fronted with some of these problems by such de- Selected Readings in velopments as genetic counseling, sperm banks, artificial insemination by donors, amniocentesis, and the abortion of genetically defective fetuses. Tomor- row the problems could be much more complicated: they could arise from the cloning of human eggs, with the consequent asexual reproduction of a large number of genetically identical individuals; genetic surgery or gene repair (perhaps by means of vi- ruses); legislative control of who can and cannot re- produce, along with enforced regulations about THOMAS R. MERTENS sterilization; and, ultimately, human control over the genetic future of the human species. SANDRA K. ROBINSON There are those who would argue that these prob- lems lie in the future; that they may, in fact, never materialize, and that we can always deal with them if and when they do arise. Others suggest that these potential problems are of the same magnitude as Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/35/5/282/9177/4444367.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 those that confronted society with the development of the atomic bomb. Society was generally unpre- pared for the social, moral, and ethical problems posed by the Atomic Age. THE ISSUE OF American Teacher Should it also enter the containing Genetic Age Werner G. Heim's provocative article "Moral and unprepared? Would it not be better to indulge in some thoughtful Legal Decisions in Reproductive and Genetic Engi- introspection while we have time to do so, neering" (34[6]:315) arrived just as we were draw- rather than be forced to make decisions having ing up a list of readings on human and profound biologic, social, and ethical implications genetic engineering for use in the senior author's under the pressure of some "genetic bomb"? introductory genetics course. We were trying to It is our conviction that identify articles dealing with the social, moral, and some forethought should be given to these questions. legal implications of genetic and reproductive engi- Certainly college biology majors, and neering that beginning genetics students would find especially future secondary-school bi- ology teachers, need to be understandable and meaningful. Certainly Heim's informed about the de- velopments in human article should be included in such a reading list. genetics and the implications of these developments for genetic We hope the bibliography we have produced may engineering. prove useful to other biology and genetics teachers. It is presented at the conclusion of the article. The Concerns about Genetic Engineering text consists in an explanation of our rationale in making the selections, together with brief appraisive To introduce students to the problem we have comments on the articles and books. chosen an article by Caryl Rivers (1972), a lay writer, who discusses some of the discoveries that suggest sophisticated genetic engineering will soon Rationale of Selection be possible. Rivers notes that genetic counseling-a relatively unsophisticated field-raises ethical ques- Progress in studying human genetics has been tions and that cloning, sperm-banking, and genetic hampered by the very nature of man himself: his surgery-more complex fields-pose enormously dif- long generation-time, the relatively small size of ficult and frustrating moral questions. If there are human families, and, of course, the prohibitions against carrying out experimental matings. Nonethe- less, progress has been made and human genetics has ThomasR. Mertensis professorof biology, developed as a fascinating science in its own right. Ball State University, Muncie, Ind. 47306. Indeed, recent years have seen such rapid progress, His most recent book (with Gary Parker) is Basis: and the future offers such bright prospects, that Life's Biomolecules,just publishedby Wiley. This summerMertens will be direct- _ many scientists and laymen foresee the possibility ing his fifth NSF institute for high-school of using genetic knowledge to manipulate human re- biology teachers.For biographicdetails see 8 production and in order to correct human ABT 34(4):216 (with portrait) and 34(9): genetic defects and perhaps ultimately to alter the 523. SandraK. Robinson (picturedhere) is an M.S. in gene pool of the human species-that is, to direct candidate, biology, at Ball State, where she re- ceived her B.S. in 19729She is the coauthor, with Mertens, of human evolution. articles in Carolina Tips and Journal of Heredity on using Growing out of the discoveries about human the monocot Rhoeo spathacea in teaching meiosis, and she genetics and the technology these discoveries will and Mertens are coeditors of Human Genetics and Social Problems, a book of readings make possible are major problems having social, just published by MSS Infor- mation Corp. Mrs. Robinson, who is continuing her research legal, and ethical implications. We are already con- on Rhoeo, will teach high-school biology this fall.

282 THEAMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, MAY 1973 problems created by the attempt to improve the portant early cytogenetic advances, a discussion of genetic constitution of one individual-to correct a recent discoveries relating specifically to human genetic error he possesses or to prevent his trans- , and an account of some current in- mitting it to the next generation-how much more vestigations in human . complicated are the questions raised by the possi- John H. Heller (1969) deals with some of the same bility of controlled human reproduction with the goal material German discusses, but he also includes a of altering the evolutionary future of the species! more detailed discussion of the 47, XYY We expect Rivers' article to stimulate student in- complement and the social, legal, and ethical ques- terest by suggesting some of the techniques that tions raised by the purported aggressive and criminal might be used to accomplish genetic engineering and tendencies of XYY individuals. The papers by Ger- some of the problems that would result if these tech- man and Heller both include extensive reference niques were applied. The fact that Rivers' article sections, which will be useful to the interested stu- was published in Saturday Review suggests that the dent. problems of genetic engineering are of concern to a The final selection in this section of the bibliogra- wide sector of the educated public in the United phy gives the student some idea of the directions in States. Many people besides scientists and physicians which human genetics is likely to be moving in the are aware of the potential for good and evil that re- next decade. Paul T. Libassi (1972a) describes the cent advances in genetics portend. establishment, with federal government support, of Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/35/5/282/9177/4444367.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 The rest of our selections are intended to provide seven major research centers, each designed to study the student with deeper insights into the problems specific kinds of human genetic defects. The need for alluded to in Rivers' article. After looking at some these centers is explained, and a brief account is of the more recent advances in human genetics and given of some of the expectations that are held for cytology in the second part of our list (see below, them and for progress in human genetics. "Background"), the student is introduced to some of the techniques that might be used to accomplish Procedures: Techniques of Genetic Engineering genetic engineering (see below, "Procedures"). These selections include articles by Nobelists Muller, Bernard D. Davis (1970) provides a synoptic view Lederberg, and Watson. The fourth part of the list of many of the procedures that might be used to examines diverse viewpoints relative to the social, achieve genetic and reproductive manipulation in ethical, and legal implications of genetic engineering man. Davis suggests that curing single-gene diseases, and controlled reproduction (see below, "Issues"). such as PKU, by replacement of defective genetic We also include in the reading list a selected group material with "correct" DNA-the technique of of references that the interested student might use transformation or transduction-is a much more to pursue the topic of genetic engineering and its likely prospect than the genetic manipulation of be- social and ethical implications in greater depth (see havioral traits that are controlled by many genes. below, "Further Reading"). Davis also briefly discusses cloning, predetermination of sex, and selective reproduction (breeding) as means Background: Progress in Human Genetics of genetic engineering. The dangers of the various genetic manipulation procedures and their The technology necessary for genetic engineering is possible misuse for political and military purposes dependent on basic research discoveries in genetics are briefly discussed. The article concludes with and cytology-including human genetics and cytol- discussion of the damage that would be done to so- ogy. Especially noteworthy advances have been made ciety if basic genetic research were curtailed as a in the study of human chromosomes-beginning consequence of public apprehension over the possible with the discovery by J. H. Tjio and A. Levan, in misuse of genetic discoveries. 1956, that the human diploid chromosome number is Nobel Laureate Joshua Lederberg (1970) contrasts 46 rather than 48, as had been generally accepted the high expectations held for genetic engineering for almost 35 years. The students are asked to read with the reality of our present inability to prevent three review papers that document recent advances and treat diseases having a genetic basis. We do not in human genetics and cytology. know how to prevent new from occurring; Discoveries in biochemical genetics, molecular indeed, we usually do not even know that a recessive genetics, and immunogenetics are mentioned by has arisen until it is segregated in the H. Eldon Sutton (1967) in the first of these papers. homozygous condition, perhaps many generations Briefly discussed are some of the many genetic after the event. In a few cases we can detect the variants of human hemoglobin and how these might presence of a deleterious recessive gene in hetero- arise by single substitutions in the DNA zygous carriers and thus have a basis for counseling molecule. Also briefly introduced are two metabolic the carriers as to the probability of their having a disturbances: phenylketonuria (PKU) and glucose- homozygous-recessive child. We have amniocentesis, 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency. which permits prenatal detection of a number of A paper by James German (1970) affords many chromosome aberrations and a few enzyme defi- interesting historical insights into the study of ciencies having a genetic basis. We can treat certain chromosome cytology. It includes a review of im- genetic diseases by replacing the missing gene prod-

READINGSIN GENETICENGINEERING 283 uct (for example, insulin, in diabetes mellitus) or might be accomplished by means of supplying the de- by removing from the diet substances (such as fective human cells directly with the desired "good" phenylalanine, in PKU) that cannot be metabolized. DNA (the technique of transformation) or by having On the whole, however, our arsenal of weapons a serve as the vector for the introduction of against genetic disease is quite meager. the desired genetic material into the human All of these facts, however, constitute a motivation (the technique of transduction). The authors pro- for attempting to devise techniques of genetic manip- pose ethicoscientific criteria that any prospective ulation, such as gene therapy (by transformation or techniques for gene therapy should satisfy. Where transduction) or cloning. These facts also increase Muller is primarily concerned about modifying the the risk that some of these genetic manipulation human gene pool and thus the evolutionary future techniques will be used prematurely-before we are of man, Friedmann and Roblin direct their concern fully aware of the technical and ethical problems as- to alleviating genetic disease in individual patients sociated with them. In the case of cloning, Lederberg (although they note that wide use of gene therapy specifically notes that "we simply do not know would affect the human gene pool). Perhaps this enough about the question at either a technical or an difference in emphasis is fundamental as a basis for ethical level . . . to dogmatize about whether or not a decision as to whether or not genetic intervention [cloning] should ever be done." is ethical: is the intervention designed to correct a

The late Nobel laureate H. J. Muller (1961), in genetic defect of an individual, or is it designed to Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/35/5/282/9177/4444367.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 the third article in this section of the bibliography, modify the evolutionary future of all mankind? describes in some detail how selective human breed- In a short article in Science Daniel Rabovsky ing could be accomplished through "voluntary choice (1971) reports on several recent attempts at trans- of germ plasm." Essentially what Muller advocates porting (via ) genes from cells of one species is "AID"-artificial insemination with the sperm of a to cells of another. The experiments of Merril and donor. Moreover, Muller wants the donor to be a coworkers, for example, show that a bacterial gene person of established worth whose contributions to can be incorporated into a human cell by a phage society and genetic superiority will have withstood and that the bacterial gene can supply an enzyme the test of time. What Muller suggests, then, is that missing in the human cell. Although done in vitro, the semen of outstanding men be kept in the deep such experiments suggest that methods soon will be freeze of a sperm bank until such time as the man's found for transducing genes in humans with single superiority is clearly recognized. The semen of such gene defects. men could then be used to fertilize the eggs of Another technique that could permit genetic engi- numerous prospective mothers and thereby increase neering is clonal, or asexual, reproduction. Nobelist the frequency of the donor's superior genes in the James D. Watson (1971) discusses the possible use human gene pool. Although written over a decade of this technique. Although cloning has been accom- ago, Muller's article continues to have a futuristic plished only with amphibians thus far, Watson pre- ring to it-which suggests that perhaps society in dicts the cloning of mice in the not-too-distant future. general is still not ready for even this currently This will pave the way for cloning other mammals, feasible method of genetic manipulation. including man. Watson gives good reasons why basic Libassi (1972b) discusses another technique cur- research in related aspects of cell biology should not rently available to medical science: prenatal diag- be curtailed, and he suggests the desirability of an nosis by amniocentesis. Some of the problems and international agreement that would make human limitations of amniocentesis and some refinements cloning illegal. in chromosomal analysis are briefly described. Gen- Kurt Hirschhorn's "On Re-Doing Man" (1968) erally, amniocentesis is done with the assumption provides the student with historical insight into the that the prospective parents will agree to an abortion eugenics movement. He contrasts positive with nega- if the fetus is found to be genetically or cytologically tive eugenics and discusses the role of euthenics defective. Thus, at the present time amniocentesis (modification of environment) in allowing the ge- can be viewed as a technique useful in preventing the netically defective person to develop and live nor- birth of a child with a chromosome aberration or one mally. Methods of genetic manipulation are briefly of a few biochemical defects. The use of amnio- mentioned, and the article concludes with a discus- centesis has been quite limited: Libassi claims that sion of ethical considerations relative to genetic en- some 1,500 amniocenteses have been performed in gineering. Hirschhorn's article serves as a bridge the U.S. to date. How important amniocentesis might connecting the discussion of techniques of genetic prove to be as a means of changing gene and chro- manipulation with the papers in the next part of the mosome frequencies in the human gene pool remains bibliography, which deal primarily with social, to be seen. ethical, and legal implications of genetic engineering. Turning to techniques for genetic manipulation that might be widely used in the future, Theodore Issues: Social, Ethical, and Legal Friedmann and Richard Roblin (1972) discuss the use of "exogenous 'good' DNA . . . to replace the Four editorials from scientific journals introduce defective DNA in those [persons] who suffer from the student to diverse positions on the social, ethical, genetic defects." Such gene therapy or gene surgery and legal issues arising from genetic and reproductive

284 THE AMERICANBIOLOGY TEACHER, MAY 1973 engineering. Richard Lewontin (1971) confronts us of the biologist, the technician, the social scientist, with the interesting idea that there are pressing ethi- and the humanist in the study and application of cal issues of far greater significance than those asso- human genetic principles. Heim suggests that the ciated with genetic counseling and engineering. He social scientist and the humanist have the responsi- notes that "the activities of science exploit or neglect bility of assisting us all in deciding "whether, how, whole classes of people, taking advantage of their and under what conditions the work of the other two powerlessness." Two editorials from Science present [biologist and technician] ought to be applied." This a somewhat more conservative picture of the pros- does not absolve the biologist from all responsibility pects of genetic engineering than one gets from much for the social and ethical implications of his discov- popular writing. They point to some of the dangers eries. It does suggest, however, that the biologist associated with arousing public hope, fear, and con- lacks the expertise of the social scientist, lawyer, cern over these prospects. Certainly, as Philip H. philosopher, or theologian in considering the ethical Abelson (1971) notes, one of the most serious and and social significance of the application of his dis- undesirable consequences of this fear and concern coveries to human genetic improvement. would be the placing of harmful restrictions on scien- U.S. Senator John V. Tunney and his lawyer asso- tific research. In fact, what is actually needed, as ciate Meldon E. Levine (1972) look at the moral, M. S. Fox and J. W. Littlefield (1971) note, is more ethical, and legal implications of genetic engineering.

public support for basic research in human biology. They stress the importance of public awareness and Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/35/5/282/9177/4444367.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 In the fourth editorial Littlefield (1972) asserts that education, and they declare that consideration must the average citizen has both the desire and the right be given to these problems now, rather than at some to know about his own genetic constitution. Little- future date when "we might face irreversible trends field cites the need for better education of the general not only in genetics but also in political freedom." As public with respect to human biology, including hu- a sequel to the Tunney-Levine article, an unsigned man genetics. article in Saturday Review (Anon. 1972) provides us At the present time medicine has at its command with a brief look at one attempt to control human techniques for large-scale screening for a number of reproduction through in-vitro fertilization followed human genetic defects. For example it is possible to by the implantation of the young embryo in a recep- detect not only those who have sickle cell anemia but tive uterus. The possible significance of such an ex- also the heterozygous carriers of the "recessive" gene periment and the objections to it by Nobelists Watson for sickling. Similarly, carriers of the gene for Tay- and Perutz are noted. Sachs disease can be identified. Because asympto- In the final selection in this part of the list of read- matic heterozygotes for these diseases can be iden- ings Walter G. Peter III (1971) reports on an inter- tified, they can be advised, in a genetic counseling national conference that dealt with ethical perspec- program, of their potential for transmitting the dele- tives in the use of genetic knowledge. The article in- terious gene to their offspring. All of this poses ethi- cludes a number of thought-provoking observations, cal and social issues that are discussed by Marc not the least of which is that "the uses to which Lappe (1972). His article includes guidelines for genetic knowledge will be put will not be decided by operating a genetic screening program. These guide- those who best understand the 'new biology,' but by lines are designed to protect the persons and families those who understand it the least, the public ... screened and to lessen the risk of misuse of the in- formation obtained. Further Reading At the present time the technology of such proce- dures as cloning and genetic surgery has not been Cited below among the references are all of the developed to the point where they can be used in the papers briefly reviewed in this article. Moreover, we genetic engineering of man. We have a period of have included a few current books on human genetics grace in which to clarify our thinking about the ethi- and genetic counseling, as well as a number of books cal and social problems these procedures raise. But dealing in depth with social, ethical, and legal impli- the time for considering the problems created by cations of genetic and reproductive engineering. We genetic counseling is now! Genetic screening proce- believe that this bibliography of 35 references con- dures followed by genetic counseling are being used stitutes an interesting and controversial introduction now, are certainly going to be more widely used in to a topic that biology and genetics students will find the future, and are perhaps even going to become relevant to their lives in the last quarter of the 20th mandatory by legislative action in some cases. This century. is an issue that will not go away: we must face it now. A portion of James R. Sorenson's paper "Social REFERENCES Aspects of Applied Human Genetics" (1971) may be ABELSON, P. H. 1971. Anxiety about genetic engineering. Sci- used to continue the student's reading about genetic ence 173:285. counseling and its implications. The role of the coun- ANON. 1972. Invit: the view from the glass oviduct. Saturday selor and the decisions about reproduction that must Review 55 (40):68. AUGENSTEIN, L. G. 1968. Come, let us play God. Harper & Row, be made after genetic counseling has been given are New York. among the topics Sorenson discusses. DAVIS, B. D. 1970. Prospects for genetic intervention in man. Werner Helm (1972) differenutiatesamong the roles Science 170:1279. F

READINGSIN GENETICENGINEERING 285 Fox, M. S., and J. W. LITTLEFIELD.1971. Reservations concern- NSF7s Science-Education Aims ing gene therapy. Science 173:195. FRIEDMANN,T., and R. ROBLIN.1972. Gene therapy for human genetic disease? Science 175:949, Development of science-education programs to FUHRMANN,W., and F. VOGEL. 1969. Genetic counseling. increase the number of persons who can make effec- Springer-Verlag, New York. tive use of the processes and results of science and GERMAN,J. 1970. Studying human chromosomes today. Ameri- can Scientist 58:182. technology was described by Keith R. Kelson, acting GROBMAN,A. B., ed. 1970. Social implications of biological assistant director for education of the National Sci- education. National Association of Biology Teachers, Wash- ence Foundation (NSF), in testimony before the ington, D.C. Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Develop- HAMILTON,M., ed. 1972. The new genetics and the future of man. Wm. B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Mich. ment of the House Committee on Science and Astro- HEIM, W. G. 1972. Moral and legal decisions in reproductive nautics. and genetic engineering. American Biology Teacher 34:315. Kelson said NSF will develop new interdiscipli- HELLER, J. H. 1969. Human chromosome abnormalities as re- nary degree programs for graduates and undergrad- lated to physical and mental dysfunction. Journal of He- redity 60:239. uates, to help deal with pressing societal problems, HIRSCHHORN,K. 1968. On re-doing man. Commonweal 88:257L such as energy, the environment, urbanization, and LAPPE, M., ed. 1972. Ethical and social issues in screening for transportation. genetic disease. New England Journal of Medicine 286:1129. "We shall be supporting science education projects

LEDERBERG,J. 1970. Genetic engineering and the amelioration Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/35/5/282/9177/4444367.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 of genetic defect. BioScience 20:1307. aimed at a much wider spectrum of students," Kel- LERNER, I. M. 1968. Heredity, evolution and society. W. H. son declared in his testimony on NSF authorization Freeman, San Francisco. legislation for fiscal 1974. LEVITAN, M., and A. MONTAGU. 1971. Textbook of human genet- Exploratory Research and Problem Assessment is ics. Oxford University Press, New York. an element added this year to NSF's science-educa- LEWONTIN, R. C. 1971. Science and ethics. BioScience 21:799. LIBASSI, P. T. 1972a. Getting down to business in genetics: tion program. NSF plans to support carefully chosen research, diagnosis, treatment. Laboratory Management analytic studies of science-education problems and 10(8):24, 55. is in the process of identifying a set of such problems. . 1972b. Biochemical and chromosomal defects yield The findings should enable NSF to present new edu- to prenatal diagnosis. Laboratory Management 10(9):20. LrrTLEFIELD, J. W. 1972. Genetic screening. New England cational programs in the future, Kelson stated. Journal of Medicine 286:1155. The three continuing themes of NSF's science- McKUSICK,V. A. 1969. Human genetics, 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall, education program, Kelson said, are improvement of Englewood Cliffs, N.J. education for careers in science, developing of sci- MOORE, J. A. 1971. Science for society: a bibliography, 2nd ed. American Association for the Advancement of Science, entific literacy, and increasing the effectiveness of Washington, D.C. education processes in science. MULLER, H. J. 1961. Human evolution by voluntary choice of "Increased concentration on research, develop- germ plasm. Science 134:643. with further on the PETER, W. G., III. 1971. Ethical perspectives in the use of ment, and testing, emphasis genetic knowledge. BioScience 21:1133. useful dissemination of results to the user communi- RABOVSKY, D. 1971. Molecular biology: gene insertion into ty" is the essence of NSF's science-education im- mammalian cells. Science 174:933. provement activity, Kelson stated. "If one were to RAMSEY, P. 1970. Fabricated man: the ethics of genetic control. in its Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn. describe it [science education] simplest terms, RIVERS, C. 1972. Genetic engineering portends a grave new one would have to characterize it as support of new world. Saturday Review 55(15): 23. kinds of science and mathematics courses and cur- ROSLANSKY, J. D., ed. 1966. Genetics and the future of man. ricula that are badly needed but can seldom be Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York. developed and tested in the ways normal to aca- SONNEBORN, T. M., ed. 1965. The control of human heredity and evolution. Macmillan, New York. demia. From these flow dissemination and imple- SORENSON, J. R. 1971. Social aspects of applied human genet- mentation elements." ics. Social Science Frontiers occas. pub. 3. Russell Sage Foundation, New York. SUTTON, H. E. 1967. Human genetics: a survey of new devel- opments. Science Teacher 34:51. TUNNEY, J. V., and M. E. LEVINE. 1972. Genetic engineering. '"Hunters" Who Disgrace the Sport Saturday Review 55:23. WATSON, J. D. 1971. The future of asexual reproduction. In- tellectual Digest 2:69. The heaviest cross hunters have to bear is the YOUNG, L. B., ed. 1970. Evolution of man. Oxford University existence of a vicious or careless minority who want Press, New York. to shoot but are too lazy to hunt. These are the same vandals who destroy whatever confronts them in the cities or their home towns, if they think they will not be caught. Some citizens who are not hunters tend On Humanizing Education to classify them along with honest sportsmen, pos- sibly not aware that hunters abhor the species as "What Is Humanistic Education?," an article by strongly as do nonhunters. They are a breed apart, Howard Kirschenbaum, is offered, free on request, and sportsmen need to help identify and jail these by AdirondackMountain Humanistic EducationCen- scofflaws. ter, SpringfieldRd., Upper Jay, N.Y. 12987. From an editorial in the Portland Oregonian

286 THE AMERICANBIOLOGY TEACHER, MAY 1973