 colour and were found at Derebağ Köy, and also occur in finer fabrics. Other finer examples, possibly dating to this period are brown in colour6 and were found at the Kılıçlı and Derebağ Köy caves and at Aybasan, a finer orange coloured sherd7 and several reddish brown ceramics8 also come from Derebağ Köy Mağarası. Jars with ledge or simple rounded rims are the most common formal type. Pots usually have an everted rim, which are often flattened on the top, and can be thickened. A carinated bowl shape with an externally thickened rim was also recovered. Derebağ Köy Mağarası (S188) is the only place where all of these formal types were found in the same assemblage. Some of the pottery from Derebağ Köy is very
3 C4155. 4 C2919 (Fig. 8.2), C4197, C4209-4210 (Fig. 8.2), C4212, C4228 (Fig. 8.2), C4229 (Fig. 8.2). 5 C3972, C4170, C4171, C4194, C4196, C4199, C4213. 6 C3611, C3638 (Fig.8.2), C3965, C4031-4032, C4033, C4035 (Fig. 8.2), C4036, C4037, C4165 (Fig. 8.2). 7 C4198. 8 C3971, C4166 (Fig. 8.2), C4168, C4169, C4220 (Fig.8.2). The Iron Ages in Cide and Şenpazar 223
0 5 10 Km
Derebağ Köy Mağarası Okçular Kale İni Aybasan
Çamdibi
Fig. 8.1: Map of Cide and Şenpazar showing the locations of Early Iron Age finds. Produced by Toby C. Wilkinson distinctive and includes a dark brownish horizontal handle with black mineral temper reminiscent of the volcanic sand of the Sinop region. Another brown sherd from Derebağ Köy is a horned handle, with a protruding tip on the carination (Fig. 8.3).9 Although it is hard to pinpoint exact parallels, pots with horned handles are known from Greece and Italy during the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age and our example could point to contact with the west (Hencken 1968: 478, 480, figs. 425-6; Vagnetti 1985: 31-2; Moschos 2009: 380; MacIntoch Turfa 2011: 119; Romanos 2011: 72, 94, 111, 145). Another brown sherd was decorated with grooves on the exterior. The most interesting specimen is an almost complete brownish grey, crude one-handled cup,10 which resembles Early Iron Age pottery from Boğazköy- Büyükkale (Genz 2003; 2004). Like the ceramics known from Early Iron Age north-central Anatolia, the Derebağ Köy vessels are simple, handmade, and often burnished but otherwise undecorated. We have no evidence in Cide or Şenpazar for the red painted pottery, which became popular in north-central Anatolia towards the end of the Early Iron Age.
9 C4037 (Fig. 8.2 and 8.3). 10 C3972 (Fig.8.3). 224 The Cide-Şenpazar Region in the Iron Age (ca. 1200 to 325/300 BC)
Fig. 8.2: Early Iron Age pottery from Cide. Produced by Lorraine McEwan. The Iron Ages in Cide and Şenpazar 225
Fig. 8.3: Early Iron Age cup and handle from Derebağ Köy Mağarası (S188). Produced by Lorraine McEwan.
8.3.2 Iron Age II
Most of our Iron Age ceramics seem to belong to the middle phase, and can be differentiated from Early and Late Iron Age ceramics in terms of fabrics, manufacturing technique and firing (Fig. 8.4). Fabric colours and forms are much more varied compared to the Early Iron Age, with grey the dominant fabric colour. With the exception of one fragment from Çamdibi, which has an externally thickened rim that was flattened on the top and slightly sloping down towards the edge, no formal types could be identified (Fig. 8.5).11 Some sherds with grooves are, however, of interest.
11 C3599 (Fig. 8.5). 226 The Cide-Şenpazar Region in the Iron Age (ca. 1200 to 325/300 BC)
0 5 10 Km
Derebağ Köy Mağarası Okçular Kale İni
Çamdibi Abdulkadir Okçular
Kılıçlı Mağarası
Fig. 8.4: Map of Cide and Şenpazar showing the locations of Middle Iron Age finds. Produced by Toby C. Wilkinson.
Fig. 8.5: Middle Iron Age pottery from Cide. Produced by Lorraine McEwan.
A fragment of what is probably Phrygian grey ware was found in the Abdulkadir valley.12 The dark brownish grey13 and light reddish brown14 sherds from the Çamdibi area and the Kılıçlı and Derebağ Köy caves appear to be the main coarse ware ceramics
12 C1037. 13 C3060 (Fig. 8.5), C4003, C4022. 14 C3179, C4222, C4223. The Iron Ages in Cide and Şenpazar 227
from this period. The dark brown grey ceramics may be related to the Early Iron Age brownish grey pottery, although the earlier ceramics only occurred in medium and fine fabrics. One light reddish brown sherd from Derebağ Köy15 appears to have faded traces of red paint on its exterior surface. Fragments of light grey ceramics,16 a handmade pale red pottery17 from Okçular Kale İni, together with examples of orange18 and light orange pottery19 from Kılıçlı Mağarası and the Okçular valley respectively appear to constitute the medium fine fabrics of the period. The medium fine orange ceramics might be a continuation of similar Early Iron Age fabrics, and examples of both occur in Kılıçlı Mağarası. A brownish grey20 and a reddish brown21 fragment from Kılıçlı appear to represent the only fine ware of the Middle Iron Age. However, reddish brown ceramics also occur in medium and coarse fabrics at Kılıçlı,22 and brownish grey medium fine fabrics are attested at Kılıçlı and the Okçular valley.23 A single body fragment of what appears to be Phrygian grey ware is impossible to interpret in cultural terms, but it is most plausibly an import from further south. The red painted piece from Derebağ Köy hypothetically represents another link, perhaps a local version of Middle Iron Age north-central Anatolian painted wares. We recorded no Archaic Greek pottery or Middle Iron Age roof tiles in Cide and Şenpazar. This is remarkable, given that the Greek colonisation of the Black Sea coasts occurs in this period. This may be due to a number of factors. In light of the repeated mentions of anchorages such as Kytoros/Gideros in Greek sources, the most plausible explanations are that, for reasons to do with our survey methods and focus as well as environmental conditions and taphonomy, we did not record any Greek colonial sites. Alternatively, such sites may have used primarily local material culture.
8.3.3 Iron Age III
As with previous phases, only a small number of sherds could be assigned to the Late Iron Age (Fig. 8.6), and once again it is hard to talk about popular forms. Pottery shapes we can identify include flat-based jars and deep bowls with simple curved rims (Fig. 8.7).
15 C4223. 16 C2900. 17 C2893. 18 C3191. 19 C1415. 20 C3167. 21 C3182 (Fig. 8.5). 22 C3162, C3169. 23 C931, C3599. 228 The Cide-Şenpazar Region in the Iron Age (ca. 1200 to 325/300 BC)
0 5 10 Km
Cide
Okçular Kale İni
Okçular
Kılıçlı Mağarası
Fig. 8.6: Map of Cide and Şenpazar showing the locations of Late Iron Age finds. Produced by Toby C. Wilkinson.
Fig. 8.7: Late Iron Age pottery from Cide and Şenpazar. Produced by Lorraine McEwan. Locales of the Cide Iron Age 229
Fabric colours vary greatly: a reddish brown sherd with a coarse to medium fine fabric from Kılıçlı Mağarası resembles examples from the preceding period.24 Sherds of medium fine fabric occur in greyish brown25 at Kılıçlı, and light-red26 in the vicinity of Cide. The greyish brown ceramics might represent a continuation of the fine brownish grey and even the dark brown grey ceramics of the Middle Iron Age from Kılıçlı. A pale pink sherd27 from Okçular valley and a yellow buff fragment28 from Aybasan have both fine fabrics. The yellow buff sherd is the only potentially Late Iron Age example found in the Şenpazar district. The Late Iron Age ceramics of Cide and Şenpazar, if correctly identified as such, seem to have a completely local character with elements of continuity tentatively recognisable in fabric types and colours. No examples of black polished wares or painted pottery types popular in western Anatolia were found; also not attested are elements of Achaemenid culture such as pottery, architectural remains or rock- cut tombs, no doubt indications of the peripheral nature of the region to both the west Anatolian and Achaemenid worlds. More surprising, as mentioned above, is the complete absence of indications of Greek colonial activities in the area.
8.4 Locales of the Cide Iron Age
8.4.1 Gideros
The natural harbour of modern Gideros is the most plausible location for the Greek trading post of Kytoros (Avram et al. 2004: 959; Tsetskhladze 2007: 177, note 35). While no unequivocal Iron Age architectural or material remains were found at the cove of Gideros or in its surroundings, the monumental walls, which form the base of the defences of Gideros Kale West (S12) (chapters 11 and 14), are constructed without the use of mortar and may, therefore, date back to the Iron Age (Fig. 8.8).
8.4.2 Iron Age Caves
Most of the Iron Age material collected during CAP comes from the cave sites of Okçular Kale İni (S24, Fig. 5.11), Derebağ Köy (S188, Fig. 8.9) and Kılıçlı Mağarası (S88/S93, Fig. 7.4). Okçular Kale İni and Derebağ Köy Mağarası yielded pottery that may be assigned a date in the Early and Middle Iron Ages, whereas the Kılıçlı finds
24 C3172 (Fig. 8.7). 25 C3607 (Fig. 8.7), C3609. 26 C3795. 27 C3908. 28 C3743 (Fig. 8.7). 230 The Cide-Şenpazar Region in the Iron Age (ca. 1200 to 325/300 BC)
Fig. 8.8: Wall built of large dry-stone blocks at the base of Gideros Kale West (S12). (CAP-P1/1092). include pottery from all three sub-phases. Among these, Derebağ Köy Mağarası, is of particular interest because of the connections some of its material provide with the Early Iron Age assemblage at Boğazköy on the one hand, and, more tentatively, with Greece on the other. The fact that most of our evidence comes from cave sites does not mean, of course, that the Iron Age inhabitants of the area lived in caves. There must have been contemporary settlements in Cide and Şenpazar, which we have not been able to locate during surface survey. Evidence from other caves in Anatolia attest to both habitation and the ritual use of caves by Iron Age communities. For example, the famous Prehistoric cave of Karain, in southern Turkey, has an Iron Age level (Storch et al. 1992; Atici 2009; Kartal 2009: 24). The Köroğlu (Tauraz) caves near Sivas and the Locales of the Cide Iron Age 231
Fig. 8.9: Derebağ Köy Mağarası (S188) (CAP-P15/300).
İnbükü cave near Samsun were also in use during the Iron Age (von der Osten 1930b: 55-6; Yılmaz 2012: 14-6). Of interest also is the nearby Mızrak Mağarası, in which a Late Bronze Age sword was found (Ünal 1999) and which may have served a ritual purpose. The Early Bronze Age assemblage from Kıllıçlı Mağarası may also point at ritual or other socially significant uses (chapter 6). The ritual use of caves in the wider region may have continued into the Iron Age and inspired the construction of rock-cut monuments and chambers, which were used both for offerings and burials (Fol 2008; Vassileva 2012). The Phrygian goddess Kybele was associated with sacred caves and neighbouring Paphlagonian communities may have also regarded caves as holy places (Cox 1990: 395). According to Xenophon, Herakles entered the netherworld through caves located in the vicinity of Heraclea Pontika, and this might reflect older ideas about caves in the region (Xen. Anab. 6. 2. 2; Asheri and Hoepfner 1972:38-41). Changing climatic conditions during the Iron Age, which resulted in drier and colder winters (Göktürk 2011: 56, 77), may also have resulted in an increased use of caves as habitation sites. On the Crimean peninsula, on the opposite side of the Black Sea, a cave site of the Kizil-Koba culture was inhabited from the ninth until the sixth century BC (Golomshtok 1938: 433-4; Burov 1997: 129-30; Carter et al. 2000: 709, Bilde et al. 2007-2008: 140). Chokurcha is another cave located in this area and was occupied 232 The Cide-Şenpazar Region in the Iron Age (ca. 1200 to 325/300 BC)
during the same period (Golomshtok 1938: 259-61). Location and morphology of the Cide caves, however, would make longer-term habitation rather unlikely (chapters 5 and 6).
8.5 Final Remarks
To sum up, the archaeological evidence from Cide and Şenpazar, sparse as it is, suggests that the historically attested events and processes taking place elsewhere in Anatolia during the final centuries of the second and much of the first millennium BC had little effect on this region. The Iron Age inhabitants of our survey area seem to have been effectively beyond the cultural and political spheres of influence of both west and central Anatolian kingdoms and more distant imperial and colonial powers, and retained a strongly local cultural character throughout this period. The Early Iron Age pottery from Derebağ Köy Mağarası points to some form of contact with north-central Anatolia, and perhaps with the eastern Mediterranean, as does a coarse Phrygian grey ware sherd for the Middle Iron Age. Puzzling is the absence of evidence for any Greek colonial presence at Kytoros/Gideros and elsewhere in the region. Our Late Iron Age materials also do not reflect any Greek or Achaemenid presence or influences, despite a rather strong Achaemenid cultural presence just to the south of the Küre mountains in the form of rock monuments and pottery (Summerer and von Kienlin 2010).
Catalogue of Illustrated Artefacts
Early Iron Age C2919. S24. Rim. Dark red medium coarse vessel with medium grit and some medium angular quartz. Black slipped and burnished on the exterior and smoothed on the interior. Differential firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 5/3, interior surface 10 R 4/4. D= 12cm. C3611. S88. Body sherd. Grey fine vessel with sparse, small, rounded white grit. Smoothed on the exterior and light orange brown burnished on the interior. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 6/6, interior surface 2.5 YR 6/8. D= unknown. C3638. S88. Rim. Brown medium fine vessel with dense small to medium well-sorted sub-angular quartz and grit. Smoothed and reddish brown burnished on the exterior. Reduced firing. Handmade (?). Exterior surface 2.5 YR 5/2, interior surface 2.5 YR 5/3. D= unknown. C3965. U2127. Handle. Brown coarse vessel with very dense small to medium sub-angular quartz, and purplish and white grit. No surface treatment. Oxidised firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 6/6, interior surface 5 YR 6/6. D= unknown. C3971. S188. Body sherd. Reddish brown coarse vessel with a dark grey core, biscuit fabric, and large lime particles. Smoothed and reddish brown burnished on both sides. Differential firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 6/8, interior surface 2.5 YR 5/6. D= unknown. C3972. S188. Whole profile (rim, body, base and handle). Brownish grey coarse vessel with a medium hard fabric, some lime and fine grit. Smoothed and brownish grey burnished on both sides. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 7.5 YR 7/6, interior surface 7.5 YR 7/6. D= 10cm. Catalogue of Illustrated Artefacts 233
C4031-4032.S188. Body sherd. Dark reddish brown coarse vessel with a very hard fabric, minute grit and mica/quartz. Smoothed on the exterior. Oxidised firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 3/2, interior surface 5 YR 4/4. D= unknown. C4033. S188. Body sherd. Dark yellowish brown coarse vessel with a medium hard fabric, lime and small grits. Burnished on both sides. Differential firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 3/1, interior surface 5 YR 5/4. D= unknown. C4035. S188. Rim. Dark brown coarse vessel with dense fine to large grits and fine to medium lime specks. Burnished on both sides. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 10 YR 6/4, interior surface 10 YR 6/4. D= 20cm. C4036. S188. Rim. Brown coarse vessel with dense fine to medium lime specks and yellow/red grits. Smoothed and burnished on the exterior. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 6/6, interior surface 5 YR 5/6. D= unknown. C4037. S188. Handle. Dark Brown very coarse vessel with dense fine to large lime specks and grits in different colours. Burnished on both sides. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 5/4, interior surface 5 YR 5/4. D= unknown. C4155. S188. Handle. Dark reddish brown very coarse vessel with dense medium to large angular reddish/purplish stones and quartz, smaller calcareous specs. Red slipped (traces), smoothed and burnished on both sides. Oxidised firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 2.5/2, interior surface 2.5 YR 2.5/2. D= unknown. C4165. S188. Rim. Light brown coarse vessel with a medium hard poorly sorted paste, mineral temper up to 3mm, and some chaff. Burnished on both sides. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 7.5 YR 5/6, interior surface 7.5 YR 5/6. D= 18cm. C4166. S188. Rim. Reddish brown medium quality vessel with a poorly sorted medium hard paste and grit up 3 mm. Burnished on the exterior and smoothed on the interior. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 10 R 5/8, interior surface 2.5 YR 7/6. D= unknown. C4168. S188. Body sherd. Reddish brown medium quality vessel with a moderately well sorted medium hard paste and minute lime inclusions smaller than 0.5mm. Smoothed and reddish brown burnished on the exterior. Oxidised firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 4/6, interior surface 5 YR 6/4. D= unknown. C4169. S188. Body sherd. Reddish brown medium quality vessel with a moderately well sorted medium hard paste and minute lime inclusions smaller than 0.5mm. Smoothed and reddish brown burnished on the exterior. Oxidised firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 4/6, interior surface 5 YR 6/4. D= unknown. C4170. S188. Body sherd. Light brown medium quality vessel with a moderately well sorted medium hard paste and minute lime inclusions smaller than 0.5mm. Dark grey burnished on the exterior and smoothed on the interior. Differential firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 3/1, interior surface 5 YR 6/8. D= unknown. C4171. S188. Body sherd. Light brown coarse vessel with a poorly sorted medium hard paste, mineral temper up to 3 mm. Smoothed and light brown burnished on the exterior and smoothed on the interior. Differential firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 7.5 YR 3/1, interior surface 10 YR 8/6. D= unknown. C4194. S188. Body sherd. Dark grey coarse vessel with some fine lime specks and dense fine to medium light grit. Brownish red burnished on the exterior and smoothed on the interior. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 5/6, interior surface 2.5 YR 3/1. D= unknown. C4196. S188. Body sherd with lug. Dark brown to dark red coarse vessel with a very gritty fabric, lots of very fine gold mica specks, some fine lime specks and fine to medium reddish grit. Yellowish brown burnished on the exterior and polished on the interior. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 7.5 YR 7/4, interior surface 2.5 YR 2.5/2. D= unknown. C4197. S188. Body sherd. Dark brown to dark red coarse vessel with a very gritty fabric, lots of very fine gold mica specks, some fine lime specks and fine to medium reddish grit. Yellowish brown 234 The Cide-Şenpazar Region in the Iron Age (ca. 1200 to 325/300 BC)
burnished on the exterior and polished on the interior. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 7.5 YR 7/4, interior surface 2.5 YR 2.5/2. D= unknown. C4198. S188. Body sherd. Orange coarse vessel with a very gritty fabric, lots of fine lime specks, some fine quartz and fine to medium reddish grit. Brown slipped on the exterior and smoothed on the interior. Oxidised firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 7.5 YR 3/3, interior surface 2.5 YR 5/3. D= unknown. C4199. S188. Body sherd. Coarse vessel with a dark grey core and lots of inclusions including fine to large reddish grit, fine to medium lime specks and some plant temper. Dark brown burnished on the exterior and black burnished on the interior. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 5/6, interior surface 2.5 YR 3/1. D= unknown. C4209-4210. S188. Rim and body sherd. Orange brown coarse vessel with fine to medium lime and grit. Black burnished on the exterior and dark brown burnished on the interior. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 3/1, interior surface 2.5 YR 5/4. D= 14cm. C4212. S188. Body sherd. Orange brown coarse vessel with a dark grey core, and fine to large lime and grit. Smoothed on both sides. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 4/1, interior surface 2.5 YR 5/4. D= unknown. C4213. S188. Body sherd. Pale brown coarse vessel with a dark grey core, and fine to large lime and grit. Smoothed on both sides. Differential firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 7.5 YR 7/8, interior surface 7.5 YR 7/6. D= unknown. C4220. S188. Rim. Reddish brown to grey medium quality vessel with a poorly sorted medium hard paste, dark grey core, and lime inclusions smaller than 0.5 mm. Dark grey burnished on the exterior and smoothed on the interior. Differential firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 7.5 YR 3/1, interior surface 7.5 YR 4/2. D= unknown. C4228. S188. Rim and body sherd. Dark reddish brown very coarse vessel with dense very fine to medium lime specks and medium to large grit, and some very fine gold mica specks. Dark reddish brown burnished on both sides. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 7.5 YR 5/6, interior surface 2.5 YR 5/6. D= 11cm. C4229. S188. Body sherd and handle. Dark brown to reddish brown very coarse vessel with dense fine to medium lime specks and fine to large dark grit. Dark brown burnished on the exterior. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 10 YR 6/4, interior surface 7.5 YR 5/6. D= unknown.
Middle Iron Age C931. U521. Rim. Grey brown fine vessel with black grit inclusions and voids. Light brown burnished on both sides. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 5/3, interior surface 5 YR 5/3. D= unknown. C1037. U328. Body sherd. Dark grey fine vessel with a medium number of white limestone inclusions. Smoothed on both sides. Oxidised firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 5/1, interior surface 5 YR 5/1. D= unknown. C1415. G1D12. Body sherd. Orange red medium quality vessel with limestone, shell and grog inclusions. No surface treatment. Differential firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 6/8, interior surface 2.5 YR 6/8. D= unknown. C2893. S24. Body sherd. Orange coarse to medium quality vessel with limestone inclusions. Smoothing on both surfaces. Oxidised firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 10 R 6/8, interior surface 10 R 6/8. D= unknown. C2900. G1D12. Body sherd. Yellowish red medium quality vessel with a grey core, and limestone and quartz inclusions. Smoothing on both surfaces. Reduced firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 6/6, interior surface 5 YR 6/6. D= unknown. C3060. S88. Body sherd. Brownish grey medium quality vessel with small to medium size angular and sub-angular quartz and red grog. Smoothing and pale brown slip on the exterior and Catalogue of Illustrated Artefacts 235
smoothing on the interior. Parallel raised bands on the exterior. Reduced firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 6/4, interior surface 5 YR 4/1. D= unknown. C3162. S88. Body sherd. Reddish brown coarse vessel with small to medium grit and grog. Dark purple slip on the exterior. Differential firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 5/2, interior surface 5 YR 5/4. D= unknown. C3167. S88. Body sherd. Greyish brown medium quality vessel with small black and white grit. Dark grey slip and burnish on the interior. Oxidised firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 5/3, interior surface 10 YR 4/1. D= unknown. C3169. S88. Body sherd. Reddish brown medium quality vessel with dense small white grit, larger purple mineral inclusions and grog. Smoothed on both sides. Oxidised firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 5/2, interior surface 2.5 YR 5/2. D= unknown. C3179. S88. Body sherd. Light reddish brown coarse vessel with a grey core, dense angular and sub-angular medium quartz and yellow grog. Smoothing and dark purplish brown slip on the exterior and smoothing on the interior. Oxidised firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 2.5/2, interior surface 5 YR 6/4. D= unknown. C3182. S88. Body sherd. Grey medium to fine vessel with very small white and black inclusions. Reddish brown slip on the exterior. Parallel grooves on the exterior. Reduced firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 6/6, interior surface 2.5 Y 6/1. D= unknown. C3191. S88. Body sherd. Orange medium vessel with small to medium size quartz, grog and black grit. Brown slip on the exterior and buff slip on the interior. Oxidised firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 6/6, interior surface 5 YR 7/6. D= unknown. C3599. S88. Rim. Brownish grey medium vessel with dense small to medium rounded grog and black grit. Smoothed on both sides. Reduced firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 4/6, interior surface 2.5 YR 4/6. D= 14cm. C4003. S132. Body sherd. Dark brown coarse vessel with very dense dark grit, voids and plant temper. No surface treatment. Reduced firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 7.5 YR 3/3, interior surface 7.5 YR 3/3. D= unknown. C4022. S188. Body sherd. Dark grey coarse vessel with a medium hard fabric, lime particles smaller than 1mm and some plant temper. Smoothed on both sides. Reduced firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 7.5 YR 3/3, interior surface 7.5 YR 3/3. D= unknown. C4222. S188. Body sherd. Light brown to red coarse vessel with a poorly sorted medium hard paste with limestone pieces up to 3mm, and chaff temper. Brown burnished on the exterior. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 4/8, interior surface 10 R 5/8. D= unknown. C4223. S188. Body sherd. Light brown coarse vessel with a poorly sorted medium hard paste and limestone pieces smaller than 1mm. Light brown burnished on the exterior. Reduced firing. Handmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 5/8, interior surface 2.5 YR 5/8. D= unknown.
Late Iron Age C3172. S88. Body sherd. Reddish orange medium to fine vessel with very small white and small black grit. Smoothed on both sides. Differential firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 5/4, interior surface 10R 6/6. D= unknown. C3607. S88. Rim. Greyish brown medium vessel with dense small to medium rounded grog and black grit. Smoothed on both sides. Reduced firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 5/2, interior surface 2.5 YR 5/2. D= unknown. C3609. S88. Body sherd. Greyish brown medium vessel with dense small to medium rounded grog and black grit. Smoothed on both sides. Reduced firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 2.5 YR 5/2, interior surface 2.5 YR 5/2. D= unknown. 236 The Cide-Şenpazar Region in the Iron Age (ca. 1200 to 325/300 BC)
C3743.S88. Base. Yellowish buff fine vessel with dense small dark grit. Yellowish buff wash on both sides. Oxidised firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 5 YR 7/6, interior surface 5 YR 7/6. D= unknown. C3795. U3148. Body sherd. Light red medium vessel with small and a few large grit inclusions. Grey wash on the exterior. Oxidised firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface GLEY 2 6/1, interior surface 10 R 5/6. D= unknown. C3908. G8K6. Body sherd. Pale pink fine vessel with very fine lime specks. Dark olive brown slip on the exterior. Oxidised firing. Wheelmade. Exterior surface 2.5 Y 1/2, interior surface 2.5 R 9/2. D= unknown.
Bibliography
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