Research

Villain or Student Interpretations of African Tales

Jeffrey M. Hawkins, Mary Frances Agnello, & Thomas A. Lucey

Introduction manners by which teachers interpret the Without background information social message of folktales may inform about the social contexts in which trick- This collaborative action research the student about the extent to which his ster tales develop, those who experience study describes the results of how pre-ser- or her approximations of the stories are the tales will lack appreciation for the vice teachers at three institutions of higher valued. Although it has been said that all essence of the moral associated with the learning construed three pre-colonial West art forms and meanings of literature are story. Trickster tales are intended to be African folktales that portrayed the villain guided by the purpose of the authors, we told orally with the morals discussed, or trickster in a heroic manner. Folktales argue through this study that in keeping rather than read and analyzed in terms represent common forms of literature that with Louise Rosenblatt’s assertion (1995), of protagonists and plots. are used in the classroom as conscience the meaning taken from reading is in the John Dominic Crossan’s (2012) work stories to communicate behavioral expecta- mind of the reader. with parables told by Jesus of Nazareth tions to youngsters. Thus teachers should exercise the pro- presents an illustrative example of how Trickster tales are short, imaginative fessional diligence to research the origins modern society softens the meaning of narratives that usually use animal char- of the folktales covered in their classrooms oral stories by taking them out of context. acters to convey folk wisdom and to help to ensure that they respect the original in- For example, his research of the parable the reader (especially younger audiences) tention and purpose of the author to assure of the steward who is admonished for not interpret human nature and debate proper cultural responsiveness and appropriate investing the money given him suggests human behavior (Young & Ferguson, 1995). interpreted meanings on the part of their that the story is not a lesson about talents, These stories can be powerful tools for students. but about the charging of interest. The oral teaching children about diverse cultures, Through informed dialogues with parable challenges the listener to question (DeVries & Zan, 1984; Lickona, 1992; Nod- students, teachers may facilitate discern- capitalist notions of assigning a cost for dings, 2002) and the perceived heroes and ment and respect of culturally diverse lit- borrowing money. Modern society has often heroines within them (Mello, 2001). erature. Remembering that each folktake amended the story to fit its contemporary One common theme in trickster tales will revolve around a moral being shared, social schema. is the smaller or weaker that such processes may facilitate a situation A teacher who lacks knowledge of a uses his or her wits to disadvantage and in which students (1) learn the moral story’s origins or original intention may overcome a powerful figure who usually perspective of the source culture of the convey an improper interpretation of the controls others through more conventional folktales, (2) filter the meaning through tale and even validate student misunder- means. their own moral schema, (3) refine the standings that may be inappropriate. This In a classroom setting where the meanings in consideration of shared situation can greatly distort the meanings teacher is cast as the conveyer of knowl- ideas with classroom peers, and (4) learn of trickster tales, which assign values to edge and the determinant of accuracy, the to negotiate the source meanings within those characters who may challenge the their daily experiences. established norm. Thus, in “traditional” Jeffrey M. Hawkins is an associate professor Research efforts that concern the classrooms that commonly portray be- in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction folktales should go beyond text-based havior as either good or , teachers of the School of Education information to ensure accuracy. Editorial could misinterpret the social messages at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee efforts to modify folktales into forms that of a folktale that derives from a culture Milwaukee, Wisconsin. are “appropriate” for student learning may that recognizes the value of appreciating Mary Frances Agnello is an associate professor remove key story elements that affect the those who hold ideals that deviate from in the English for Academic Purposes Department original intention of the tale. For example, the social convention or satirize acceptable of the Faculty of Liberal Arts absent consideration of the source of the behavioral standards. at Akita International University, modern trickster characters in United This research contributes to the Akita, Japan. States entertainment, the student audi- literature by describing the responses of Thomas A. Lucey is an associate professor ence lacks a cultural reference for the pre-service teachers to three folktales that in the School of Teaching and Learning meanings of the actions and will apply originated from pre-colonial West Africa, of the College of Education their own interpretations based on their as contrasted with folktales from Native at Illinois State University, own experiences and philosophies, often America or Europe that the teachers may Normal, Illinois. guided by the “good guy usually wins.” have already encountered. The relevance

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 20 Research of this study lies within the preconceived dition. The tales that Aesop told were experiences to stimulate their awareness notions about social morals and the chal- traced back to India, while generations of various social perspectives and foster lenges of socially contextualizing the later the Greeks and Romans wrote down expression of their own interpretations. meanings of the tales. what then became known as Aesop’s This approach requires that teachers tales (Krauss, 1999). People around the conduct research on the artists’ back- Literature world do not necessarily use the term grounds and motives for art creations. “trickster”; this term was introduced in When facilitating classroom discussions Foundational scholarship for this 1874 through Catholic missionary Father about the artworks, teachers guide stu- study describes the nature of trickster Albert Lacombe’s translation of the Cree dents’ interpretations with this informa- tales, the utility of reading folktales in buffoon figure Wisakejak as “trickster” or tion, challenging the learners to appreci- humanities classes including pre-service “deceiver” (Krauss, 1999). ate the differences between their views teachers’ social studies methods classes, are traced to many cultures: and the artist’s intentions. The process action research, and current research on African/Anansi; African/Zomo; African- concludes with the learners’ creation of transactional reading theory that was American/Brer Rabbit; African-American/ artworks that express their views of the initiated by Louise Rosenblatt and utilized Molly Cottontail; Asian/Badger; Asian/ subject at hand. by Bacigalupa (2007). Sung; European/Fox; Jewish/Hershel; Laney’s model lends itself to discus- Caribbean/Anancy; Latino/Coyote; Middle sions about citizenship. Using the Hunger Trickster Tales Eastern/Hodja; Native American/Iktomi; Games and related dramatic and art-based In the humanities curriculum, trick- Native American/Raven; and Pacific Is- instructional strategies provides opportu- ster tales represent a means of introduc- lander/Maui (Young & Ferguson, 1995). nities for discussion about sacrifice and ing students to many cultures. For social According to research over the last other citizenship notions that students studies educators, these tales provide three decades (Bennett, 1995; Coles, 1989; may find difficult (Lucey, Lycke, Laney, vehicles for communicating messages Kilpatrick, Wolfe, & Wolfe, 1994; Koc & & Connelly, 2013). Through reciprocal about citizenship and expectations for Buzzelli, 2004; Kohlberg & Turiel, 1971; understanding and articulation of morals social behavior. As with other folktales, Lamme, Krogh, & Yachmetz, 1992; Nor- students learn to appreciate the plurality they contain references to societies’ values: folk & Norfolk, 1999; Parr, 1982), because of values, the articulation of their views, what people appreciate; what they laugh of their historical relevancy in cultures and the skill of negotiating patterns of at; what they scorn, fear, or desire; and how around the globe, parents and teachers difference that they encounter. they see themselves. often (especially, in the humanities) are Through the arts, teachers may teach Thus, it can be argued that reading frequently socialized to combine both older about the art of , the oral tra- trickster tales can promote student un- and modern stories as vehicles for teaching dition of folktales, the social phenomena derstanding of the personal dimensions children moral concepts. that they present, and the philosophical and standards of behavior of another cul- Douglas Hill (1982) provides insight discussions that they can invoke. ture, while reducing (Bosma, into the rich tradition of the trickster, 1992). Furthermore, as a resource for “(who) can be noble, majestic, wise and Methodology humanities instruction, the multiethnic godlike and he/she can be powerful, brave, diversity of tricksters and the analysis knowledgeable and heroic” (Hill, 1982, p. The exploratory goal of this study of their structures and characteristics 4). But at the same time (often during the was to interpret patterns of intercultural introduce problem-solving techniques to same story), the trickster can be foolish understanding through three folktales students, since tricksters rely on some and stupid, selfish, and vain, deceitful, from pre-colonial West African culture by action to resolve a problem (Young & Fer- and even cruel (Hill, 1982). This paradox using Stringer’s model: look, think, act guson, 1995) or moral dilemma (Kohlberg is the most basic and important factor that (2007). Through qualitative methods, first & Turiel, 1971). lies within all the diverse trickster tales. we collaboratively analyzed pre-service Finally, to encourage the highest levels Tricksters do not always prevail, for they teachers’ interpretations, then reviewed of intellectual and cognitive development, are often victims of another’s trickery. their discourses, and finally discerned the the climax of a trickster tale involves an Thus, the meanings of the story may not lie pitfalls and promises of using trickster unusual solution requiring admirable within the trickster, but in his or her acts tales to teach multicultural literature to mental prowess and not a single solving and the prospect of additional deceptive- future teachers. of a problem (Kohlberg & Turiel, 1971). ness that they may foster. Reflection in and on action (Schon, Traditional literature subgenres 1987) revealed that Rosenblatt’s and include fables, myths, legends, tall tales, Classroom Use of Art and Folktales Bacigalupa’s (2007) transactional theory of reading was imminently informative and folk tales (Bosma, 1992; Goforth& Because they lend themselves to dif- Spillman, 1994; Lukens, 1999). In addi- in interpreting data gathered at the three ferent interpretations and levels of think- universities. The results provide informa- tion to these, a very popular international ing, art and literature used in social stud- folk story motif is the trickster tale, which tion about how respondents’ contexts and ies curricula can teach characteristics of their expectations for literature may relate humorously portrays protagonists who different societies, various interpretations use wit, pranks, deceit, and mischief to to their abilities to accurately determine of , as well as the approxima- the meanings of trickster tales from other triumph over their more powerful foes. tion of morality or ethical behavior. James Trickster tales appear in literature cultures and the relevance of considering D. Laney’s Discipline-Based Art Educa- the historic and cultural context of folktale back to the beginning of recorded time. tion Model (1996, 2007, 2008) provides Before that, they were passed from one interpretations. one instructional strategy for engaging Reflection for future action (Dewey, generation to the next through oral tra- learners in the different dimensions of art

SPRING/SUMMER 2015 21 Research

1933) was also utilized in the conclud- distributed envelopes to the students. Interpretation of the Moral(s) ing sections of the study and is built on Each envelope contained one of the three Overall, a minority of the responding Bacigalupa’s scholarship grounded in folktales. The number and distribution of students from the three institutions had Rosenblatt’s transactional theory of read- responding students are displayed in Table similar interpretations of the moral/morals ing, as well as social studies precepts. 1. The students read the folktales and then of the assigned story. Students commonly responded to six questions. The first three viewed the stories as warning readers Sample questions served to identify the story read, about the consequences of deceptiveness Data were collected from a conve- the institution location, and the profes- and the virtues of adhering to a universal sional interpretation of the respondents. nience sample of teacher-education stu- code of conduct. Such interpretations con- The second three concerned the students’ dents at three institutions: one institution vey a philosophy common to the dominant interpretations of the tales: was a large Midwestern public university; culture and a belief in consequences for the second was a large public institution on 1. What do you think is/are the moral/mor- challenging the status quo. The following the South Plains; and the third was a large als of the story that you just read? paragraphs describe frequencies of each story’s interpretations. public institution in the rural Southwest. 2. Who behaves morally in the story? Three undergraduate social studies Folktale I, Leopard’s Wedding: Of the methods (two elementary and one middle 3. How would you compare the readabil- 58 respondents who received Folktale level) courses were surveyed at the Mid- ity of the story with other folktales you I, only 24 (41.37%) of the respondents western institution, three undergraduate have read? found themes of a common nature. These social studies methods (two elementary The purpose of these questions was interpretations included “don’t trust” or and one secondary level) at the institution to gauge the extent to which respondents “be careful who you trust” (11 times or on the South Plains, and two foundations may realize the original intent of the as- 45.83% of the 24), “deceitful acts will come classes were surveyed as the institution in signed folktale as well as to consider how back to a person” or “come back to get you the rural Southwest. the presentation of the tale may relate to in the end” (9 times or 37.50%) and “what the valuing of the presented message. goes around comes around” or “Karma” (4 Procedure times or 16.67%). “Trick” or “trickery” is For the study, 213 students responded Analysis mentioned as being in Story I by seven of to questionnaires developed by the re- The data were compiled and sent to the respondents. searchers at the three different university’s the primary investigator for coding and Other interpretations of the story were colleges of education. The questionnaires tabulation of research questions. For the variations of “expect the unexpected,” “do were geared to see how the students in- questions shown above (1-3), the primary not kill,” or “be honest, doesn’t pay.” terpreted one of three randomly provided investigator calculated the frequency and Also, three students did not find any moral West African trickster folktales. proportional representation of student to the story and one stated that he or she In Leopard’s Wedding (Folktale I), the responses. Qualitative data were derived was not sure. central character, Leopard, wants to marry and triangulated among all researchers by The common theme involved the and his soon to be father in law (Njambi) identifying emerging patterns or themes. vengeful or untrusting aspect of human contributes a dowry of animals agreed (Mills, 2014). nature. Leopard deceived many of the char- upon by Leopard. Leopard is the trickster acters in the folktale, and then succumbed character of the story to the detriment of Results to Gazelle’s trickery in the process. Etoli the Rat. However, in the end, Gazelle proves to be a trickster as well and out- We have organized the presentation of Folktale II, Rich Man and the Pauper: smarts Leopard, resulting in the demise results by the prompts to which students Of the 69 respondents assigned Folktale of Leopard’s wife whom Leopard unknow- responded. Our findings begin with the II, 28 (40.58%) described moral messages ingly kills. accounting of students’ interpretations of that were similar to other respondents. In Rich Man and the Pauper (Folk- the stories, followed by their understand- Consistent patterns were variations on tale II), a poor farmer and a middle class ings of the characters. Finally, we disclose the Golden Rule: generosity is good or be farmer are neighbors who come across a the students’ ideas for use of the trickster kind to others (17 times) or 25%, do unto rich man disguised as a beggar. The poor tales in their classrooms. others (3 times), don’t judge (3 times), and farmer is nice enough to feed the beggar share the wealth (5 times). while the middle class farmer ignores the beggar. The beggar, or rich man, is the trickster character of the story and tries Table 1 to reward the poor farmer; however, the Frequencies of Responding Students and Folktales Read unlucky poor farmer never seems to get Midwest Southern Plains Rural Southwest Total his just rewards while the middle class farmer does get them. N 69 112 32 213 In Spider and the Hyenas (Folktale Folktale 1 22 21 15 58 III), a Spider uses language tricks on a Hyena mother and a Dog to steal food Folktale 2 24 35 10 69 from Hyena’s young. Spider runs away and Folktale 3 23 36 7 66 escapes. The researchers or their designees Invalid Surveys 10

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 22 Research

For this tale, respondents recognized the importance of protecting those items Poor Man and Rich Man, three (4.35%) the potential for compassion and charity under one’s control. However, the alterna- selected the Rich Man, and one thought within the tale. This differs from Leopard’s tive perspective (observed by only two that all characters behaved morally. For Wedding, in which the respondents viewed participants) lies in the value of cunning this folktale, nine (13.04%) either refused none of the characters as demonstrating in challenging or tricking an environment to answer or did not know. morality in a compassionate sense. in which ownership represents a symbol of Folktale II, unlike the other folktales For Rich Man and the Pauper four character. provided, involved human characters. Al- respondents interpreted the tale as mean- though participants who read this Folktale ing that the poor will always make bad Moral Character(s) did not have access to Folktales I and III, it is possible that respondents viewed the choices. The poor man had the opportunity Respondents held various interpre- characters in Folktale II through a differ- to benefit from the basket of money; how- tations of the moral character(s) in each ent lens than readers of the animal stories. ever, because of his willingness to share, story. The following paragraphs account for Thus, the pauper, or poor man’s, humility gave to the neighbor who took the money these perspectives and attempt to explain and generosity represented a moral qual- and replaced it with flour. Statements of the various points of view. respondents who expressed this interpre- ity, despite the outcome of his decisions. tation of the moral were “People have to Folktale I, Leopard’s Wedding: Of the Folktale III, Spider and Hyenas: Out help themselves out of the situation that 58 students who read Folktale 1, more of 66 replies, 32 (48.48%) found the Cubs or they have gotten themselves into,” “To gain than half (35 or 60.34%) responded that Children behaved morally, 21 (31.82%) felt something, you must work hard,” “Can’t the Gazelle behaved morally, while 11 the Hyena or Mother did, two (3.03) found change someone’s luck if that person is (18.97%) responded that neither or no the Dog did, and one the Spider. Only one not looking for their luck to change,” and one was moral in the story. Nine (15.58%) respondent thought neither character or “People don’t change.” either refused to answer or did not know, no one was moral in the story, while nine Nevertheless, seven respondents indi- while eight (13.79%) chose the Rat, four (13.64%) either refused to answer or did cated that the poor man’s circumstances (6.90%) indicated the Gazelle and Rat, and not know. related to fate, rather than choices, and one thought the Leopard. We think that the interpretations of suggested that the moral related to ac- The view of Gazelle as the moral char- the cubs’ moral behavior relates to the ceptance of fate. Illustrative explanations acter indicates that most of the respon- disclosure of the Spider’s deceptiveness. of the moral were “You end up where you dents considered revenge as legitimizing The cubs exposed the trickster Spider do for a reason,” “God made you what you a moral behavior. Like Leopard, Gazelle who deceived Hyena out of their food. The are and that is who you are,” “Be satisfied demonstrates trickster characteristics; perception of morality in this instance with what you have,” and “Sometimes luck however, respondents may have perceived relates to the disclosure of a social wrong isn’t in your cards.” Gazelle’s deception of Leopard as a meri- and blaming Interestingly, none of the respondents torious act because of just punishment for focused on the conduct of the rich man as the Leopard’s selfish deeds. Readability trickster who did not bring the presence of Eleven replied that the story did not money to the attention of the poor-man. It involve a moral character. This outcome The final prompt sought respondents’ is acknowledged that despite the very rich may involve a couple of reasons. First, ideas about the readability of the folktales man’s laments for the poor man’s fate at because the story did not explicitly state they read. The prompt did not provide a the end of the tale, respondents responded the moral, respondents were left seeking definition of readability, so the respondents differently to stories that involve animal an explanation of the tale. The abrupt end- interpreted the term in a manner relevant and human characters when the trickster ing of the story did not provide a precise to themselves. Themes that emerged with gets away, as we shall see with Folktale III answer for students who may have been regard to respondents’ interpretation of which involves animals. used to moral stories designed to be in- the tales’ readability were associated with structive. This thinking may relate to the four causes: (1) blatant un-readability of Folktale III, Spider and Hyenas: In difference between tales that represent the tales, (2) the vagueness of the morals this case 28 (42.42%) of the 66 responses tools for prescribing social behavior versus (32 respondents), (3) the inappropriateness yielded various messages with regard tools for debating social behaviors. for mathematics and music, and (4) the to the selfish nature of humanity. These We believe that the other reason that reference of God in the story. messages include: don’t trust strangers (9 respondents did not perceive of a moral The most frequent concern about times or 32.14% of the 28), don’t be tricked message may be that the behaviors of the readability involved the clarity of the (3 times or 10.71%), do not be manipulated characters did not make sense to the stu- moral being taught in the folktale, with (2 times or 7.14%), and the keen will take dents in terms of a dichotomous right and 32 respondents mentioning this difficulty. advantage of the naïve (2 times). Also, wrong/good and bad/moral and immoral The student respondents indicated that three students did not answer, two were frame of thinking. Because all of the char- Folktale II (The Rich Man and the Pauper) unclear or not sure of a moral, and one acters have elements of both selfishness seemed to have a clear or clearly identified replied the story had no moral. and heroism, none represents a purely moral as compared to the other stories. Most of the respondents who did per- moral entity. Interestingly, this folktale contained ceive a moral in the story interpreted Spi- characters and elements (i.e., human char-

der as deceiving Hyena and her cubs and Folktale II, Rich Man and the Pau- acters, wealth and poverty, the concept of construed Hyena as a victim of Spider’s per: Of the 69 respondents, 48 (69.57%) God) with which they had some familiarity. trickery. This interpretation relates to believed the Pauper or Poor Man behaved The question may be raised as to whether notions of possession and property and morally, eight (11.59%) chose the Pauper/ the folktale may be legitimately identified

SPRING/SUMMER 2015 23 Research as West African given these features. We folktales were commonplace among all intend and that imposing author perspec- recognize that the nature of folktales is such participants. These findings are consistent tives upon those different understandings that their content and meanings change with James’ (2008) work with elementary may prevent children from fully appreciat- through oral tradition. The mention of God teachers’ protectionist views of children. ing the moral messages the stories intend to in this folktale would indicate that it rep- Yet such protective notions discredit convey illustrating the challenges teachers resents a variation that may have occurred the abilities of children to think about face when using folktale literature and the after contact with the European culture or social systems and may also potentially moral messages involved. it may be due to Muslim contact. invalidate the violent domestic realities The meaning of a text can vary from Students considering using these or that many children experience at home reader to reader depending upon age and similar folktales as material in their own (Heyman, 2008; Mills, Legare, Grant, & experience. Limited knowledge and ex- classrooms passionately expressed varying Landrum, 2011; Murphy, Rowe, Ramini, perience due to age and experience bring degrees of agreement as to whether the & Silverman, in press; Thornton, 2014). very different understandings to the texts tales were written at appropriate reading In expressing wishes to protect their individuals read. In addition, it is possible levels for elementary, middle, and second- students from violence, respondents risk that the meanings adults construct vary ary level students. Four mentioned hesita- presenting literature in a manner that significantly as they understand stories tion in their willingness to use Folktale II sanitizes life into a ‘fairytale’ form that differently. If so, then it is also possible that in the classroom due to the controversial provides an interpretation disrespectful the ideas they take away from stories with and inappropriate nature of the mention- of the socio-historic and cultural contexts moral themes do not necessarily match the ing of or reference to God. of its origins. Presenting folktales from moral messages traditionally intended by The overall concern for reading level a perspective of the dominant culture the folktale. of these three stories was recorded a total is akin to findings of history textbook Consistent with Laney’s (1996) Disci- of 16 times, with Folktale I (Leopard’s Wed- research (e.g., Loewen, 2007) that mythi- pline-Based Art Education Model, the use ding) being the easiest to read as judged by cizes early heroes in ways to fit a benevo- of trickster tales from cultures other than our students. It should be noted, however, lent view of the United States. Such an those commonly told within Euro-derived that Folktale I was a page and a half long, approach does not provide a full account- contexts requires the teacher’s awareness while the other stories were one page only. ing of the folktales and the motivations of historical and cultural background in- Finally, one respondent mentioned the ap- for their cultural origins. formation about the artworks (or folktales) propriateness of teaching about morals and Because our findings reveal a great employed and how they depict the subject its use in music classrooms. diversity of interpretation, we suggest that matter so that the teacher may guide trickster tales may also hold an important students’ thinking toward the intended Discussion place in the humanities classroom for meaning of the work(s) employed. adult students to initiate conversations By providing students with oppor- Respondents offered interpretations about cultural shaping of oral storytelling, tunities to create and share their own of folktales that were both similar and folktales, and their misinterpretation in art works (e.g., folktales), the teacher different from each other’s. These findings postmodern society. Research (e.g., DeVr- can empower students to express ideas appear to be consistent with Bacigalupa’s ies & Zan, 1984; Lickona, 1992; Noddings, in authentic manners that validate their in that (2007) respondents honed in on 2002) indicates that trickster tales very own views on the topic. Thus, using particular aspects of each story in ways effectively engage adults’ attention and Bacigalupa’s (2007) work as an example, consistent with thinking guided by their encourage both their consideration of and students could draw pictures to show own life experiences and cultural condi- articulation toward developing thought their ideas about the moral of the story tioning. However, the data do not provide about moral concerns. and expand on the relationships to their information about student backgrounds However, further research is needed own backgrounds and ideals. and influences on their patterns of think- to determine the effectiveness of folktales- Using trickster tales in the classroom ing. Nor do we have information that based discussion in changing existing presents a challenge for teachers because describes the meanings associated with moral perceptions of children and adults. the tales’ imprecise origins may prompt these particular folktales. Furthermore, because adults use their past challenges for those who seek to identify Nevertheless, the evidence would experiences to make sense of literacy, we the original intention of the story. For appear to indicate that folktales and must also pay attention to the role of real- example, a tale created in a time of eco- other stories designed to provide moral life events and activities in humanities nomic prosperity may carry a message outcomes may represent tools to engage classrooms for adults. that concerns the importance of loyalty teacher candidates in conversations about and trust. The same tale, told to successive socialization and the individual psycholo- Implications of Reflections generations in a context of economic and gies that shape it. Such processes could for Future Teaching and Research political oppression, may bode a moral of stimulate conversations about classroom The different interpretations of the subversion and deceit. pedagogies in terms of responsible, par- Thus, when the true origin of a trick- ticipatory, and -oriented citizenship trickster tales held by our respondents would indicate that the folktales represent ster tale is uncertain, the teller may have (Westheimer & Kahne, 2004) and the ap- liberty to modify its meaning to suit his or propriateness of socially compliant and fertile ground for discussions about social relationships and even the psychologies her own intention. A story modified to be subversive behaviors. “politically correct” so that it is appropriate Protectionist views or age/grade ap- that cause such individual behaviors. Bacigalupa’s (2007) argument that young for a particular classroom may actually be propriateness concerns with regard to the altered in a way that conceals moral prob- prospect of children’s exposure to these children often understand stories with moral themes very differently than authors lems that need attention. Indeed, requiring

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 24 Research students to limit their thinking to politically tives that allow for community and social Coles, R. (1989). The call of stories: Teaching correct content and processes potentially dialogue. Particularly, the results illustrate and the moral imagination. Boston, MA: conceals or prevents discussions of moral how, without accurate understandings of Houghton Mifflin Company. challenges faced by contemporary society. the context for artwork’s (folktale) devel- Crossan, J. D. (2012). The power of parable. How Such conditions thereby inhibit practice of opment, teachers may apply their own (or by Jesus became fiction about Jesus. New York: HarperCollins. critical social thinking that is necessary for conventional) meanings to the literature DeVries, R., & Zan, B. (1994). Moral classrooms, preservation of democratic society. employed. Such strategies can misinform moral children: Creating a constructivist The results of this research indicate students about the ideas intended in the atmosphere in early education. New York: that teacher candidates apply their moral literature studied. Teachers College Press. lenses when utilizing folktales of pre-colo- Thus, as both students and adults Dewey, J. (1933). How we think. A restatement of nial West Africa in their teaching. While misinterpret Woody Guthrie’s This Land the relation of reflective thinking to the educa- it is acknowledged that respondents did is Your Land as a patriotic song, so too tive process. Boston, MA: D. C. Heath. not receive background information about classrooms distort the meanings of tales Goforth, F., & Spillman, C. (1994). Using folk literature in the classroom: Encouraging these tales to inform their responses, the from underrepresented cultures in ways children to read and write. Westport, CT: presence of animal characters in two of the that fit ideals of the dominant culture, Oryx. three tales provided sufficient cues as to thus concealing or obliterating the fuller Heyman, G. D. (2008). Children’s critical think- the potential for cultural dissonance in the meanings students may need to hear. ing when learning from others. Current stories and respondents’ preparations. Finally, some important consider- Directions in Psychological Science, 17(5), We encourage additional research ations to make in classroom instruction 344-347 that compares the moral interpretations about diverse literature are the degree Hill, D. (1982). Introduction. In G. Robinson, associated with stories that feature similar to which readers of folktales are familiar Raven the trickster: Legends of the North American Indians. New York: Atheneum. plot outcomes, yet employ animal versus with the place, ethnic identity, and mul- James, J. H. (2008). Teachers as protectors: Mak- human characters. We also recommend tiple ways of accessing the culture repre- ing sense of pre-service teachers’ resistance studies that compare interpretations of sented in the literature (Agnello, Todd, in interpretation in elementary history folktales that explicitly provide the story’s Olaniran, & Lucey, 2009). Social studies teaching. Theory and Research in Social moral with those that do not. skills from geography and history, as well Education, 36(3), 172-205. as international awareness, are critical Kilpatrick, W., Wolfe, G., & Wolfe, S.M. (1994). Importance to Education to pulling readers of literature into the Books that build character: A guide to teach- circumstances of the characters. ing your child moral values through stories. Trickster folktales have been utilized New York: Simon & Schuster. Having researched the readers’ re- Koc, K., & Buzzelli, C.A. (2004). The moral of the throughout recorded history as a way to sponses with little awareness of other cul- teach morals. They hold potential to engage story is…Using children’s literature in moral tures or different cultures reminds us that education. Young Children, 59(1), 92-97. future teachers in prolonged and serious we must work on the contexts of literature Kohlberg, L., & Turiel, E. (1971). Moral develop- discussion about morality, morals, moral within the setting of the readers to estab- ment and moral education. In G. Lesser, (Ed.) behavior, our perceptions of morality, teach- lish an interest as well as an interchange Psychology and educational practice (pp. 410- ers’ perceptions of teaching morality, and of ideas relevant to moral development. 437). Chicago, IL: Scott Foresman. interpretation of folktales from question- Teacher-led discussions about tricksters Kraus, A. (1999). Folklore themes and activities naires. For each folktale, there are differ- for children, volume 2: Trickster and trans- in our own culture would help foreground formation tales. New York: Greenwood ent understandings concerning the moral future action to promote multicultural un- message/(s), moral character/(s), and/or Publishing. derstanding of tricksters in other cultures. Lamme, L. L., Krogh, S. L., & Yachmetz, K. A. hero/heroes. These stories provide opportu- Teacher reflection in, on, and for teaching (1992). Literature-based moral education: nities for community dialogue about social practice is critical to engaging learners in Children’s books and activities for teaching conduct, its motives and consequences. ways that advance multicultural under- values, responsibility, and good judgment Our current study finds parallel inter- standing among pre-service teachers. in the elementary school. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx pretations of literature among college stu- Press. Laney, J. D. (1996). Developing your own in- dents to Bacigalupa’s (2007) findings with References kindergarteners; yet the stories used in tegrated art-social studies lessons using Bacigalupa’s work represented published Agnello, M. F., Todd, R. H., Olaniran, B., & Lucey, the discipline-based art education model: T. A. (2009). Afghanistan and multicultural- A procedural guide for classroom teachers. texts with moral messages related to the Children’s Social and Economics Education; outcomes. The tales used for our current ism in Khaled Hosseini’s : Study of place and diversity. Multicultural Education An International Journal, 1(1), 89-91. research arise from oral traditions and and Technology Journal, 3(2), 96-111. Laney, J. D. (2007). Jacob Lawrence’s The Migra- contain messages intended for community Bacigalupa, C. (2007, April). Why children’s tion Series: Art as Narrative History. The dialogue. As classroom discussions about interpretations of stories with moral themes Social Studies, 98(4), 131-136 the morals associated with published often differ from adult interpretations, and Laney, J. D. (2008). Teaching financial literacy texts may involve teacher clarifications why those differences are important. Paper through the arts: Theoretical underpinnings to prompt young children’s realization of presented at the annual meeting of the and guidelines for lesson development. In American Educational Research Association, T. A. Lucey & K. S. Cooter (Eds.), Financial the intended moral in order to develop literacy for children and youth (pp. 237-257). a basis for classroom community, college Chicago, IL. Bennett, W. J. (Ed.). (1995). The moral compass. Athens, GA: Digitaltextbooks. classrooms may consider the relevance of New York: Simon & Schuster. Lickona, T. (1992). Educating for character: How contemplating the intentions and purposes Bosma, B. (1992). Fairy tales, fables, legends, and our schools can teach respect and responsibil- of folktales developed through oral tradi- myths: Using folk literature in your class- ity. New York: Bantam Books. tion and the importance of diverse perspec- room. New York: Teachers College Press. Loewen, J. (2007). Lies my teacher told me. Everything your American history textbook

SPRING/SUMMER 2015 25 Research

got wrong (Revised edition). New York: Murphy, Rowe, Ramini, & Silverman (in press). pact of domestic violence on young children. Touchstone. Promoting critical-analytic thinking in chil- Educational and Child Psychology, 31(1), Lucey, T. A., Lycke, K. L., Laney, J. D., & Connelly, dren and adolescents at home and in school. 90-100. C. (2013). Dimensions of citizenship through Educational Psychology Review. Westheimer, J., & Kahne, J. (2004). What kind the lens of The Hunger Games: Fiction and Noddings, N. (2002). Educating moral people: A of citizen? The politics of educating for de- the visual and performing arts as spring- caring approach to character education. New mocracy. American Educational Research boards for citizenship education. The Social York: Teachers College Press. Journal, 41(2), 237-269. Studies, 104(5), 190-199. Norfolk, B., & Norfolk, S. (1999). The moral of the Young, T., & Ferguson, P. (1995). From Anansi to Lukens, R. (1999). A critical handbook for story: Folktales for character development. Zomo: Trickster tales in the classroom. The children’s literature. New York: Longman. Little Rock, AR: August House Publishers. Reading Teacher, 48(6), 490-503. Mello, R. (2001). meets Ulysses. Parr, S. R. (1982). The moral of the story: Litera- Language Arts, 78(6), 548-555. ture, values, and American education. New Mills, C. M., Legare, C. H., Grant, M. G., & York: Teachers College Press. Landrum, A. R. (2011). Determining who to Rosenblatt, L.M. (1995). Literature as explora- question, what to ask, and how much infor- tion. New York: The Modern Language As- mation to ask for: The development of inquiry sociation of America. in young children. Journal of Experimental Schon, D. (1987). Educating the reflective prac- Child Psychology, 110(4), 539-560. titioner. London, UK: Jossey-Bass. Mills, G. E. (2014). Action research: A guide for Stringer, E.T. (2007). Action research (3rd ed.). the teacher researcher (5th ed.). Columbus, Los Angeles, CA: Sage. OH: Pearson. Thornton, V. (2014). Using the emotional im-

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 26