A REPORT ON THE STATUS OF FEMALE HEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS AND THEIR ACCESS TO ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS ANURADHAPURA DISTRICT: KEBETHIGOLLEWA AND MAHAVILACHCHIYA

A REPORT ON THE STATUS OF FEMALE HEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS AND THEIR ACCESS TO ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS ANURADHAPURA DISTRICT: KEBETHIGOLLEWA AND MAHA VILACHCHIYA

2015

MAY 2015 The views and opinions expressed in this publication do not represent the views of FOKUS.

Published by: FOKUS WOMEN 34 A, Sulaiman Avenue Colombo 5 Sri Lanka Tel/Fax: +94112055404 Web: http://www.fokuskvinner.no

Cover Photo: Rajarata Praja Kendraya and Thilina Madiwala/FOKUS WOMEN

Printed and Published in 2015

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Printed and bound in Sri Lanka by Wits Originals iii

FOREWORD

FOKUS WOMEN undertook this research from September to December 2014. The available literature on female heads of households indicated many gaps and there was a need to clarify the conceptual understanding of who a female head of the household (FHH) is. This common understanding among development actors and state institutions is crucial as a first step towards working on the issues of FHH.

Female heads of households from the Sinhala community living in the former border villages have also borne the brunt of the thirty-year war. These women, some of them widowed at a young age, struggle in the aftermath of war to maintain their households. The issues faced by women living in the former border villages have not received much attention by development actors, other than for supporting their livelihood activities. FOKUS WOMEN identified the need to work on issues of female heads of households (FHHs) at the end of Phase One of the FOKUS programme. There was also a need for systematic documentation of information on FHHs who have been affected by the conflict in these areas.

The methodology consisted of a quantitative approach and survey method that was complemented by qualitative information gathered from focus group discussions. A questionnaire was administered to a sample of 351 FHHs that included Sinhala war affected widows in Kebethigollewa and Maha Vilachchiya Divisional Secretariat Divisions (DSDs) in the Anuradhapura district.

FOKUS WOMEN would like to thank Ms. Kanchana Sujananie Bulumulle, Senior Lecturer in Sociology, Open University of Sri Lanka for carrying out the research and writing the report. We also thank Ms. Sheela Rathnayake, Ms. Rupa Gamage and Ms. Kusumalatha from Rajarata Praja Kendraya for carrying out the quantitative and qualitative research for the study.

Shyamala Gomez Country Director FOKUS WOMEN iv A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FROM THE AUTHOR

Ms. Bulumulle wishes to thank the respondents for their stories

and time, Professor Karunatissa Atukorale for his inputs to the

questionnaire and R.A. Niluka Senaratne for data entry assistance.

She also wishes to thank Ms. Sheela Rathnayake, Ms. Rupa

Gamage, Ms. Kusumalatha and staff from Rajarata Praja Kendraya

for their assistance in carrying out the fieldwork. Ms. Bulumulle

also thanks the FOKUS WOMEN team for their support.

FoKUS Women v

CONTENTS

Foreword iii Acknowledgements iv Contents v

Chapter I 1 Introduction 1 War, conflict and post war Sri Lanka 2 War, post war and Sri Lankan women 2 The study 4 Methodology 4 Methods of data collection 5 Analysis 5 Limitations

Chapter II 7 The socio-economic profile of female headed households 7 Level of education 7 Employment and livelihoods 9 Income levels and ownership of immovable assets 10 Nature of the house lived in 11 Access to water for everyday needs 11

Chapter III 13 Effects of the war 13 On educational attainment 14 Violence against women 14 The situation of early marriage 15 Issues of land use and ownership 16 Public services: availability and access 17 Peacebuilding 18 Peace initiatives and activities 19 Participation of FHHs 19 Youth unrest 19

Chapter IV 21 Conclusions 21 vi A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

Chapter V 23 Recommendations 23 Socio-economic status 23 Early marriage 24 Land rights and property issues 24 Domestic and sexual violence 25 Peacebuilding 25

References 26

Annex 1: Statistical information on FHHs in the two DSDs 27 Annex 2: Selected GNDs for the sample 29 Annex 3: Narratives from focus group discussions 31 Annex 4: Questionnaire 38 1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Sri Lanka is an island of 65,610 square kilometers, located in the Indian subcontinent. Demographically, with a population of 20.2 million (Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2013:12), Sri Lanka is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious country. Presently Sri Lanka is emerging from 35 years of civil war (from 1975-2009) based on ethnic issues mainly between Sinhalese and Tamils.

With regard to women and their social status in Sri Lanka, researchers and scholars suggest that they enjoy a more favourable social position than their sisters in other South Asian nations; experiencing less pressure pertaining to dowry and social ostracism (Gunawardena, 2005; Kiribamune,1990; Samarakkody,1983) and this is substantiated to a large extent. For example Sri Lankan women’s general educational achievements are the highest in the region with literacy levels equal to those of women in developed countries. The female literacy rate in 2010 was reported as 90.8 percent, while the male rate was 93.2 percent (Census and Statistics, 2011). Also in terms of population representation, the male female ratio is estimated at 0.96 male(s)/1 female in 20141 and relatively a higher life expectancy for women of 78 year as against 72 for men is evident.

Further the general statistics pertaining to key areas of the labour force participation by the state Department of Census and Statistics in 2011 also projects a view that women’s participation in all three industrial sectors of agriculture, private industries and services, is favourable, with men out numbering women only in the service sector, by 10.7 percent.

However, this macro picture of positive outcomes of women at a more general national level perhaps get challenged by a situation that there are only thirteen women parliamentarians amounting to 5.7 percent of the total (Kuruppu, 2006: 15) women’s noticeably lower representation generally in the decision making and management positions, gendered wage gaps particularly evident in the plantation and rural informal sector and unequal legal rights and restrictions on women’s ownership to property. Further, the Global Gender Gap rank of Sri Lanka coming down to 79th place according to the Global Gender Gap report 20142 is also strongly symbolic of the deteriorating social position of Sri Lankan women. Even more so, the statistical reports

1 SRILANKA SEX RATIO August2014 In Mundi, CIA World Factbook At www.indexmundi.com/sri_lanka/sex_ ratio.html 2 GLOBAL GENDER GAP REPORT http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report 2014/ economies/#economy=LKA accessed 16/02/2015 2 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

reveal that violence against women is at an alarming height of 60 percent or more (CENWOR, 2014). In this regard, some civil society estimates declare that domestic violence has reached a percentage of 80 in Sri Lanka (Marlene Abeywardena, 2013), and that the incidence of rape remains at a high level.

War, conflict and post war Sri Lanka The three decades of ethno-nationalist warfare has been critical in the lives of all Sri Lankans; Tamils, Muslims and Sinhalese alike, ever since its origination in 1975. And now, even after the so called ending of the war in 2009, through military combat and warfare, the negative impact it has left on a post war political and social setting is profound and obstinately intense.

Whilst perhaps acknowledging that the most damage of the thirty year war was suffered by the members of the Tamil minority in the Northern and Eastern provinces of Sri Lanka; who were constantly over-wrought with issues of internal displacement, caught up in the violent combat between the Army as well as the LTTE that affected their lives on a daily basis. However, the impact the war brought on general civilian life as a whole to populations in the other parts of the country particularly the North Central Sri Lanka or even the deep south primarily populated by Muslims and Sinhalese cannot be simply under estimated. The violence and massacres endured by those living in the border villages of the southern part of Sri Lanka where Sinhalese and Muslim populations numerically predominate, appear to have been ignored or forgotten due to the emotional and political preoccupation with the more frequent losses suffered by the Tamil population of the North, who were victimised for a relatively longer period of time. However, the existing evidence and socio-economic situations evident for example particularly in the border villages of Kebethigollewa and Maha Vilachchiya in the Anuradhapura district, shows that the impact of the brutal war had been equally devastating on these other populations as well.

War, post war and Sri Lankan women The gender dimension of the civil ethnic conflict is a very significant one. Hence, attention to the disproportionate impact of war related issues suffered by women in internal conflict situations of displacement, as spouses or partners of combatant men of the Army and the LTTE becomes vital. Reportedly, the war has left a massive number of widows and thereby destitute, both in the North (Vasudevan, 2013)3 as well as the South. Further, the Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) of 2012 by the Department of Census and Statistics also reveal that, out of 5.2 million households in Sri Lanka, 1.1 million (23 percent) households are headed by women, and that more than 50 percent of these women are widows, while the majority of the Female Heads

3 EVERYDAY RESISTANCE: FEMALE HEADED HOUSEHOLDS IN THE NORTH AND EAST OF SRI LANKA by Raksha Vasudevan May 2013 In Graduate Institute Publications, Graduate Institute of International Development Studies Geneva At http://iheid.revues. org/680?lang=en accessed May 2013 FoKUS Women 3

of Households possess an education level of grade 6-10, a 7 percent of them have never attended school (Department of Census and Statistics, 2012: 9-10)4.

Furthermore studies reporting on war widows show that5 the families with single mothers, whose husbands or partners are deceased or missing during the ethnic conflict are the sole breadwinners of their households, and that these women face difficulties when hired for jobs, because these jobs largely focus on men and are therefore male dominated and masculinised. Also, when applying for or when accessing loans, women find it much more challenging than men, to obtain a loan successfully. Further, where financial assistance is granted, the widows may be provided one off payments of several thousand rupees, once the death status of a husband is duly, legally established (Saravanandan,2008)6. The militarization of everyday life and trafficking of women and issues related to land settlement, ownership and use are issues that particularly affect the female heads of households including widows.

On the other hand for the empowerment of these women victims, there have been a multitude of non-government organisations, financial institutions, state and private attempts in support, to assist these widows and other female heads of households (FHHs) to sufficiently overcome their socio-economic deprivations, relieving them of their dependent status in the community and society. These efforts include various women’s groups such as The Mothers Front formed in 1984 and later formed under a coalition called ‘Women for Peace’ or as ‘Mothers and Daughters of Lanka’ and organisations such as ‘Women and Media Collective’ are instrumental in calling for women’s inclusion in peace building strategies and processes.

Similarly, these numerous efforts of empowerment of women have drawn their impetus from formal legal provisions and frameworks available to ensure and safeguard the rights of those victimised by the war. The established international standards promote the protection of women during armed conflict and in post war situations. UN Security Council Resolution 1325 and the CEDAW are critical tools in this regard for promoting and securing gender equality and women’s rights. UN SCR 1325 for example helps to broaden the scope of CEDAW’s application and clarifies its relevance to all parties during conflict and during peace negotiations (Women, Peace and Security, 2000). This resolution (UNSCR1325) contains 18 provisions to support women’s participation in peace negotiation and consolidation. UNSCR 1325 more specifically calls to increase the representation of women at all levels of decision making in institutions that promote security, calls to all parties in conflict and peace building to respond to women’s needs in post conflict justice and governance institutions, to address women’s needs in disarmament

4 Demographic Characteristics: FEMALE HEADED HOUSE HOLDS by the Department of Census and Statistics 24 December 2013 In House Hold Income and Expenditure Survey 2012/2013: preliminary report At http://www. statistics.gov.lk/HIES/HIES2012PrelimineryReport.pdf accessed 16/02/2015 5 THE ECONOMY OF THE CONFLICT REGION By M Saravanandan 2008 In Point Pedro Institute of Development At http://www.pointpedro.org/index.php?option=com_virtuemart&page=shop. product_details&flypage=flypage.tpl&category_id=6&product_id=30&Itemid=72 accessed May 2013 6 THE ECONOMY OF THE CONFLICT REGION By M Saravanandan 2008 In Point Pedro Institute of Development At http://www.pointpedro.org/index.php?option=com_virtuemart&page=shop.product_ details&flypage=flypage.tpl&category_id=6&product_id=30&Itemid=72accessed May 2013 4 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

efforts demobilization and reintegration, to protect girls and women from sexual violence and to end impunity for crimes against humanity and particularly violence against women (VAW). It also calls to secure women’s rights to political participation in the electoral processes implementing peace agreements, to increase women’s participation in peace keeping and peace support operations and in monitoring processes to ensure that the policies and programmes by governments and institutions for eliminating discrimination has been/is positive.

The study The thirty year war in Sri Lanka resulted in the rapid increase of female headed households. The FOKUS 1325 programme focused FHHs as a key target group during phase 1. This enabled FOKUS partner organisations to identify and advocate for addressing those needs and issues with the relevant stakeholders. The further need to compile more systematically gathered information on the post conflict situation particularly of FHHs including widows in the former border villages of the Anuradhapura district, namely those who live in Kebethigollewa and Maha Vilachchiya Divisional Secretariat Divisions (DSDs) is addressed here by. This study therefore, especially conducts an analysis of the Sinhalese community FHHs Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ESCR) and assesses their experience of the ethnic conflict.

Research aims:

1 To identify the prevalence of issues connected with physical security and violence; 2 To assess FHHs access to public services and participation in public life, including local level governance; 3 Access to land and housing rights of FHHs including widows; 4 To identify the prevalence of underage marriage.

Methodology This study is based largely on a quantitative approach and survey method that is complemented by the use of qualitative focus group analysis and triangulation. The data collection was conducted focusing a sample of 351 FHHs that comprise Sinhalese war widows in Kebethigollewa and Maha Vilachchiya DSDs in the Anuradhapura district carried out from September to December 2014.

These respondents representGrama Niladhari Divisions (GNDs) of 38 in both DSDs (Refer Annex 1& 2). The respondents were selected purposively from the villages and GNDs. The partnering organisation, Rajarata Praja Kendraya (RPK) engaged in community development work; conducted the field data collection of this study. Due to time constraints, networking difficulties and accessibility issues created by problems of transportation & travel, climatic conditions and the agricultural engagements of the respondents, the original sample of 500 households had to be brought down to include 351 FHHs in the survey. FoKUS Women 5

Methods of data collection The data collection was conducted by a group of 10 community workers of RPK trained by the researcher, through a three day session in September 2014 that familiarized them with the provisions of CEDAW and UNSCR 1325, identifying the key themes of the study and developing a draft questionnaire and conducting the pilot test in Thanthrimale. The assignment involved monitoring of the data collection particularly during the months of October and November through telephone conversations and emails to the partner organisation and FOKUS WOMEN staff. A weekly schedule and weekly reports on data collection by the partner organisation was proposed and encouraged by the researcher to ensure the effective management of the data collection process from Colombo and to ensure regular and proper collection of data, that otherwise would affect rapport building and the quality of data collected by the interviewers. Once data collection process began, the researcher visited the field on completion of approximately one month of data collection and conducted two Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) (Annex 3) in the two DSDs based on the key themes that were emerging through the field data collection. The Community Based Organisation (CBO), RPK was thereby instructed and provided training to effectively carry out the two subsequent FGDs and provide the resource person with the audio tapes of these discussions for purposes of triangulation and monitoring their quality.

The questionnaires on completion of interviews were sent over to the researcher by RPK for a check and feedback on the data collected. After checking each questionnaire for accuracy of the information collected, feedback was constantly provided to the interviewers back in the field in order to ensure the quality of data gathered. These questionnaires were then entered into a database by a research assistant who was monitored and instructed by the researcher.

Analysis The analysis considers key themes for the socio-economic profile including details regarding employment, income, material assets and access to other basic facilities such as water, shelter and electricity. The status of the FHHs in a post war context in the absence of the traditional bread winner in the family and the sources of financial support available to FHHs as dependents of the primary bread winner is examined. How decision making is dealt with in the daily lives of these FHHs is also dealt with. The aspect of VAW considers the source of violence, the responses to such and the impact of war on VAW and also on FHHs including war widows. The theme of early marriage reflects upon reasons for early marriage, any negative social or biological outcomes of early marriage and the solutions available within the communities to alleviate these. The issues of land use and ownership by women inquire the processes of peace building and possible factors of delay in its progressive institutionalization. The availability, accessibility and the use of public facilities is addressed. Finally these women’s awareness and involvement in peace building is interrogated. The information gathered is analyzed using simple statistical methods in conjunction with qualitative data from FGDs and the journal entries by the field staff to form a more realistic picture. 6 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

Limitations A few limitations were encountered in this research. The difficulty of implementing the originally planned number of 500 FHHs, was caused by the fact that widows as a result of LTTE attacks on the villages alone could not make up the total number for the required sample size, therefore during the first two months, it was decided to include the widows of the Sri Lankan armed forces including Civil Defence Forces7, FHHs whose husbands were missing in action and disabled, widows as a result of accidents during conflicts and health issues, separated and divorced women, and those alienated or left by husbands to constitute the category FHHs. One of the significant constraints in accessing the respondents was the difficulty in traveling to these border villages due to lack of proper transport facilities, climatological conditions and the busy schedules of agricultural work amongst these FHHs that had constrained the field staff.

7 The term ‘Civil Defence Forces’ is used synonymously with ‘home guards’ (gramarakshaka). These home guards/village security persons have been absorbed into the Ministry of Defence under the Civil Security Department. See http://www.csd.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=52&Itemid=59 and http://www.defence.lk/main_abt.asp?fname=orgstr FoKUS Women 7

CHAPTER II

THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF FEMALE HEADED HOUSEHOLDS

The following sample consist a group of female headed households which predominate households headed by war widows and also include separated, divorced as well as women whose husbands are disabled, who are totally responsible for their family’s social and economic wellbeing. The range of categories is therefore considered within the definition of FHHs in this study where the decision making primarily rests on the female head of household; the wife of the family or the female partner in cohabitation.

FHHs Marital Status Number Percentage Widow 302 86% Married 20 6% Separated 15 4% Divorced 3 0.8% Re-married or in a relationship 8 2% No response 3 0.8% Total 351 100

The socio-economic profile looks at the education, income, employment, assets and other basic facilities in assessing the FHHs social background.

Level of education When taking the entire population of the current sample, 7.5 percent never attended school, 26.5 percent primary education, 22 percent secondary, 25 percent O/L, 17% A/L and 2 percent reaching degree level. 8 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

FHHs Level of Education Number Percentage Never attended school 40 11% Primary 124 35% Secondary 66 19% O/L 89 25% A/L 13 4% Degree 01 0.2% No response 58 16.5% Total 351 100

The level of education of the FHHs is notably very poor. The survey information shows that amongst the FHHs 11% have never attended school. 35 percent have received primary education only and 20 percent received secondary level education up to grade ten.

Level of Education of Children Percentage Sons and Daughters Never attended school 2.2% Primary 14% Secondary 20% O/L 37% A/L 24% Degree 2% Total 100

Among the children of these FHHs according to the recorded information of this study that include nearly about 85 percent of the total number of children, however indicate a progressive trend regarding the category of children that never attended school. Comparatively, it is a lesser number of 2.2 percent from the previous generation, which represents an 11 percent improvement on the educational experiences of the first generation of parents. The other significant point being, the majority proportions of primary level educational attainments have shifted in the second generation of children, indicating steady increments in the proportional achievements of O/L (20 percent), A/L (24 percent) and degree (2 percent) level qualifications. This situation therefore confirms that the group who never attended school is higher and relatively more frequent amongst the older first generation group of parents than amongst the children of the second generation. This indicates a slightly more progressive trend. However, the incidence of educational achievement generally is still quite poor when compared to the national average educational attainments8, while it seems to be relatively higher than that of the previous generation.

8 The national level secondary enrolment is over 90% by R.S MedagamaIn NIE Kannangara Memorial Lecture Series 25, p26 2014 At http://www.nie.sch.lk/research/Kannangara%20Lecturer%20-%202014-Eng%20Full.pdf... ac_ March 2015 FoKUS Women 9

Employment and livelihoods

FHHs Employment Category Number of FHHs Percentage Public Sector Work 27 10% Private Sector Work 10 3.5% Agricultural Work 144 53% Business 5 2% Other 17 6% Labour Work 7 2.5% Unemployed 64 23% Total 274 (N 351) 100

Nearly more than a half of the FHHs engage in farming; paddy and chena (shifting) cultivation as their main source of livelihood and income generation. This group represents a percentage of 53. The data also show a very high proportion of unemployment recorded among the FHHs which amounts to an estimate of 23 percent. Their engagement and opportunity for public, private sector or business work is scarce and remarkably low.

Other Family Members Number Percentage Employment Categories Public Sector Work 57 29% Private Sector Work 40 12% Agricultural Work 63 26% Other 3 0.5% Labour Work 7 2.5% Unemployed 56 30% Total number of members 226 (HHs 351) 100

In terms of the information on employment status of the family members, this group largely consists of FHHs children, dependent older parents and relatives, whilst a relatively smaller percentage of male spouses both able and disabled are also represented. When compared with the previous category of FHHs, this group presents a few progressive trends particularly regarding their work involvements in public and private sector work engagement and in the lessening of involvement in labour and other forms of irregular work. Further, the higher involvement in agricultural work in the category of parents also seems to have halved and decreased whereas the unemployment rates appear to be on the rise, which may be indicative of some negative trends.

A fewer number of women are solely dependent on the pension of the husband for their main source of income whilst maintaining a small plot of a home garden for their everyday consumption. Some women with younger children and families do not have any formal rights to the farming land, hence are unable to make much out of agriculture in terms of livelihood. 10 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

The second generation children of the FHHs engage in a range of work such as farming work, in garment factories, as migrant domestic workers, in labour work (kuleeweda) selling labour usually as domestic workers or in farming as in the case of women or as gramarakshaka (home guards/village security persons). Other types of public sector work include few teachers, community workers or some unspecified office workers.

Income levels and ownership of immovable assets

Domestic Income Number of Households Percentage Rs 10,000 and below 174 52% Rs 11,000-Rs 25,000 105 31% Rs 26,000-Rs 50,000 55 16% Rs 51,000- Rs 100,000 3 1%

Total 337 (N351) 100%

The monthly domestic income of these FHHs indicates that 52% of these households live in poverty. This is reflected in the average income reported per month, which is below Rs10,000.00. When these individual categories are further expanded and analysed, it shows that the reported levels of income get even lower than the average national poverty indicator levels for these districts9.

Permanent Ownership of Household Number of Respondents Percentage Husband 45 20% FHHs 121 53% Joint (Nuclear, Extended or Conjugal 35 15% partners) Other 27 12% Total 228(N351) 100%

The ownership of the household indicates that whilst the FHHs expressed that they do exercise the legal ownership in 53 percent of households, an equally larger proportion (47%) also remains outside their legal purview of this legal right, which may be understood with careful caution and skepticism, especially when considering developmental work and female empowerment efforts that would require these women’s ability to take independent decisions regarding the use of land and property. When considering the category of joint ownership (15%); these include situations where an elderly FHH shares her household property within the nuclear family

9 According to the reports of Department of Census & Statistics - Sri Lanka, January 2015 the national poverty level is Rs3924.00. In Anuradhapura it is Rs3713.00 report DISTRICT OFFICIAL POVERTY LINES At http://www.statistics.gov.lk/poverty/monthly_poverty/ accessed Feb 2015 FoKUS Women 11

unit that includes her married children. She may share this property which may or may not have been legally written in her name prior to the demise of her partner or husband. Another situation of joint living that emerged in this study is when a widow or a legally not separated wife/partner continues to live in her conjugal, patri-local marital residence that does not very clearly designate her ownership in the legal documents. The category ‘other’ include situations where widowed or otherwise estranged women/wives/partners returned to their own parents’ families subsequent to the demise or loss of one’s husband or partner and share the household with the parents who are the rightful owners of the land/property. The data gathered shows that out of total of 90 percent FHHs, a proportion of about 20 percent also live in temporarily owned houses by either spouse, other family or close relatives.

Nature of the house lived in

Household Type Number of Respondents Percentage Permanent roofing 257 87% Semi Permanent roofing 27 9% Temporary roofing 13 3%

Permanent floor 245 84% Semi-Permanent floor 32 11% Temporary floor 16 5%

Permanent walls 252 86% Semi-Permanent walls 30 10% Temporary walls 10 3% Total (N351) 100%

From about 82 percent of total FHHs, an estimated 70-72 percent live in houses of permanent nature constructed using permanent building material, whilst a total percentage of about 30 live in houses which are either partly constructed using both temporary as well as permanent or temporary building materials alone. This indicates that people in these villages are largely settling down to their everyday life settings in a post war era.

Access to water for everyday needs Access to drinking water for a significant proportion of these people (around 75%) is either the protected well or the tanks that have been made available to them by the government during the dry season. Only about 15% have pipe borne domestic water connections for this purpose. Common taps are only available to 6 percent while 3% reported using unprotected wells for this purpose, especially during the dry season. A majority of them (around 80%) bathe in the 12 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

traditional tanks (or wewa/ganga) or well for which about 15% said they must travel some two to seven kilometers distance, while 24% said it is at least more than a kilometer. Only about 12% rely on common taps or household water connections for this purpose. It is also evident that about 40-45 percent of the households are using the water provided by the government.

Water for farming and agriculture are mainly through rain water and the traditional tanks. This largely undermines agricultural work during the dry seasons and during droughts that often prevail in this area. One of the main reported constraints to agricultural livelihood is lack of rain for more than three to four months in the North Central Province that had affected these women’s seasonal cultivation work, particularly paddy farming agriculture. FoKUS Women 13

CHAPTER III

EFFECTS OF THE WAR

Reason for FHHs Number of Respondents Percentage War and conflict 199 57% Natural disaster 14 4% Sickness 104 30% Separated 1 0.2% Divorced 14 4% Other (Family dispute) 1 0.2% Total (N351) 100%

This study also attempted to assess the reasons leading these women to become FHHs. The war directly impacted on 57% of these women who lost their spouses due to terrorist attacks on their border villages or indirectly due to war, according to about 30% of the respondents who attributed the primary cause to ‘sickness’ in above table.

Out of the sample of interviewees, nearly 24% receive the salary or the pension of the dead husband, while 72% do not. Out of those who don’t get such financial support, nearly 31% report that their husbands were not public sector employees therefore not a single kind of financial support has been granted to them. Another group of respondents amounting to 23% said that they are not entitled to a pension largely because they were temporary gramarakshaka recruits during the war. Some of these FHHs also revealed that although a onetime payment of Rs 200,000.00 was made, there is no consistent financial assistance of a pension or salary that they are entitled to. Some FHHs (about 2%) also report that because they are not in possession of the documents especially a marriage, death certificate or deeds etc, the authorities have not been able to arrange any kind of assistance for them. Another group of 9% FHHs declared that although they received a ‘pension’ after the death of the husband it has been withdrawn when their husband’s fifty fifth birthday was reached. Significantly some other bigger proportion of FHHs (about 30-35%) declared that although they provided all the necessary documentation to the relevant authorizes, still nothing has happened so far. Thus expressing broadly on the effects of war on these women and those of their families lives, they primarily mention that the absence of their husbands in their lives is greatly felt and many suffered from that loss (about 14 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

47%), and an equally larger proportion referred to the immense emotional and mental trauma the individual women and their families of children (about 39%), parents and other loved ones suffer due to the war. They also mentioned of the loss of rights to husband’s property (9.5%) that was the sole means of survival available to them in times of crisis when taking care of the remaining members in a family and economic hardships (4%) faced due to the cruelty of the war.

On educational attainment A large proportion (35%) of these people revealed that the children dropped out of school prematurely due to their inability to continuously focus on education in any meaningful way, as these children lived in the bunkers and the nearby jungles hiding from late afternoon around 4pm throughout the night. The fear psychosis as well as regular attacks by the LTTE on civilians reportedly made continuous pursuit and engagement in education impossible for these children in war affected communities.

The education of members of these families suffer profoundly from been directly exposed to the war. The schools having to either constantly close and reopen for indefinite periods of time and the psychological trauma of the war has been severely detrimental on successful educational attainment and personal growth in children. These conflict ridden environments further lead to the poor development in the schools in terms of technical facilities, trained teaching staff, infrastructure and social skills necessary for conducting effective teaching and learning exercise, that is much required in conflict afflicted social environments to return to normalcy. The limited availability or total absence of alternative educational avenues and resources to overcome such constraints is also noted and emphasised by the FHHs, including widows and other populations who were victims trapped in the evil arms of the war.

Violence against women FHHs including widows displayed equal reluctance to comment on the question of VAW. After considerable probing, some revealed that they are subjected to emotional, economic as well as physical violence within their own families as well as largely within and by their own communities as well as the society.

When formally raised the question regarding violence during the interview, they responded by 78% denying its presence, 7% in the affirmative, and 5% declared reluctance to share their views and experiences. Even those who agreed to its prevalence, more than 50% of them did not provide any detail. The balance group of respondents said it was mainly found at the community level, while travelling or in public places manifested in the form of psychological, emotional, verbal violence in the form of remarks and abusive personal comments of a violent and sexual nature. The FHHs also revealed that the communal harassments and name calling, gossip and scandals are the predominant form of psychological and emotional violence they suffer apart suffering from having lost their partners protection and care. They pointed out even when they FoKUS Women 15

visit certain authorities in need of formal assistance regarding their problems; such unwelcome sexual advances would be made towards them.

Most of these women referred to instances of emotional and psychological violence and abuse rather than the physical. However, very few women (4 respondents only) ventured that, violence in the household is present in the form of emotional as well as physical not only by their spouses or opposite sex partners, but sometimes from their family members of siblings and parents as well. They also revealed that within the households/ private space of the in-laws, they are much subjected to harassment on the death of the husband which made them leave the in-laws premises and return to their own parents and properties in most of the situations. These women also said that they suffer much violence due to economic stress arising from not having a regular source of income.

The responses to VAW included complaining to police by 25.5%, 1.7 % seek community services and assistance while 1.4% said they do not complain to authorities. When they were asked why they would not seek formal assistance and help to resolve VAW, three to four women responded that the reasons of stigma and shame, lack of knowledge and empowerment, the non-availability of related services within reach in their communities are largely the reasons for lack of strong responses and inaction countering these issues.

The situation of early marriage Approximately 19 percent of the sample married before the age of 18 years. This includes FHHs who had married between the ages of 12 and 17. Another considerable proportion of 29 percent reported being married at ages 18 and 19 years, and another 21% usually as early as 20 and 21 years. At the ages from 22 to 24 years 15% marry, while only 10 percent marry between 25-30 year brackets, while only one percent reported to enter marriage after 30 years in these communities according to this information. A very high rate of early entrance into marriage is observed amongst the FHHs, including widows. In the second generation also, this has largely been followed and become the norm.

The main reasons cited for early marriage is the war (14%) and the lack of education opportunities for the parents and children caused by the war (24%). 3% stated that not having many alternatives or hopes in terms of better life chances or more progressive opportunities was another cause.

The data also reveals that most of these early marriages end in separation, leading to multiple marriages or divorce. Some women though few in number (24) also expressed that these marriages are rather weak unions and the tendency to lead to unhealthy marital relationships and misunderstanding is quite high. Further they mentioned that very often the young fathers and mothers cannot give proper care to their offspring and would usually assign the care of those to their mothers or older women relatives. On the other hand another group of 24 respondents expressed that; the situation of multiple-plural marriages could be caused by men and women 16 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

not entering into these marital relationships legally, but entering marriage through customary practices or cohabitation.

Further responding to the question raised regarding possible negative influences and outcomes of early marriage experienced by the respondents, these women declared, though very few of them, that it resulted in the birth of disabled children and caused family problems due to immaturity and inexperience of these couples. Further they also attributed to disruption of formal school education as well as their status of being widowed so young and early in life.

While about 45 percent responded that there are awareness raising programmes and 20% counseling available for the prevention of early marriage, 12 percent said there were no services or programmes available to address this issue in the communities.

Issues of land use and ownership The most frequently mentioned issues of land use within the current sample are non- possession of legally confirmed and established boundaries for the lands that are being used by the FHHs and their families. Another equally reported concern refers to the non-issued deeds and legal documents of ownership or permits to those plots of lands to their owners: the FHHs and their families, by the government. A third issue raised concerns the inability of these people to furnish with critical evidence of proof and documents required by the government to expedite the necessary processes or securing the land ownerships and rights of the FHHs. These respondents also mentioned that inability to regain and establish ownership over the land acquired by the government during the war for security purposes is another serious issue that requires attention.

Further, these land issues also reportedly cause considerable strain on harmonious communal relationships and coexistence by paving the way for constant conflict between the parties concerned according to 24% of the FHHs. Another 18% feel that it strains relations within and amongst their own families and friends, maintaining goodwill amongst them, whilst 17 percent said that there are no conflicts due to land issues.

The solutions provided by the government for addressing issues pertaining to land use drew the following responses from FHHs. Some 10 percent of respondents said that the government through the Divisional Secretariats has taken steps to issue deeds and licenses to the owners of these plots who did not previously possess such legal documents of proof. Few others (approximately 3%) said that land surveys have been conducted to ascertain the boundaries and to establish ownerships of these lands. They also mentioned that a collective discussion – facilitated by RPK – was held in their areas with the Provincial Land Commissioner, Land Development Officer, Divisional Secretary and Grama Niladhari10. Samatha Mandala (Mediation Boards) were conducted to sort out issues related to land ownership in these villages.

10 Focus Group Discussion with FHHs in Yakawewa village in Kebithigollewa on 4 October 2014. FoKUS Women 17

It was also visible that, some of the more serious issues pertaining to deeds, formal procedures and processes associated with land ownership, land use and land rights are relatively less vocal and unfamiliar issues for these FHHs. Hence their ability and willingness to engage and reflect deeply on these formalities is quite limited and proof of the strained and scanty responses to this question.

Public services: availability and access This research also assessed the FHHs access to and services and public participation. In this regard it was sought to gauge the services and facilities available and accessible to them when conducting their everyday life and in meeting the necessary requirements and standards of civil life. Hence the interviewees were requested to convey details regarding the reality of these facilities and whether those meet their needs and expectations. Thus the FHHs responded regarding several key services ranging from postal services, health care, schools, grocery shops, the central market, banks and the marketing center for their agricultural produce.

Service Type Available Not Satisfactory Unsatisfactory in village/ Available Town in Village/ Town Post office 30% 54% 60% 0% Hospital 20% 61% 60% 2% School 35% 46% 61% 2% Bank 13% 64% Central Market 14% 51% Agri products Marketing Center 14% 56% 44% 0% Grocery Store 48% 22% Total (N351)

The above information can be interpreted and understood within a range of possibilities. The quality of the service received is considered irrespective of whether their location; within the village or the community itself or a long distance away from it. However, the absence of a post office in a village or town may be a strong indicator of its level of development and rural nature. Another indicator would be the distance that you may have to travel in order to obtain this service. For example the respondents revealed that for 42% of FHHs travelled less than 6km to the hospital, whilst 21% travelled 6-25 km and 20%, a distance of 10-25km for same. Hence a relatively larger group of people travel relatively very long and hard distances to obtain these essential services, which cannot in anyway be compared to the experiences of travelling and transportation that exist in the city. Usually the transport services available to FHHs are extremely minimal while the regular transport service covers only about 3-4 bus trips back and forth, to and from the village. The situation regarding the school education service is similar. 18 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

While there are no schools reportedly located in a majority of these FHHs communal villages, the distance they may travel in order to obtain the service is 1 or less than 1 kilometer in 23%, 1.5 to 4 kilometers among 30%, 5 to 9 kilometers by 16% and 11 to 40 kilometers by 13% according to the reports and data of this study.

These realities are also applicable to the services such as agricultural products marketing and sales centers, which are available in the city while being very sparse in local villages. These are more easily accessible particularly to the FHHs who will face extra difficulties in the transportation and negotiation of proper sale of their products within the traditional setup that is less sensitive to needs and values of gender equality.

With regards to the purchase of everyday consumer goods, these women and their families have access to very small boutiques and grocery shops in the villages (48%). However, these offer very limited varieties of goods or choice to these buyers that would always be less gainful and profitable in terms of returns of investment concerning the available goods and products of purchase. Because it is the women who are largely responsible for purchase monitoring of household level consignments of food and consumables within a traditional set up, the nonavailability of more profitable choice of purchase in the vicinity of domesticity will make it harder and more challenging when managing the triple roles of women.

Thus the situation of women, especially the FHHs including widows within the above discussed context of public services should consider provision of more effective and economical transport services to ensure their accessibility by establishing relevant service branches in the village or through the introduction of manageable technological solutions to these communities (For example phone and internet banking or learning facilities). In terms of more basic kinds of services such as post offices and grocery shops, the government and the private business owners could collectively initiate a plan that would effectively address the purchase needs and expectations of these communities and women.

Peacebuilding Peace is perhaps the single most ingredient or constituent element that transcends the personal and reaches out to humanity as a whole, and investment in it is the most lucrative in materialist as well as non-materialist ways. Peace has the power to diminish narrowly focused, selfish individualistic aspirations and replace them with relatively more embracing collective thought and goals that ensures the common good. Peace is a basic need, a necessity and an obligation, anywhere, any country and in any context, black or white, North or South. There is an absolute necessity for communities and societies to be well aware of their role and efforts in maintaining peace and coexistence at all times, at all levels with great commitment, awareness and responsibility.

In communities and societies where peaceful coexistence is disrupted and in disrepute, it needs even more fervent establishment with great caution and intuitive indulgence, particularly by those engaging in post war reconstruction and conflict resolution efforts. Therefore it is of FoKUS Women 19

primary importance how such initiatives are mediated and possessing thorough understanding of the progressive implementation of such initiative. Hence this research considered this elementary factor as an important central feature that is primary to other more peripheral material transformation in post conflict communities.

In this regard we look at three specific aspects. Firstly, the prevalence of peace initiatives by various stakeholders in the war affected villages. Secondly, FHHs participation in peace building, resettlement, reconstruction and conflict resolution efforts in these war afflicted areas. Finally concerns regarding youth unemployment and unrest are raised and have been added to the current analyses as relevant points and dimensions for the comprehensive understanding of successful peacebuilding processes in the post war community in Sri Lanka.

Peace initiatives and activities The data and information gathered revealed very little effort in peace building and reconstruction within these communities. These respondents reported very little knowledge and awareness of such programmes and activities in the bordering villages of Kebethigollewa and Maha Vilachchiya DSDs. Only 12% said there were programmes while 34% said there. were no programmes and another 31 percent who reported a lack of knowledge. Some of the peace initiatives include awareness programmes conducted both by the government as well as by CBOs on ethnic harmony, peace marches, rallies and programmes by Ranawiru Sansadaya, Sewa Lanka, UNICEF, World Vision and the Tamil Diaspora. They also reported of training workshops and talks conducted on positive thinking for the community. The longevity of the effects and transformations of such programmes could however be ascertained only by the consistent and regular commitment towards such pursuit by the initiators and the wider society.

Participation of FHHs FHHs involvement or participation is quite minimal. The data gathered reveals that the FHHs are largely involved (about 70%) in casting their vote at the election and taking part in election meetings and talks (about 20%) by the political candidacy as passive, silent audience. Only less than one percent FHHs reported engaging actively in community organization work. These women expressed their lack of interest in politics and governance while agreeing that time constraints contribute to the lack of participation. Some women were also of the opinion that it was unsuitable to and a mismatch with the traditional ideological image of the ‘good woman’. Two women declared that it is a result of lack of opportunity and information to get involved in these. 20 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

Youth unrest Youth unemployment (especially the male youth) and associated unrest are other potential threats to peace building in post war communities. The young people having only a few options of employment or work that is usually linked to professions in security or Army are cited as potential tendencies promoting violence and conflict culture amongst the youth. Within the sample however only about 16 percent regard this situation as problematic to their families while about 60 percent do not seem to regard it so.

However, for peaceful coexistence in the village communities this causes a potential threat in many ways observed. Largely the responses revealed concerns regarding the tendency for the youth to gang up with one another idling around the community when unemployed. These situations build up to conflictive incidences and associations of unrest and disrupt peace and harmonious co-existence in the community. The already unemployed show a variety of reasons that explain their situations. Most of these frequently mention no opportunities or openings to be employed, not in possession of suitable qualifications and lack of vocational institutes and skilled training opportunities for the youth. Very few males of 18 years mentioned that they are not interested in being employed, whilst some could not work due to disability or illness.

With regards to the situation of young women and girls some special issues that are specific to women have been addressed. These noted reasons are the lack of educational qualifications and skills training, not having proper transport facilities and means to travel to and back from work, not having suitable opportunities that suit their schedules and resources, early marriage and lack of knowledge about the society, lack of political support and not been interested in engaging in professional work outside the home and community. FoKUS Women 21

CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSIONS

Socio economic profiles of female heads of households comprising several aspects of these women’s personal life such as educational achievement, employment and livelihood, income and ownerships and access to basic necessities such as water and shelter reveal significant factors pertaining to their life situations.

The notably very poor level of education of the FHHs with insufficient primary and secondary educational attainments and high levels of non participation (at 11 percent), in formal education are strong evidence of how difficult and challenging life is for those women living in the bordering villages of the war zone. The somewhat relatively better situation seen in the second generation profiles however, from a long term perspective does not indicate any far-reaching change from the previous status quo and still remains below the national averages particularly in educational attainment and employment.

A very high turnover in unemployment rates is recorded among the FHHs with remarkably low levels of engagement in public and private sector employment opportunities and very high engagement in agricultural livelihood. In the second generation children of the FHHs in this regard show that, although a relatively wider range of work involvement is depicted, the children also still remain largely confined to informal sector work categories. The rising unemployment rates in the second generation on the other hand appear to indicate the parallels between these two groups, while probably suggesting the changing attitudes of the second generation in relation to their work choices.

Women’s experience of poor access to basic services and public participation largely caused by the absence of effective and reliable regular transport facilities reaffirms the under resourced situation and neglect suffered by the communities living in the bordering villages of conflict afflicted areas.

The effects of war on civil life is profoundly and equally damaging to all parties engaged in the war; may it be adults or children, the terrorist or the terrorized. The multitude of negativity includes damages caused to the smooth functioning of social institutions of education, work, culture and the value systems. This is profoundly evident when a closer look at singular issues is taken such as, the quality and the outcomes of education, employment, institution of family and marriage, culture and the belief system. The range of issues and negative outcomes in personal as well as everyday social life such as; VAW, disrespect particularly towards right to 22 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

own property by women as well as early marriage and disrupted education are all collective negative impacts and outcomes of the civil ethnic war. The fear psychosis and the emotional trauma experienced facing constant attacks on the physical and mental aspects have caused women, children and adult men much difficulty in performing their duties and responsibilities of everyday life successfully and meaningfully. Similarly, early marriage observed in these areas too is a direct result of the conflicts and the resultant of the lack of education of both parents and children.

Initiating and implementing peace requires utmost committed effort to bring about sustainable outcomes of such effort. The experiences and evidence available within the current analysis suggests, that the existing attempts are rather scanty and scattered efforts of peace building and that it requires much more commitment and further strengthening for more promising outcomes. In conflict resolution and peace building, all forms of differences and bias should be accounted for, addressed and eliminated allowing all men, women and children to work towards peace building alongside each other in unison. FoKUS Women 23

CHAPTER V

RECOMMENDATIONS

Socio-economic status There is great importance and relevance in focusing further on the specific instances and socioeconomic realities of those living in the border villages of Kebethigollewa and Maha Vilachchiya in the Anuradhapura district that have been revealed and emphasised in the current study.

In terms of the FHHs socio-economic backgrounds, the noted incidence of poor educational achievement especially when compared to the national average educational attainments, is a key consideration and requires much committed work and attention towards its improvement.

In this regard the study showed that a very large proportion of children lost interest in school education prematurely due to their inability to continuously focus on education as a result of being exposed to the war. The fear psychosis developed in them through regular terrorist attacks on the villages which largely affected these children and communities. Hence there is an essential need for all educational institutions and schools in these war affected areas to be equipped with highly skilled teaching staff that are adequately sound and trained in supporting the educational needs of psychologically affected, traumatized children.

Further, the establishment and improvement of educational standards in these conflict ridden environments in schools in terms of technical facilities, trained; technically skilled teaching staff, infrastructure and psycho-social skills necessary for conducting effective teaching and learning exercise, is a much required necessity in its return to normalcy in a post war era. On the other hand the limited availability or total absence of alternative educational avenues and necessary resources and transport to overcome restricted educational achievement is emphasised by the FHHs, including widows, and these should be addressed as priority needs.

With regard to employment, the context of rising unemployment amongst the second generation children in the border villages of the Anuradhapura district requires immediate attention. This should be addressed with particular sensitivity to the role and relevance of unemployment in post war peacebuilding as well. 24 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

Improvements to employment would also have to consider the significance of securing the land rights of women and girls, in a context where agriculture is their main livelihood (more than a 50 percent of these FHHs).Poverty prevails amongst a majority of these households (HHs) and it should be dealt with, finding solutions to scarcity of water for agricultural work, lack of proper or regular transportation facilities to take these products into the marketing centers as well.

In terms of household income, a significant proportion of the FHHs had no means of financial survival compensating the immediate loss or separation from one’s spouse. These women had been solely responsible for the upbringing of their children and families in the absence of support or services from the government or other such organisations and institutions. On the other hand, the injustices and stress caused to FHHs in terms of legal and administrative processes and lengthy procedures in the preparation of required documentation in resolving this problem should also be addressed. Especially the officials of the Divisional Secretariats, Urban Councils and Pradeshiya Sabhas should be made aware of the need to regard and respect the needs of the FHHs immediately, seriously and effectively.

Access to drinking water is also a very serious issue for a significant proportion of these people (around 75%) and water for agricultural work. These require immediate attention in the provision of purified drinking water and restoring the irrigation system attending to sustainable economic and community friendly simple restoration processes for rescuing them.

Poor transportation to the village makes the villagers suffer a great deal. This has affected all the important social institutions that especially include education, health needs and employment /income needs of the villagers. Hence transportation facilities in general and quality health service delivery in these pockets in border villages should be strongly ensured as a measure improving the quality of life in these post war areas.

Early marriage The main reasons for early marriage has been attributed to the war and conflict situation, the lack of education of parents and not having many alternatives or hopes in terms of better life chances or more progressive opportunities. This requires careful, insightful, long term planning in terms of raising educational achievement, conducting awareness raising programmes and counseling services for the prevention of early marriage and regulating these programmes which are already available in the communities.

Land rights and property issues The securing of legally confirmed and established boundaries for the lands that are being used by the FHHs and their families is a necessity. Also speedy action and implementation of procedures to obtain legal documents of ownership or license to those plots of lands by their owners: the FHHs and their families, by the government. Action should also be taken to duly regain and establish ownership over the land resources acquired by the government during the war for security purposes of the armed forces. In this regard, attention and effort should also be FoKUS Women 25

made to educate and empower these FHHs on specific details pertaining to such deeds, formal procedures and processes associated with securing land ownership and land rights that are usually very unfamiliar issues to these FHHs.

Domestic and sexual violence It is important for the villagers to challenge the traditional discourse regarding single mothers as FHHs in addressing violence against single mothers in these communities. These women should be thoroughly made aware and empowered with regard to necessary skills and knowledge when faced with the very sensitive issue of all forms of violence leveled against them and break out of silence and inaction when confronted with such issues. In this regards, the service providers who are necessarily highly skilled and knowledgeable should be well thought up and carefully established and made readily available and accessible for FHHs in these communities.

Peacebuilding There is a great need to bridge the everlasting gap and polarization that exist between Sinhalese and Tamil ethnic groups, as well as all ethnic categories nationally. However, within these communities, strategic efforts should be made to build up ethnic cohesion and understanding between Tamils and Sinhalese by moving into areas of common ground rather than polarization.

Further, the sacrifice on the part of these families bordering the war zone and people living in them has been instrumental in the relative feelings of security enjoyed by the people in other regions of the country far removed or less affected by the realities of the conflict. Therefore the government should regard the role of the people in these war affected border villages more appreciatively, seriously and address their issues and problems with more urgency, commitment and understanding. FHHs involvement or participation in peacebuilding efforts is quite minimal and this should be addressed enhanced through the adoption of more meaningful, productive and creative strategies. These would include implementing peace agreements, women’s participation in peacekeeping and peace support operations and in monitoring processes. 26 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

REFERENCES

Abeywardena, M. (2013, November 25). We can end violence against women through a united effort. Retrieved February 15, 2015, from Daily FT Be empowered: http://www.ft.lk/2013/11/25/ we-can-end-violence-against-women-through-a-united-effort/ Cenwor Launches Trilingual Website Dedicated To Violence Against Women. (2014). Retrieved February 15, 2015, from CENWOR: http://www.cenwor.lk/news.php?id=24 Department_of_Census_and_Statistics_SriLanka. (2011, March). Quarterly report, First quarter 2011, Table 7. Retrieved October 23, 2011, from Department of census and statistics Sri Lanka: http://www. statistics.gov.lk/samplesurvey/2011Q1%20report.pdf Department_of_Census_and_Statistics. (2015, January). District Official Poverty Lines. Retrieved February 2015, from Department of Census and Statistics: http://www.statistics.gov.lk/poverty/monthly_poverty/ Department of Census and Statistics (2013, December 24). Demographic Characteristics: Female Headed House Holds. Retrieved December 24, 2014, from House Hold Income and Expenditure Survey 2012/2013: preliminary report : http://www.statistics.gov.lk/HIES/HIES2012PrelimineryReport.pdf Gunawardena, C. (1990). Access to higher education in Sri Lanka. Higher education Review, 23 (1), 53-63. Gunawardena, C. (2005). Not Adding Up;Looking Beyond Numbers:Gender Equity in Higher Education in Sri lanka. Colombo: Open University Press. Kiribamune, S. (1994). Wife battering in Sri Lanka. Some conceptual and methodological issues. Paper presented at the Fourth National Convention on Women’s Studies. Colombo: Center for Women’s Research Colombo. Kuruppu, C. (2006). Parliamentary Handbook. Colombo: Sri Lanka Government Press. Medagama, R. S. (2014 , October 14). National Institute of Education. Retrieved March 5, 2015, from Kannangara Memorial Lecture Series 25: At http://www.nie.sch.lk/research/Kannangara%20Lecturer%20 -%202014-Eng%20Full.pd Mundi. (n.d.).Srilanka Sex Ratio. Retrieved August 2014, from CIA World Factbook: www.indexmundi. com/sri_lanka/sex_ratio.html Samarakkody, A. (1983). Woman’s status and fertility rates in Sri Lanka. Michigan, USA: University Micro films international. Saravanandan, M. (2008 ). The Economy Of The Conflict Region. Retrieved from Point Pedru Institute of Development :http://www.pointpedro.org/index.php?option=com_virtuemart&page=shop.product_ details&flypage=flypage.tpl&category_id=6&product_id=30&Itemid=72accessed The_Central_Bankof_SriLanka. (30 March 2012). Central Bank Annual Report 2011. Colombo: The Central Bank: Government of Sri Lanka. The_Central_Bankof_SriLanka. (2013).Central Bank Annual Report 2012. Colombo: The Central Bank: Government of Sri Lanka. Vasudevan, R. (2013, May). Everyday Resistance: Female Headed Households In The North And East Of Sri Lanka. Retrieved February 15, 2015, from Graduate Institute Publications, Graduate Institute of International Development Studies Geneva : http://iheid.revues.org/680?lang=enaccessed Weforum. (2014). Global Gender Gap Report. Retrieved February 15, 2015, from eports.weforum.org/ global-gender-gap-report-2014/economies/#economy=LK FoKUS Women 27

ANNEX 1 Statistical information on FHHs in Kebithigollewa DS division – 2013 GN GN Division Population Information Division No. of No. of No. of Total No. of No. of Nunber Families Females Males Population Widows widows proposed for the sample 16 Kirimetiyawa 256 346 368 714 37 12 17 Thimbiriwewa 266 410 417 827 37 12 18 Kebithigollewa 726 1524 1409 2933 65 21 19 Gonuhaddenawa 225 371 378 749 43 14 20 Waththewewa 362 574 544 1118 59 19 21 Kiriketuwewa 455 815 898 1713 55 18 22 Sinhala 192 312 310 622 34 11 Etaweerawewa 23 Pahala Usgollewa 303 533 439 972 66 23 24 Aiyathigewewa 410 615 637 1252 80 26 25 Gonameriyawa 394 618 645 1263 42 14 26 Kunchuttuwa 218 308 311 619 47 16 27 Halmillawetiya 345 571 569 1140 77 27 28 Kanugahawewa 270 571 399 970 48 17 29 Eethalviddawewa 194 364 371 735 27 8 30 Galawewa 320 519 484 1003 64 21 31 Bandaraulpatha 188 280 291 571 26 8 32 Kurulugama 518 826 985 1811 44 15 33 Thittagonewa 313 494 538 1032 40 13 34 Thammannewa 211 298 283 581 42 14 35 Herath Halmillewa 135 197 92 289 26 9 36 Kahatagollewa 207 340 344 684 50 17 37 Bellankadawala 217 366 340 706 37 12 38 Punchimudagama 107 162 179 341 15 5 39 D 4 Wahalkada 217 336 352 688 29 9 40 D 5 Wahalkada 262 440 459 899 32 10 41 D 6 Wahalkada 140 202 220 422 15 5 TOTAL 7,451 12,392 12,262 24,654 1,137 375 total sample Data Source: District Resource Profile - Anuradhapura District Secretariat 28 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

Satistical Information on FHHs in VilachchiyaDS division – 2013 Population Information No. of GN widows Division GN Division No. of No. of No. of Total No. of proposed Number Families Females Males Population Widows for the sample 356 Dunumadalewa 280 412 403 1,022 20 9 357 Helambagaswewa 219 443 435 794 16 7 358 Oyamaduwa 457 805 793 1,641 18 8 359 Maha Vilachchiya 331 598 577 1,203 17 9 360 Kuda Vilachchiya 323 651 588 1,184 12 5 361 Kiralpetiyawa 286 598 568 1,085 11 5 362 Pemaduwa 389 740 724 1,510 14 6 363 Randuwa 437 815 749 1,465 17 7 364 Palugaswewa 301 652 546 1,167 9 4 365 Mannaramhandiya 369 1011 963 1,665 19 7 366 Thanthirimalaya 304 498 518 1,215 18 7 367 Dematamalgama 329 558 532 1,217 23 12 368 Nelumvila 451 1325 1324 1,691 21 9 369 Sandamaleliya 376 738 817 1,468 19 8 370 Athdathkalliya 349 558 484 1,240 17 7 371 Navodagama 454 999 939 1,657 19 8 372 Thuppitiyawa 306 558 565 1,102 16 7 TOTAL 5,961 11,959 11,525 22,326 286 125 total Data Source: District Resource Profile - Anuradhapura District Secretariat - 2012 FoKUS Women 29

ANNEX 2

Selected GNDs from Kebithigollewa for sample 16 Kirimetiyawa – Kirimetiyawa, Udangawa, Handagalaralapanawa 17 Thimbiriwewa - Kovilbeddawewa, Handalagama 18 Kebithigollewa - Kebithigollewa, Horowpathaana para, Visse (20) Wela 19 Gonuhaddenawa - Ikiriyagollewa, Gonuhaddenawa, Galkadawala 20 Waththewewa - Waththewewa, Appuwewa, Mahapuliyankulama 22 Sinhala etaweerawewa - Sinhala etaweerawewa, Elapathwewa, Garida ulpatha 23 Pahala Usgollewa – Pahala Usgollewa, Ihala Usgollewa 24 Aiyathigewewa - Aiyathigewewa 25 Gonameriyawa - Gonameriyawa, Kolibendawewa, Medawewa, Guruhalmillewa, 26 Kunchuttuwa- Kunchuttuwa, Dutuwewa, Maha ralapanawa, Kela puliyankulama, Maha halmillewa 27 Halmillawetiya – Yakawewa, Halmillawetiya, Vihara Halmillewa 28 Kanugahawewa - Kanugahawewa, Thalgahawewa, Nikawewa 29 Eethalvidda Wewa – Puliyankulaya, Galkandewa 30 Galawewa – Rambakepuwewa, Mahanetiyawa 31 Bandaraulpatha-Bandaraulpatha, Kalawedi Ulpatha 33 Thiththagonewa – Thiththatagonewa, Mahakatuwaragollewa, Mahana Beddawewa 34 Thammannawa - Thammannawa , Siyambalagaswewa 35 Herath Halmillewa- Herathhalmillawa, Maha Olugaswewa 36 Kahatagollewa - Kahatagollewa, Mawathawewa 37 Bellankadawala – Bellankadawela Konwewa, Pahalawe (15) Kanuwa 38 Punchimudagama – Punchimudagama, Kaduruwewa 40 D 5 Wahalkada - D 5 Wahalakada 41 D 6, Wahalkada - D 6 Wahalakada, D 7 Wahalakada, D 8 Wahalkada 30 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

Selected GNDs from Maha Vilachchiya for the sample 356 Dunumadalewa - Dunumadalewa 357 Helambagaswewa – Helambagaswewa, Nabadagasdigilya, Elapathgama 358 Oyamaduwa – Oyamaduwa, Perunkulama 359 Maha Vilachchiya – Maha Vilachchiya, Bogashandiya 361 Kiralpetiyawa - Kiralpetiyawa 362 Pemaduwa - Pemaduwa 363 Randuwa- Helambagaswewa 364 Palugaswewa– Yaya Thuna (3), Ashokamaalaagama 365 Mannaramhandiya - Mannaramhandiya 366 Thanthirimale – Thanthirimale, Ruwangama, Dodamvila, Ihala Thanthirimalaya, Medawachchieliya 367 Dembatamalgama - Dembatamalgama, Bogoda, Kivulekada, Ruwanpura 368 Nelumvila - Nelumvila 369 Sandamaleliya – Sandamalgama, Sandamalgama 370 Athdathkalliya- Millawetiya 372 Thuppitiyawa – Godagahawewa, Siyambalagaswewa FoKUS Women 31

ANNEX 3

NARRATIVES FROM FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS

Backgrounds

Kebethigollewa FHHs including widows representing GNDs: 27 Halmillawetiya, 18 Kebethigollawa, 28 Kanakanugahawewa.

The representatives of the FGD mostly include widows by the 2006.06.15 LTTE bus bomb which exploded in Yakawewa village in Kebethigollewa, some through illness in the liver and other forms of illnesses. Some reported that their husbands had been abducted during chena cultivation or tending to cattle on the farm land. These women were of 26-35 years of age with small children or largely school going children when the disaster befell them. They are mainly farmers, engaged in irregular labour work, except for one who is a teacher in the village school. About 5 to 7 reported that they do receive the pension of their husband or received it after the death of their husbands.

Maha Vilachchiya In Maha Vilachchiya, and Thanthrimale the group of widows represented those who lost their husbands mainly due to illness, missing due to abduction, divorce and separation. Few women received the pension, whilst the others reported not receiving any form of compensation. These women are largely dependent on the pension of the husbands and agriculture for their livelihood. Some revealed that they are not paid the pension after the age of 55.

Child marriage

Kebethigollewa Anura Kumari became a widow; at 27 years with three children. Her eldest daughter got married at the age of 16. Her husband was addicted to drugs (ganja) . There had been constant fights and arguments in their relationship from the very beginning of their marriage. They were 10 years apart in age, and had one child between them. Later the husband found a job as a gramarakshaka. They got a piece of land from one of her relatives who gifted it to their daughter and they took a loan and built a small house on that land. Since her daughter signed for the loan, she had to pay it back as her husband refused to do so; so she went abroad and settled the loan. While she was abroad, her husband filed for divorce and when her daughter refused to 32 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

grant the divorce, he came to their house and tried to murder her daughter with a knife. She was admitted to hospital and kept there for about 2 weeks, he was taken into custody, but the very next day from this assault, he was released on bail!. When the daughter returned from the hospital, they were all very frightened for her life as he kept threatening to kill her. She granted him the divorce to ensure safety, and gave her son to the temple and went back abroad.

Maha Vilachchiya Mala said her husband was also a home guard/village security person (gramaarakshaka), in 1997 he was paid a salary of Rs2000.00. She had 4 children, 3 girls and a boy and his salary was not enough, therefore she did many other odd jobs and labour work in order to meet expenses. When the son grew up, he got a job in the Civil Defence Force and fed the family. They also had to abandon their property and live in another village for safety, and they would frequently spend the night in the jungle. The children therefore could not do their education well and left school and got married at 18 and 19 years. There were no land issues, as the lands were sorted out from the very beginning.

There are a lot of FHHs including war widows who married as early as 15 or below 18 in these villages. The main reason is they said “we are very uneducated, not having received a proper formal education. This is the main reason for it. Now most of these women do know that, getting into early marriage so young is wrong and should not to be done. There is no proper knowledge regarding the gravity of marital relations, marriage or even adult emotions such as love. For some of these women, it had been their parent’s wishes to get them married early and the children did not know how to disagree to such a decision, which was a big disadvantage. Now, been widowed so young, we suffer from such decision. However, we are very strongly resolved not to let the same thing happen to our children”.

Impact on children and camp life

Kebethigollewa Mallika lost 15 members of her family including 5 sisters and their family members from the LTTE bus bomb in 2006. She was suicidal herself, having survived with her small child who was about 5 years old. “We were in the temporary camp; it was a very difficult life. However, people from my village helped me to stand up and face this life for the sake of my child. My husband’s family had no contacts and could not help me either as they were also very troubled by the war, I also did not seek their help, knowing their difficulties. Now my child is about 15 years old. But there is a huge impact on his behavior, he is very stubborn and refuses to attend school. He has joined a gang of boys loitering around the village.”

Manel is a teacher. She said that her child was only 4 when the husband was killed by the LTTE shootings. “He is now over attached to me, would not leave me for a even a day, but his over whelming attachment scares me. I think my child is mentally insecure and thinks that something FoKUS Women 33

might happen to me as well. I worry for him. This is a serious problem for children. These children have lived in these camps for years, their attitudes, thinking and behavior are so different and coarse. They are not interested in the pursuit of education. Their teachers are also not aware of how they should be looking after them and treating these children. They also contribute to discriminatory treatment of these children who are distressed by the war. Sometimes, their skills are not recognized and they are not encouraged to develop their talents and improve those. Not having their fathers has led to them being excluded from opportunities in school, especially by the teachers and fellow community members. They give these opportunities to their favourites, better off children and boys, who don’t have those bitter experiences. Therefore the distressed children refuse to go to school due to this unfair treatment. This is the double jeopardy for war widows and FHHs. This happened to us even in sports, even if our children won, still they would not be chosen. Our deprivation and loss is held against us to even further worsen our situation, especially with regard to attitudes towards our innocent war affected children, which has put their life chances at a heavy/severe risk. During post conflict resolutions, these issues and issues of similar nature have received relatively very poor attention. But these are very significant problems that require attention and the understanding of all stakeholders of the war.”

Sumana said that they used to go back home during the day and stay in the jungle at night. When the LTTE attacked the village, we moved into temporary security camps. The experience of camp life was another big challenge. The space was so small, we had a small space separated by plastic sheets (itiredda) and there was no privacy at all, there were many families housed in the same camp. There was lot of conflict going on within these camps, as these people were from different villages and were strangers to each other. Lots of goods and things were stolen and lost. Education of the children was really disturbed; the children from the camp went to school after 1.30pm and only for two hours. This had a really bad effect on the children’s education and aspirations. Finally when we returned to our own villages, it was such a big relief. Many organizations helped us settle back in to life, and we are really grateful for that.

The camp was set up in the school premises and with all our poor mental situations, we were also asked to leave these premises and to build up our own houses. Those who had very young children could not comply with this requirement, so they suffered even more, unable to leave behind their children and attend to house construction etc. We had no support in this regard, adjusting to these demands. Despite their school education being limited to two hours a day, when these children went to school, they were segregated and called ‘camp children’ and treated discriminatively by the city folk, both by parents and children. This was really bad influence on the already damaged mentalities of these poor child victims and they hated their educational experience and having to attend school. Back in the village, our school has only 5 class rooms and grades from 1-5. We have 5 teachers and 60 children in our school in Yakawewa. 34 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

Land rights and property issues

Kebethigollewa When my husband was alive, we worked on our own farm land and we also built up our house in the common property that belonged to his mother. However it was not written in his name. This was jointly used by all the members in the family commonly. We had two acres that we cleared and prepared for cultivation spending our money. My husband’s father also owns about 7 acres of land. My husband was the eldest in his family; his brothers were all very small then and could not engage in cultivation work. It was my husband who cultivated the farm land and fed the family along with his parents. When my husband was killed by the LTTE in 2006, I also went to live in another village with my children. There was no way I could cultivate on them as the children were small 13, 8 and 1 years respectively and I had to educate them somehow. Now these lands are used by his family; his brothers who are now adults, and the land that we cultivated is leased out to another outsider by his mother, who was holding the license to this land. Hence we cannot work on our own farm, now that the children are bigger. My daughter is 21 years and married with a child, and my boy is 16 years. They need these properties now to work, and these were used by us before and they have the right to these from their father. We did not receive any benefit from these by way of our shares of money or cultivation. When we ask for these lands to be returned to us, his mother says that when she is dead, we can have them. But there is no evidence as to what has really happened to these lands. I would be very grateful for any assistance from some agency to get this matter sorted out and to do justice to my children and me by it. We live in Vissewela because I wanted to educate my children”.

The RPK staff added that the Urban Council surveyor and the Provincial Council chief surveyor conducted a workshop for the Grama Niladharees to educate them regarding surveying. The Divisional Secretary felt that this is one of the main constraints for the Grama Niladharees inability to intervene effectively and resolve land disputes in the village. RPK mediated in this process to meet the community and the government officials concerned.

Maha Vilachchiya Kusumawathie lost her husband while he was working in the Archaeology Department. She receives her husband’s pension of Rs14,000. When the government granted lands through Jayabhoobi permits, they hadn’t been eligible as they were beneficiaries of government workers. They felt it was very unfair.

Domestic and sexual violence

Kebethigollewa Nilanthi is a young widow. She reported that “when I went to get a letter from the Grama Niladnaree of Kebethigollewa for his signature certifying the letter for my land, to sign the letter he asked me to pay a sum of Rs 20,000.00. We tried to complain to the Land Registrar in this FoKUS Women 35

area with the help of RPK, but it has no resolution so far, so I gave up on that essentiality. This sort of bribes and force from similar parties in everyday life is a regularly experienced by most widows who do get the pension of their dead husbands. Not only that, sexual violence is also very common. For example when we go to some work done in a state office, they would ask for our telephone numbers and keep calling and pestering us to have sex with them making indecent suggestions and proposals. This is very common and extremely problematic and causes much fear in single, unattached and destitute widows.

Some women said that at the community level their experience of such violence is limited as the entire community is related to each other one way or another.

“When we were in the village, the men were also abducted by the LTTE. My husband and two brothers were taken and gone missing while they were working on the farm. I am still hoping that he would return, as we did not find their bodies. It still has been not confirmed . During such attacks some of the women were also sexually assaulted. One of the older grandmothers had a bottle stuck into her vagina, assaulted and killed. There was a lot of physical violence towards civilian women as well. It was so frightening. Some of the villagers also died from the attacks of the reptiles in the jungle, when we hid there for escape. We were hit from all sides. It was so bad.”

Maha Vilachchiya “I was only 27 when my husband died. The violence from the community at times was profound and unbearable. But I faced it somehow and raised my children. Sometimes, sexual violence was by the state officials. I had to do labour work to keep our income going and send my children to school. Economic pressure was huge, also engage in agriculture. As a woman without my husband, I faced numerous difficulties. Even if I dressed well and ate well, I used to receive so much of curiosity and criticism from the community. There was gossip about war widows”.

“Not aware of such a situation”.

“Domestic violence by the husband’s family who distanced us and had no contacts or sup- port extended”.

“It was a very difficult and lonely life. But we didn’t want to marry a second time, as the partners might risk the life of the growing up children”.

“There are lots of minor and major incidences of violence. However, we cannot discuss them in a large group of people”.

“No one has ever asked us how we lived our lives during and after the war, or how we faced this challenge with our small children. Also, no one has ever asked us the impact the evil war had on our children’s lives or what it has done to theirs. It is not until you asked this question from us and we feel that very much”. 36 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

Public services: access and availability

Kebethigollewa “Before the bomb in the bus exploded in 2006, we had requested the Pradeshiya Sabha minister to clear the sides of the road for a few meters, because it was a huge threat to our security, having the road banks covered by the thicket. But he paid no heed to our constant appeals and didn’t do anything about it. But immediately after the bomb blast, they sent out bakos and dowsers to do their burial of about 70-80 bodies. Not only that, after this attack we were all in huge shock, moved to the camps. In terms of income generation, we have requested a community farm project to be established for the 31 families in this village. The politicians agreed but so far nothing has happened”.

“We must travel 8 miles from the village to the hospital, we have no other alternative facilities available here. Transport to the village is very poor. Only four trips and the bus does not come after 3pm. The bus breaks down at least twice a week. The school service does not come to Yakawewa, the crowd for the morning trip is too big, and they all cannot get into the bus. Some days, some of the school children cannot go to school due to this great difficulty”.

Those who had husbands who served as security personnel informed that obtaining the pension was not materialized as they could not provide their birth certificates as this was not the traditional practice of the villages in this generation of those who were born in 1970s or before. Although these people had the marriage certificates in their possession, the Divisional Secretary and other government officers always bring up the issue of birth certificates and this requires support and investigation as a large number of widows are affected by it. For some of the widows of 1994 or 2001 as old as 20-13 years, these have still not been resolved.

Maha Vilachchiya Kamala’s husband went missing when the children were very small. As there was no means of survival she left her children with parents and went abroad. Her husband had been a police constable. When she asked the police to help to get his salary, they said the service number given was wrong and said to sort this matter out with the Police Headquarters (PHQ) and nobody from this area helped. This was beyond her capability to attend to the PHQ, so she gave up the matter. The husband’s family did not help, it was her family who gave her lands and supported her.

“The public services are better in this area now with hospitals, better roads, transport, schools and post office etc. This was not so earlier”.

These widows also expressed their feeling that “the war widows are largely cornered and illtreated as a less privileged category in Sri Lankan society”. FoKUS Women 37

Peacebuilding

Kebethigollewa “We have an exclusive group of all Sinhalese people in these villages. Through the community integration institute a programme was initiated where these villagers were taken to visit the Tamil bordering villages of Thekkawatte. This helped to clarify many things and clear lots of doubts. It was a very pleasant experience. We exchanged hospitality. They brought us clothes and food items, we did the same. We had many such programmes to exchange our experiences of the war. We visited the areas of Mankulam, Jaffna andNagadeepa . During the RPK initiated Mankulam visit, women in Mankulam thought that the Sinhalese villages were unaffected by the war. A mother showed us the picture of her daughter’s wedding photo and said that the LTTE killed their daughter because she escaped the organisation came home and got married. We got to know about a lot of things”.

Maha Vilachchiya “We used to feel very angry towards the Tamil nationals of Sri Lanka because of what happened to us, but now that feeling of anger is less than it used to be. Because we are now better aware of their stories of the war, which are very similar to ours”.

“Today we feel much happier because there is peace, even though there are severe economic hardships and other forms of social inequalities. We were very courageous and lived in these border villages. In fact, this sacrifice on our part is the reason why the city folk are able to carry on their better life styles in them, less affected by the war. We deeply feel that the govern- ment should regard our role in the war situation more appreciatively and address our issues and problems with more urgency and understanding”. 38 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

ANNEX 4

QUESTIONNAIRE

A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households including Widows and Their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Anuradhapura District (border village sin Kebithigollewa and Maha Vilachchiya DS divisions) - 2014

Questionnaire No: Name of the Enumerator Date

1 Divisional Secretariat (DS) Division 2 Grama Niladhari (GN) Division 3 Name of the village 4 Respondent’s name 5 Respondent’s age 6 Address 7 Information about the family (Information of all family members is necessary) No Name of the Relationship to Age Marital status Education Disability member the respondent 1 Respondent 1 Married 1 Not 1 No attended to disability school 2 Husband 2 Unmarried 2 Primary 2 Hearing

3 Son 3 Widowed 3 Secondary 3 Visual

4 Daughter 4 Separated 4 GCE O/L 4 Speaking

5 Nephew 5 Divorced 5 GCE A/L 5 Physical

6 Niece 6 Other 6 Bachelors 6 Mental

7 Other male 7 Post relative graduate 8 Other female 8 School relative leaver 9 Not a relative

1 Respondent 2 3 4 5 FoKUS Women 39

8 Employment information (Information of all family members above 16 should be included)

Other above) Private Private of the of Farming Farming Business Business Labourer Labourer (mention) (mention) Number member member in the chart in the chart Government Government Unemployed Unemployed (as mentioned mentioned (as

9. Information of assets and income Nature of Extent Ownership Not the land (Acres) permitted 1 Permanent owner 1 Temporary/ leased/ deed of gift 2 Sole ownership for 2 Sole ownership for husband husband 3 Sole ownership for wife 3 Sole ownership for wife 4 Joint ownership 4 Joint ownership 5 Other 5 Other Land with the house Other land Paddy land

9.1 What are your movable properties? Nature of the movable property Description for available property or specify is none is available Vehicles Saving bills Fixed deposits Shares

9.2 Monthly expenses of the family (Specify the approximate expenses of the previous month) Necessity Cost Necessity Cost Food Telephone Education Social expenses 40 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

Health Agriculture Transport Cigarettes/liquor Electricity Other Water Other 9.3 Select the category of your gamily monthly income from the list below Rs. 10000 Rs. 10,000 and less than 25,000 Between Rs. 25,000 and 50,000 Between Rs. 50,000 and 100,000 Over Rs. 100,000

10. Nature of the house House Roof Floor Walls 1 Permanent 2 Temporary 3 Semi permanent 4 Other

11. Source of drinking water Source Dry season Distance (meters) Rainy season Distance (meters)

1 Domestic pipe water 2 Common tap 3 Secured well 4 Unsecured well 5 Tank or river (wewa or ganga) 6 Other

11.1 Sources of water for bathing and washing Source during the dry season Distance (meters) Source during the rainy season Distance (meters)

11.2 Sources of water for farming During the dry season During the rainy season

FoKUS Women 41

12. Information on the war and its effects

12.1 Reason to become a FHH 1 War 2 Natural disaster 3 Sickness 4 Divorce 5 Separation 6 Other 12.2 Is your husband still alive? 1 Yes 2 No 12.3 If he is alive, disabled or not? 1Yes 2 No 12.4 Who makes decisions in your family? Decision You Elderly Son or elderly All daughter or male relative daughter-in-law Domestic activities Children’s education Family health Spending and taking loans Social Political 12.5 Do you receive the pension of your husband? 1 Yes 2 No If not, why? Did not deserve a pension No government job Unable to provide necessary documents Other

13. Security and violence 13.1 Do you face any issues related to your security? 1Yes 2No 3Do not want to respond

13.2 If yes, what are they? From where Physical Sexual Mental 1 Community 2 Home 3 Work place 4 Roads 5 Transportation 6 Other 42 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

13.3 What is your response when faced with violence? 1. Lodging a police complaint 2. Accessing community services 3. Not complaining to anyone 4. No violence

13.4 Reason for not complaining when faced with violence 1 Fear 2 Shame 3 Lack of knowledge 4 Lack of social services 5 Other

13.5 How do you feel the effects of war within your house? 1 Lost husband’s property 2 Lost property 3 Mental depression (for yourself) 4 Mental depression (for family members) 5 No income for family 6 Other

13.6 What are the problems you face/faced as a widow? 13.7 Do you work at night? 1 Yes 2 No 13.8 If yes, what are the issues you face? FoKUS Women 43

Under age marriage and the protection of girls 14. At what age were you married?

14.1 If you got married under 18 years old, has it affected you in a negative way? 1 Yes 2 No 3 Not willing to respond

14.2 If yes, please explain 14.3 Specify physical and mental status of the children born during this time period 1 Not well 2 Normal, healthy children 3 Difficult to take care as parents are young 4 Other

14.4 Reasons for under aged marriage 1 War 2 Lack of education 3 Lack of future prospects 4 Other 5 Other

14.5 Does your family practice polygamy? 1 Yes 2 No 3. Not willing to respond

14.6 If yes, what are the reasons? 1 Under age marriages 2 Lack of registration of marraige 3 Lack of education 4 Lack of knowledge 5 Other

14.7 What are the solutions available to reduce polygamy? 1 No ceremony programmes 2 Counseling 3 Awareness 4 Other 44 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

Land ownership and enjoyment by women 15 Issues related to land ownership and use Issue Mark as √ How they affect Undecided boundaries No issuance of land permit Lack of ownership documents Cannot get back possessed lands Other

15.1 How does unclear boundaries affect social relations? 1 Frequent conflicts 2 Bad relationship among family members 3 No problems 4 Other

15.2 What are the solutions taken by the Government to solve the above issues?

Organizing for peace 16.1 Are there any State sponsored programmes for peacebuilding? 1=Yes 2 = No 3 = Do not know If yes, what are they?

Programme Who participated 1 You 2 Another family member 1 2 3 4

16.2 How does unemployment among youth affects peace? 1 Loitering 2 Creating conflicts 3 Youth unrest 4 No additional jobs for security sector 5 Other FoKUS Women 45

16.3 Does youth unemployment affects your family? 1 Yes 2 No

16.4 If yes, Member who faces the issue Age Situation 1 No employment 2 No employment opportunity 3 No training 4 No opportunity for training 5 No qualificatios for a job 6 No time for a job 7 Unemployed due to disability 8 Not willing to do a job 9 Other

16.5 Are there any special reasons for female youth unemployment? 1 Yes 2 No

16.6 If yes, what are they?

17 Do you participate in political activities in your village/division? Yes No

17.1 If yes, what are the political activities? Active participation Inactive, normal participation 1 Political decision making 1 Voting 2 Political organizing 2 Meetings 3 Political awareness 4 Updating personal knowledge on politics regularly

17.2 If not, what are the reasons you do not participate in political activities? 46 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

17.3 Are you employed? 1 Yes 2 No

17.4 Do you face any challenges while you are doing your job? 1 Yes 2 No

17.5 If yes, what are they?

17.6 If you are unemployed please state the reasons?

Public services 18 Access to public services Service Where (if there Distance Did you Feedback/ is no service, receive the Information write ‘no’) service? about the services received Post office Hospital School Divisional Secretariat Bank Cooperative office Money lending office Agriculture products selling center Private medical center Boutique Public Market FoKUS Women 47

18.1 Have you obtained loans? 1 Yes 2 No

18.2 If yes, Money lending agency Nature of the Amount 1.Paid If not paid loan 2.Not paid reasons 3.No loans

18.3 Educational facilities Name of the school Category No. of No. of A/L A/L Science A/L Maths 1 Primary students teachers Commerce section section 1.Yes 2.No 2 Secondary section 1.Yes 2.No 1.Yes 2.No

18.4 Facilities in the school Facility Yes √ No x 1 Laboratory 2 Musical instruments 3 Playground 4 Computer lab 5 Adequate English teachers 6 Adequate Science teachers 7 Adequate mathematics teachers 8 9

18.5 What are the common issues on education?

18.6 Are there any specific issues that affects education of girls? 1 Yes 2 No

18.7 If yes, what are they?

18.8 How has the war affected education? 48 A Report on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Anuradhapura District

18.9 What are the health facilities accessible to you ? Service Government Private Maternity clinics Children’s clinics Midwifery service General clinics (kidney)

18.10 What are the main issues related to your health? 1 2 3 4 5 6 No issues 18.11 Are there any special sicknesses in your family? If yes, what are they? 18. 12 Is there any sustainable counseling services to heal the negative impacts of war? Government Private or other 18.13 Is there any special/ important issues that you have not mentioned above? If yes, what are they?

19 Do you know about the Security Council Resolution 1325? Yes No If yes, what do you know?

19.1 How do you know about this resolution?

19.2 Is this knowledge useful for your life? 1 Yes 2 No If yes, how?

A REPORT ON THE STATUS OF FEMALE HEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS AND THEIR ACCESS TO ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS ANURADHAPURA DISTRICT: KEBETHIGOLLEWA AND MAHAVILACHCHIYA Sri Lanka has witnessed a rise in the numbers of female-headed households (FHH) after the war. This includes those FHH in the North and East and also the ‘military widows’ in the South. Ad hoc interventions by the state and by civil society have resulted in their concerns not being addressed meaningfully. A welfarist ‘hand outs’, ‘one size fits all’ approach to interventions has meant that their basic human rights to physical security and right to be free from violence, socio economic, civil and political rights and their psycho social needs have not been addressed.

FHH from different communities face various challenges. The FHH in the former border villages struggle with young widows who have married at a young age and now have to provide for their households while FHH in the North face militarization and threats to their physical safety due to their physical vulnerability in addition to unsafe housing. Further, FHH in the North are discriminated against by the Tesawalamai law, which curtails their rights of ownership to land in the absence of a spouse. FHH also face several obstacles when they access government services such as health facilities. They also have to bear the brunt of being main provider to the household and to take on the responsibilities that come with this role. The stigma and cultural ostracism they face also needs to be tackled. The tracing of missing or disappeared spouses during the war and those in detention is another concern that needs urgent attention.

The state also needs to address the needs of very young women who have been widowed at an early age and the high numbers of elderly FHH in the North. In addition, economic and social security for these FHH, their social welfare are concerns that need state intervention. These concerns of FHH need to be addressed with their participation. A platform that provides them with a space to take decisions and gives them the opportunity to participate in decision-making on their issues needs to be created.

A lack of clarity on who a FHH is has hampered these interventions at every level. Eg. single women providing for their household should also be included as FHH but are at times not included. Human rights organizations and others working in related fields in Sri Lanka tend to use the term ‘widow’ to include many types of female heads of households. This misrepresentation results in many FHH falling through the cracks and not receiving state and other benefits and being unable to access their rights.

FOKUS WOMEN seeks to bring clarity to the term ‘female head of household’ and also to give visibility to the socio economic and other issues faced by FHH through its research and advocacy with the state. Providing solutions to the problems faced by FHH will contribute to building peace and ensure that women’s voices from the grassroots are heard at national level.

FOKUS WOMEN 34 A, Sulaiman Avenue Colombo 5 Sri Lanka Tel/Fax: +94112055404 Web: http://www.fokuskvinner.no