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Examining the Stigma and Stereotypes Related to Involuntarily Childless Women Using the Stereotype Content Model and Weiner’S Attribution Affect Action Model

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Examining the Stigma and Stereotypes Related to Involuntarily Childless Women Using the Stereotype Content Model and Weiner’S Attribution Affect Action Model Examining the Stigma and Stereotypes Related to Involuntarily Childless Women Using the Stereotype Content Model and Weiner’s Attribution Affect Action Model A Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Social Psychology in the Department of Psychology University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon By Linzi Williamson, B.A. (Honours), M.A. (c) Copyright Linzi Williamson July 2019. All rights reserved. PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis/dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis/dissertation in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis/dissertation work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis/dissertation or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis/dissertation. DISCLAIMER Reference in this thesis to any specific commercial products, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favouring by the University of Saskatchewan. The views and opinions of the author expressed herein do not state or reflect those of the University of Saskatchewan, and shall not be used for advertising or product endorsement purposes. Requests for permission to copy or to make other uses of materials in this thesis in whole or part should be addressed to: Head of the Department of Psychology University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5A5 Canada OR Dean College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies University of Saskatchewan 116 Thorvaldson Building, 110 Science Place Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5C9 Canada i ABSTRACT The degree to which involuntarily childless women are stigmatized, stereotyped, and socially sanctioned by the Canadian general public is not well understood. Using a series of online questionnaires which targeted variables outlined by the Stereotype Content Model (SCM) and Weiner’s Attributions-Affect-Action (AAA) model, I examined the attributions associated with various groups of involuntarily childless women, affective reactions elicited by the women, and whether different modes of support to aid the women in accessing assisted reproductive technology (ART) to overcome fertility issues would be offered by participants. To determine the appropriateness of using the SCM to examine differential stereotypes applied to involuntarily childless women, for Study 1 a sample of undergraduates (N =204) rated different categories of women on core SCM variables. To further test the suitability of the SCM and examine the potential use of the AAA model, in Study 2 another sample of undergraduates (N = 195) rated different categories of women encompassing diverse contexts of infertility or reproductive challenges (i.e., locus of control for fertility) on the main variables for each theory. Expanding on the first two studies, Study 3 employed a between-group design to examine the affective and behavioural outcomes associated with stereotypes of involuntarily childless women. Individuals from an undergraduate sample (N = 183) were randomly presented one of four vignettes which described an involuntarily childless woman that represented one of the four SCM quadrants. Participants rated the woman they were assigned on the core SCM and AAA model variables. To expand on Study 3, a stratified by province, randomly selected Canadian sample of participants (N = 554) was recruited. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four vignettes and rated the involuntarily childless woman they read about on the main SCM and AAA model variables. A clear pattern emerged across each of the studies whereby some involuntarily childless women were more negatively stereotyped compared to others. In particular, women who: 1) experienced fertility issues due to their STI status; 2) were potentially capable of personally affording fertility treatments; 3) were trying to “have it all” (career and motherhood); and/or, 4) were potentially avoiding the experience of pregnancy by using a surrogate tended to be held more responsible, evoked more contempt, and were not admired, envied, pitied, nor seen as deserving of financial support in their pursuit of fertility treatments compared to other groups of women. However, in contrast to past literature, overall many of the women in the present research were positively evaluated. For example, none of the women were ever considered to be “bad mothers” and ii participants thought that they “deserved to access and receive IVF” to realize their motherhood intentions. Overall, the findings support the utility of the SCM and AAA model for examining the stereotypes and sanctioning associated with involuntarily childless women. Further, the stereotypes and sanctioning enacted on these groups are quite nuanced and dependent on perceived locus of control for fertility issues. Suggested interventions are those that target fertility beliefs/knowledge as well as social norms around childlessness. Further investigation of public policies regarding access to ART as well as additional research on the relationship between felt/perceived and enacted stigma related to involuntary childlessness are recommended. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Reflecting on my time with Dr. Karen Lawson brings more to mind than I could possibly put to paper. To say that she has been the best mentor and supervisor is the understatement of the century. Over the 8 years we have worked together (starting with my Master’s) she became my friend, in-case-of-emergency person, and Saskatoon mom. With her guidance and support, I grew to be a better version of myself than when I first moved to Saskatoon. I can’t thank her enough but will certainly try. I look forward to more dog walks, margaritas, and Netflix binges. Thank you so much to my committee members, Dr. Sylvia Abonyi, Dr. Jorden Cummings, and Dr. Pamela Downe. I couldn’t have dreamed of a more badass group of women to support me on this journey. Your perspectives and feedback helped take this project to the next level. To my external examiner, Dr. Julia McQuillan, thank you for taking the time to read and reflect on this body of work and provide such essential feedback. I am blown away by your kind and encouraging words. I look forward to connecting in the future! Jeremy, just because you came into my life at the end of the dissertation road doesn’t mean you weren’t incredibly instrumental to me reaching this milestone. I love you, Bob. Thank you for keeping me sane, level-headed, humble, and full of laughter and delights. To my family and friends back home. When I left Ontario, I didn’t know where my life was headed. I didn’t know that I would be away from you for so long. I didn’t realize how much I was going to have to sacrifice, and how much I would miss out on. And if I could do it all over… I wouldn’t change a thing. I feel that way because not once did I ever feel like I made the wrong choice, and you never guilted me about leaving or staying away. I always felt so loved and supported, without which, I might not have made it to the end of this journey. Thank you for being in my corner and for all your love and support. Also, thank you for always making time for me when I visited and allowing me to stay on your couch or in your guest bedroom (that many of you affectionately refer to as “Linzi’s room”). Mom, this is for you and Lachlan. It has always been for you. When feelings of frustration and defeat predominated my thinking, I regularly found the strength to continue with this “Everest climb” after connecting with you on the phone or following a brief visit home. I also pushed on because I wanted there to be tangible evidence of what all your sacrifices made possible. I am who I am because of you. Having you at my defense was the greatest gift I have ever received. Knowing you were right behind me and being able to hold your hand kept me calm and focused. You truly are the best mom and frankly the best person in my mind. I love you so much – to infinite and beyond the depths of forever… iv TABLE OF CONTENTS PERMISSION TO USE ....................................................................................................................i ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ iv TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES ...........................................................................................................................x LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................................
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