SPRING 2008

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE The Research Institute (EPRI) research, development, and demonstration of technical and operational solutions in generation, delivery, and use. The focus and application of EPRI’s research and activities span virtually every aspect of the power , including reliability, safety, the environment, and energy efficiency. The Institute’s collaborative model engages EPRI members, participants, scientists, and engineers, along with experts from academia and other business sectors. As an independent, nonprofit center for public-interest energy and environmental research, EPRI’s is supported both by its members, which represent more than 90 percent of the electricity generated in the , and by growing international participation, representing more than 15 percent of EPRI’s program support.

Together. . . Shaping the Future of Electricity®

EPRI Journal Staff and Contributors Dennis Murphy, Publisher/Vice President, Jeremy Dreier, Editor-in-Chief/Senior Communications Manager David Dietrich, Editor Jeannine Howatt, Business Manager Debra Manegold, Production Manager/Layout Designer Michael Fornalski, Illustrator

Henry A. (Hank) Courtright, Senior Vice President, Member Services

Contact Information Editor-in-Chief EPRI Journal PO Box 10412 Palo Alto, CA 94303-0813 For information on subscriptions and permissions, call the EPRI Customer Assistance Center at 800.313.3774 and press 4, or e- [email protected]. Please include the code number from your mailing label with inquiries about your subscription. Visit EPRI’s web site at www.epri.com.

© 2008 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Inc. All rights reserved. Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, EPRI Journal, and TOGETHER . . . SHAPING THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICITY are registered marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.

Cover art and feature openers by Craig Diskowski/Edge . SPRING 2008

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Editorial FEATURES DEPARTMENTS

2 EPRI—A Accelerator 16 Worker Safety Is No Accident 4 In the Field Guided by EPRI risk data and safety 33 handbooks, utilities are able to target COVER STORY improvements in work practices and 34 International equipment that reduce injuries and 36 Technology at Work 6 Plug-In Hybrids on the Horizon: illness, increase productivity, and control a Business Case 38 Tech Transfer News medical expenses. EPRI studies indicate that plug-in 39 Technical Reports and Software hybrid electric could produce 24 Toward an Integrated Nuclear significant environmental and economic Fuel Cycle benefits for society. As interest in PHEVs Fully integrated fuel cycles based on fuel grows and technical barriers fall, utilities reprocessing and reuse, interim storage, have compelling reasons to support secure , and geologic disposal commercialization of this technology. will be the key to nuclear’s long-term value as a clean and sustainable generation resource. Editorial EPRI—A Technology Accelerator

Recently, an important fi rst step was taken in the electricity at right. Through our TI program we are constantly on the sector. lookout for promising new emerging from basic In February 2008, EPRI and its collaborative team mem- R&D activities at , national labs, or other sources bers, Alstom Power and We Energies, dedicated the fi rst (represented by the left-hand circle). While basic R&D is not pilot-scale demonstration of chilled technology for EPRI’s primary focus, our own technical staff does have the

capturing CO2 from a pulverized- plant. The Wisconsin freedom and fi nancial support through the TI program to pilot plant, described on pages 4 and 5 of this issue of the pursue promising new ideas. The dashed circles on the left Journal, is an important and essential fi rst step in the pursuit depict our involvement in basic R&D.

of large-scale capture and storage of CO2. The TI program then hands off the most promising tech- The project grew out of several important aspects of EPRI’s nologies to an EPRI collaborative program with the objective collaborative efforts. EPRI’s Technology Innovation (TI) of leveraging both the funding and the technical expertise program made possible the proof of concept through bench- of the program participants to accelerate the development of scale testing of the chilled ammonia process at SRI Interna- the technology. This is EPRI’s “sweet spot,” depicted by the tional. TI funding is supported by all EPRI members to center circle. This role, which we uniquely fi ll within the develop emerging, state-of-the-art technologies. The EPRI electricity sector, provides a critically important to core R&D collaborative program then developed the concept accelerate the process of getting from a great idea to a com- of the pilot-scale plant for consideration by equipment sup- mercially deployable technology. pliers interested in supporting the technology’s development. In general EPRI does not commercialize technologies; that Building on EPRI’s work, Alstom stepped forward, acquir- is the role of suppliers, vendors, and other technology provid- ing intellectual property rights to the technology and becom- ers, represented by the circle on the right. The dashed circles ing the partner in the pilot plant design, , on the right depict the limited instances where we do com- and operation. In addition, 37 EPRI members provided mercialize a product or service that is based on a unique cost-sharing for front-end and design and to EPRI competency. In such cases, one or more technology test and evaluate the technology’s performance. The pilot providers may be active participants in a collaborative pro- plant is currently in its start-up phase and will be providing gram, which facilitates a smooth transfer of the developed valuable information over the coming months to enable technology.

process scale-up for CO2 capture demonstrations at other This collaborative model will be the foundation for future coal- or gas-fi red plants. climate technology demonstration projects being developed This project is an excellent example of EPRI’s role as a in concert with EPRI members, technology providers, and technology accelerator. This role is diagrammed in the fi gure governments. Several demonstration projects spanning the

2 EPRI JOURNAL Collaborative Basic Research Technology Technology and Development, Commercialization Development Integration, and Application

National Laboratories, EPRI Suppliers, Universities Vendors

full portfolio of low-carbon technologies are being launched billions of dollars needed over the next decade for multiple in 2008. In the areas of effi ciency and renewables, these commercial-scale CCS demonstrations is well beyond EPRI’s include demonstrations of new hyper-effi cient end-use tech- current collaborative funding model. But we are not waiting nologies, integration of applications with for the billions. We are determined to keep moving the ball advanced metering infrastructures, and development of new forward through the activities of our core R&D programs, compressed-air plants. Three projects will help supplemented by appropriately scoped climate technology scale up carbon capture and storage (CCS) from both pulver- demonstrations. ized-coal and integrated gasifi cation–combined-cycle (IGCC) Accelerating the deployment of a full portfolio of reliable power plants. Another project will seek to further the devel- and affordable low-carbon technologies is EPRI’s defi ning opment of membrane technology to lower the cost of oxygen role over the next decade. And the metric of success is pretty supply for IGCC and oxy-combustion plants. simple. It’s all about helping reduce the time it takes to get These climate technology demonstration projects, and the most promising ideas from the left-hand circle to the others that will be launched over the coming months, are right-hand circle. critical steps toward the goal of a full portfolio of low-carbon technologies that can be broadly deployed across the electric- ity sector. While these projects are necessary for scaling up the various technologies, they are insuffi cient on their own Steve Specker to demonstrate commercial-scale integration of CCS. The President and Chief Executive Offi cer

SPRING 2008 3 Technology testing and In the Field demonstration on utility systems

Pilot Project Uses Innovative The process involves three steps. First, concept and facilitate long-term tests to

Process to Capture CO2 From fl ue gas exiting from the plant boiler and measure performance and energy con- Flue Gas air quality control system is cooled and sumption. Technical and economic data

A pilot project recently launched at We cleaned before being sent to a tall CO2 analyses from this pilot project will enable Energies’ Pleasant Prairie Power Plant absorber column. There the gas mixes larger-scale demonstration projects. represents a milestone in efforts to cap- with a solution of ammonium carbonate, “This pilot is a signifi cant milestone in

ture carbon dioxide (CO2) from the fl ue in which CO2 is removed through the our ongoing with We Ener- gas of a pulverized-coal generating sta- formation of ammonium bicarbonate. gies and EPRI,” said Jean-Michel Auber- tion. The 1.7-MWe system, designed and Finally, the solution is pumped to a tin, senior vice president of Alstom’s constructed by Alstom, uses a chilled regeneration system where it is heated Energy and Environment Systems Group. ammonia process that has the potential to under pressure, reversing the absorption “This plant will provide invaluable infor-

capture more than 90% of CO2 in labo- process and releasing pure CO2. mation for the commercialization of CO2 ratory experiments, at a cost far lower The pilot-scale equipment at Pleasant capture technology.” Alstom, one of the than other technologies currently avail- Prairie is designed to capture up to world’s leading suppliers of power equip-

able. As part of the collaboration, EPRI 15,000 tons per year (t/yr) of CO2 by ment, holds the exclusive license to the will conduct a year-long series of perfor- treating about 1% of the plant’s fl ue gas. chilled ammonia process. mance tests and cost analyses, which can This fi rst application of the chilled EPRI’s collaborative process brought set the stage for further scaling up of the ammonia process at a working power together more than 30 to chilled ammonia process. plant is designed to provide proof of support this project, including a large “Developing cost-effective carbon capture technology is one of the most important environmental challenges ABSORBER B ABSORBER A COLUMN facing the utility industry in the twenty- COLUMN fi rst century,” said Gale Klappa, chairman WATER WASH and chief executive of We Energies, at the COLUMN CO REGENERATOR ² project’s inauguration. “It’s important COLUMN NH STRIPPER ³ that we take steps now to achieve a long- COLUMN DIRECT- CONTACT term technology solution,” he added, COOLER calling the project a “critical step” in the HYDRO development process. CYCLONE FLUE GAS Carbon capture is well established in COOLING COILS MOTOR CONTROL CENTER BOOSTER FAN industrial facilities that provide CO2 for chemical production, but the scale is HEAT PROCESS EXCHANGERS COOLING much smaller than that required for TOWER power plant applications. The capture process most commonly used today is relatively ineffi cient: applied to a power plant, it could increase the cost of elec- tricity by 50–80% and consume as much as 30% of the plant’s energy output. In

contrast, the chilled ammonia process is ANALYZER projected to increase the cost of electricity CABINET by about 30% and use less than 15% of PLC WASTE PROCESS CHILLER TRAILER TANK PROCESS the output. TANKS PUMPS

4 EPRI JOURNAL number of U.S. coal-fueled utilities and tance of CO2 by the porous rock forma- deploy alternative postcombustion CO2 international participants. A major goal is tions. Battelle and AEP have agreed to capture technologies. Specifi cally, to help make CO2 capture technology share their fi ndings with EPRI and its Southern Company is preparing to host ready for widespread deployment after participating members. a 25-MWe project that would capture

2020. Pending a favorable outcome of the more than 100,000 t/yr of CO2 by means “EPRI’s R&D model is built on the Mountaineer project, AEP intends to of a different technology, which has yet idea that we can best achieve technologi- build a 200-MWe commercial-scale to be selected. EPRI is providing tech- cal progress through collaboration,” said capture and storage facil- nical support that Henry A. Courtright, EPRI senior vice ity with the capability to will focus on process president for member services. “This is treat approximately half integration, with especially true in startup anticipated carbon capture and around 2010. in other generating The project would and effi ciency tech- also have an injec- nologies that must be tion and storage part of our industry’s component funded climate strategy.” in part by the U.S. The next step in Department of scaling up the chilled Energy through its ammonia process will Southeast Regional be to build a Carbon Sequestra- 20-MWe precom- tion Partnership mercial, “product Program and man- validation” facility. aged by the Southern Such a facility is States Energy Board. tentatively scheduled A deep saline for- to begin operation in mation will likely be 2010 at American used for storage, as Electric Power’s this is the most (AEP’s) Mountaineer widely available type generating station in of geologic formation

West Virginia. EPRI suitable for CO2 will provide a confi dential review of the of the fl ue gas from one of sequestration. fi nal design of the 20-MW system and the utility’s existing power EPRI studies indi- will then conduct all tests and data plants. This system, projected for startup cate that about 15% of U.S. electric analyses needed to assess its performance. around 2012 or 2013, would capture energy production could come from

Alstom will serve as the project lead about 1.5 million t/yr of CO2, which coal plants using CO2 capture and stor- for building and initially operating the may be piped to existing oil fi elds for use age by 2030, and nearly 40% by 2050. capture facility. in enhanced oil recovery. The facility is The availability of suitable capture In contrast with the Pleasant Prairie expected to confi rm the commercial technology is considered vital if coal project, where captured CO2 will be feasibility of the chilled ammonia process is to remain a major component of released, the Mountaineer project’s cap- and, with EPRI participation, provide power generation when (as is expected) tured CO2 will be injected into saline the power industry an opportunity to CO2 emissions reductions become aquifer formations via two deep wells. assess the large-scale impact of CO2 con- mandatory. Currently coal generates The facility will capture and sequester trols on coal-fi red generation. 40% of the world’s electricity, and it about 100,000 t/yr of CO2. Battelle In addition to supporting development remains the world’s fastest-growing Memorial Institute will work with AEP and demonstration of the chilled ammo- fuel for generation. on the injection effort, which will focus nia process, EPRI is also cooperating For more information, contact Richard on monitoring the underground accep- with other member utilities to select and Rhudy, [email protected], 650.855.2421.

SPRING 2008 5

The Story in Brief

Automakers, utilities, and the public are increasingly interested in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Recent EPRI studies indicate that society could realize signifi cant benefi ts to the environment and the economy with PHEVs. EPRI studies also point to sizable challenges and opportunities in technology and utility operations. What’s needed is research and develop- ment in batteries, the , and generation technologies—and a market that’s ready to put substantial numbers of drivers behind the wheel of a PHEV. onsider these three aspects of elec- Annual Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions tric transportation: It potentially From PHEV Adoption Coffers consumers a lower-cost alter- 600 native to . It decreases greenhouse Low PHEV share /yr) gas emissions from the transportation sec- 2 500 tor. And it reduces dependence on im- Medium PHEV share ported . 400 Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) High PHEV share represent the most promising approach to 300 introducing the signifi cant use of electric- ity as transportation fuel. Unlike battery- 200 only electric vehicles (EVs), PHEVs do not require on-demand, high-power recharg- ing. If the driver misses a charge, the vehi- 100 cle can run seamlessly on gasoline in hybrid Reduction in GHG Emissions (MtCO mode until charging is again convenient. 0 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 While the battery is smaller and less costly for a PHEV than for an EV, the battery is EPRI studies indicate that putting PHEVs on the could reduce U.S. greenhouse gas emissions more deeply discharged each day, so many by as much as 500 million metric tons a year by 2050. By that time, cumulative reductions are expected to total 3.4–10.3 billion metric tons, depending on PHEV market share and several drivers will use as much or more electricity other factors. with a PHEV. PHEV development can build on more than a decade of experience with conven- tional hybrids such as the Toyota Prius and PHEV Improvement in Ozone Concentration Ford Escape, which use a battery and elec- tric motor to augment the power of an internal combustion engine. To this blend of technologies, PHEVs add the ability to charge the battery using low-cost, off-peak electricity from the grid—allowing a vehicle to run on the equivalent of 75¢ per gallon or better at today’s electricity prices. A ben- efi t for utilities is that PHEVs draw only about 1.4–2 kW of power while charging— about what a dishwasher draws. The primary challenges to widespread use of PHEVs, challenges that will require direct utility involvement to overcome, include specifi cation of a convenient grid interface, creation of a two-way communi- cation system to potentially enhance cost savings, and development of a mass mar- ket to lower battery costs. Ozone Concentration Environmental Benefi ts Better Worse of PHEVs No Change One possible stumbling block to wide- spread public acceptance of PHEVs is the In addition to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, PHEV adoption is expected to help reduce lingering question about whether charg- emissions of other air pollutants as well, including volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides, ing vehicles with electricity from the grid dioxide, ozone, and particulates. Reductions in ozone emissions are particularly impressive, will just reduce one source of with improvements expected in most regions.

8 EPRI JOURNAL (gasoline) and substitute another (power Typical U.S. Commute Distances plants). EPRI recently examined this ques- 40 tion in the most comprehensive environ- mental assessment of electric transporta- tion to date. Conducted with the Natural 30 Resources Defense Council (NRDC), the 29% assessment focuses on the likely environ- mental impacts of bringing a large number 20 22% of PHEVs onto American over the 17% next half century.

The fi rst part of the study used a scenario- Percentage of Commuters 10 10% based modeling analysis to determine how 7% 8% PHEVs would change U.S. greenhouse gas 5% 3% (GHG) emissions between 2010 and 2050 0 1–10 11–20 21–30 31–40 41– 50 51–60 61–70 >70 under various circumstances. This inclu- sive “well to wheels” analysis tracked emis- Round-Trip Miles Traveled sions from the generation of electricity to Data from the U.S. Bureau of Transportation show that 78% of commuters travel 40 miles or less the charging of PHEV batteries and from each day—the expected battery-only range of PHEVs with routine overnight charging. For longer the production of motor fuels to their con- distances, the vehicles could run indefi nitely in hybrid (gasoline/electric) mode. sumption in internal combustion vehicles. Researchers used detailed models of the U.S. electricity and transportation sectors achieve 50% of new-vehicle and con- tion program. “Even in the worst-case sce- to create a range of potential scenarios and stitute 40% of on-road vehicles by 2030. nario, assuming only limited introduction changes in both sectors. The three scenar- First, a variety of important emissions were of new power plant technology, we see an ios for the electricity sector represented modeled for the transportation and elec- overall reduction in emissions related to high, medium, and low levels of carbon tricity sectors and then merged with emis- both air quality and global warming.” dioxide (CO2) and total greenhouse gas sions from all other sectors. Using these emissions, as determined by the projected data, key air quality indicators were calcu- Economic Benefi ts of PHEVs mix of generation technologies and other lated by means of the U.S. Environmental In another study, EPRI assessed regional factors. For the transportation sector, the Protection Agency’s Community Multi- economic benefi ts associated with increased three scenarios represented high, medium, scale Air Quality (CMAQ) model. market penetration of plug-in hybrids. and low market penetration of PHEVs This analysis found that, for most re- The underlying context for this study is from 2010 to 2050. gions of the United States, increased the increasing involvement of munici- Results were unambiguous: GHG emis- PHEV use would result in “modest but palities in policy areas, such as economic sions were reduced signifi cantly over the signifi cant improvements in ambient air development and environmental protec- nine scenario combinations. The cumula- quality and reduction in deposition of tion, that were previously regulated only tive GHG emissions reduction by 2050 various pollutants.” Considering the elec- at the state or federal level. Other studies was at least 3.4 billion metric tons (Gt), tricity and transportation sectors together, have examined microeconomic benefi ts assuming a persistently high level of CO2 PHEVs would help reduce emissions of of PHEVs or estimated macroeconomic intensity in the electricity sector and a low volatile organic compounds, nitrogen ox- impacts for the entire United States; this level of PHEV fl eet penetration. Assuming ides, and . Ozone levels would assessment was distinct in calculating ex- low CO2 intensity and a high level of fl eet decrease substan tially for most regions, pected regional fi nancial and labor impacts penetration, the cumulative GHG reduc- although there would be very minor in- resulting from a transition to PHEVs. tion was 10.3 Gt. Reductions were realized creases in some local areas. Ambient levels This approach can explore in more detail for each region of the country. of particulate matter would also decrease the economic multiplier effect of petro- The second part of the study focused on in most regions. leum displacement. Because the per-mile determining the effect of aggressive PHEV “These studies should put an end to the cost of operating a vehicle on electricity is fl eet penetration on overall air quality in a myth that electrifi cation of the transporta- currently about one-quarter to one-third single year, 2030. It compared a base case tion sector would increase pollution,” says the cost of using gasoline, vehicle owners that assumes no PHEV penetration with an Mark Duvall, manager of technology de- can anticipate spending less for transporta- aggressive penetration case in which PHEVs velopment for EPRI’s Electric Transporta- tion. Such savings also represent a transfer

SPRING 2008 9 Batteries on the Critical Path Much enthusiasm for PHEVs is based on the expectation that ion for Li-Ion batteries are higher but are expected to fall sharply with im- (Li-Ion) batteries can make the leap from electronic devices and small provements in design and and with mass production. power tools to the much larger application of running a car. Skeptics Also, the cost of nickel is rising rapidly, while lithium is relatively abun- question whether durable, affordable Li-Ion batteries will be available in dant and inexpensive. Although any battery system has safety issues, the suffi cient numbers to launch a major automotive Lithium-Ion Battery Life-Cycle Testing revolution within the proposed two- to three-year period. Toyota is making its initial PHEVs with a 100 nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) battery similar to that in its standard Prius vehicle, citing uncertainty 95 about when Li-Ion batteries will be ready for full- scale production. NiMH batteries are not expect- 90 ed to be a widespread choice for PHEV applica- tions because of their low energy density. The California Air Resources Board (CARB) re- 85 Capacity (%) cently examined a variety of technologies related to the development of zero-emission vehicles. The 80 report noted that although NiMH technology in today’s hybrid electric vehicles could probably be modifi ed to meet the technical needs of 75 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 PHEVs, no substantial efforts appear to be under Number of Test Cycles way to develop NiMH batteries for this applica- tion in the long term. Rather, the report concluded, Battery durability testing sponsored jointly by EPRI and Southern California Edison demonstrate Li-Ion batteries are “making impressive technical that current lithium-ion batteries are likely to retain suffi cient capacity for more than 3000 progress worldwide,” especially with regard to dynamic deep-discharge cycles—about 10–12 years of typical driving. longevity, cycling durability, and safety. The CARB study projected PHEV introduction at the precommercial overheating concerns associated with the Li-Ion batteries used in laptop level (thousands of units per year) by around 2010, with commercializa- computers are not directly applicable to the batteries used in automotive tion (tens of thousands of units per year) by 2015. In contrast, the study applications, which are made with different electrode materials. concluded that fuel cell electric vehicles running on hydrogen would not EPRI, working with Southern California Edison, began studying the be commercialized until about 2020, in part because of the need to effect of the PHEV duty cycle on the best available Li-Ion battery tech- establish a new fuel infrastructure. nologies nearly three years ago. To date, the fi rst test pack has com- The main advantage of Li-Ion batteries is that they weigh less than pleted over 3000 dynamic deep-discharge PHEV cycles in the labora- NiMH batteries for the same level of performance. Manufacturing costs tory while still meeting the necessary power and energy requirements.

into the local economy of funds that would economic impacts of signifi cant PHEV reduction will not affect a region’s petro- otherwise have been spent on imported market penetration (50% of new-car sales leum refi ning industry. The researchers petroleum—an effective boost in regional and 40% of all on-road vehicles) in 2030. note that the former scenario represents economic activity and job growth. A 2002 Six major urban areas were studied: Cleve- worst-case assumptions and that the latter study by the U.S. Department of Energy land, Austin, Birmingham, Kansas City, scenario is more realistic, since regional estimated that if only 1% of American Newark, and Sacramento. Because actual refi neries could probably continue to sell vehicles ran on electricity in 2010, the impacts will vary with changing energy their products in the national market. national economic benefi t would be about prices, four scenarios used widely different The results are complex, but in all cases, $1.46 billion (in 1999 dollars)—a benefi t price levels for electricity and gasoline. In substantial increases in household incomes far greater than the value of the petroleum addition, two scenarios modeled the eco- were projected from a transition to PHEVs displaced—and that 14,000 new jobs nomic multiplier effect: in one, displace- —increases ranging from a low of $188.7 would be created. ment of gasoline reduces the demand for million/year in the Birmingham region, To examine this effect more closely, the all industries that support a region’s petro- under the lowest energy price assumptions, EPRI study sought to quantify the regional leum market, and in the other, demand to a high of $721.4 million/year for Kan-

10 EPRI JOURNAL Several major auto manufacturers have announced plans to introduce PHEVs in the near future. GM is developing its Chevrolet concept car and the Saturn Vue Greenline SUV, which may hit the market in 2010. Ford is providing Southern California Edison with modifi ed Escape Hybrid SUVs to demonstrate PHEVs as part of an integrated grid-connected system. Meanwhile, Toyota is testing a plug-in version of the popular Prius hybrid.

Saturn Vue Greenline SUV

Ford Escape Hybrid SUV

Chevrolet Volt Concept Car

sas City, assuming the highest energy since it does not consider the additional as PHEV owners recharge batteries, but prices. Regional economic output also revenue that could be generated for both the magnitude of this increase will depend increases in all cases because of the multi- vehicle owners and utilities by using on several factors, such as rates that encour- plier effect. Regional employment increases PHEVs connected to the grid to provide age charging during off-peak hours. in all cases in which high energy prices are power services. Such initiatives will also be essential to assumed but decreases in some regions if realizing the potential benefi ts of load-level- low energy prices are assumed. PHEV Value Proposition ing, giving utilities an important opportu- The report concludes that “the potential for Utilities nity to operate their systems more effi ciently local economic impacts from PHEV use Additional revenue streams projected for by encouraging vehicle owners to recharge are substantial” and that “policies that utilities consist of several distinct compo- batteries off-peak. With off-peak charging, encourage PHEV use in any of the six cit- nents, some of which will depend on utili- the grid could support a high level of ies could have signifi cant regional eco- ties’ undertaking marketing and infra- PHEV penetration without the need for nomic payback.” If anything, this study structure development initiatives in the more generating capacity, and utilities may underestimate potential benefi ts, near future. Increased sales can be expected could improve power system effi ciency.

SPRING 2008 11 Making this transition will require new could achieve this decrease, and—assum- EPRI, Ford, and rate incentives or direct-control systems. ing a tradable carbon value of 20¢ per SCE Collaborate on Finally, the prospect of carbon emissions gallon—the reduction could potentially legislation offers a defi nite—though highly add 2¢ per kilowatt-hour to the value of PHEV Integration uncertain and somewhat controversial— electricity. How utilities would realize this In March, EPRI and Ford Motor Company an- possibility for utilities to achieve additional added value, however, remains to be seen. nounced a three-year agreement to develop and revenue from rising PHEV penetration. In evaluate technical approaches for integrating January of 2007, California’s governor Auto Industry Interest plug-in hybrid electric vehicles into the nation’s established a low-carbon fuel standard The theoretical advantages of PHEVs have electricity grid—a key requirement for facilitating (LCFS) for the state by executive order. The long been recognized; limited numbers widespread adoption of the vehicles. To pursue order essentially directed various state agen- were manufactured more than a century this work, EPRI is putting together a collaborative cies to develop protocols for measuring the ago, and another attempt to introduce the of utilities in the New York–New Jersey area that “life-cycle carbon intensity” of transpor- concept was made in the 1960s. Until will test Ford Escape PHEVs. Subsequent trials will tation fuels and to develop a regulatory recently, conventional batteries were sim- be conducted with customers of the participating process to meet a 2020 target of reducing ply too large, too heavy, and too limited in utilities. the carbon intensity of transportation performance to produce a commercially The new program will build on an ongoing fuels in California by 10%. of competitive vehicle. Now, with rapid de- partnership between Ford and Southern California California studies found this target to be velopment of lighter, more durable batter- Edison (SCE) to test 20 Escape PHEVs in the Los “ambitious but attainable” and recom- ies (see “Batteries on the Critical Path,” Angeles area. The new EPRI-Ford agreement will mended that the providers of non-liquid page 10), several major manufacturers expand the evaluation and demonstration pro- fuels—specifi cally electricity—be allowed have announced plans to introduce PHEVs gram to include other utilities and will help deter- to participate. over the next two years. mine regional differences in how the operation of Although the LCFS regulatory process is Toyota Motor Corporation claims to be PHEVs will impact the electricity grid. not yet fi nal, the implications for utilities the fi rst automaker to have a PHEV certi- “This partnership represents a concerted effort may be profound, particularly if other fi ed for use on highways, in Japan, and is by the transportation and electricity sectors to work states adopt similar standards. As an illus- planning a series of tests in Europe and the together in advancing PHEV technology,” says tration, suppose a future LCFS should United States as well. Toyota is gaining EPRI’s Mark Duvall. “This effort should accelerate limit the carbon content of vehicle fuel to experience by using a modifi ed version of the pace of PHEV development while enabling the the equivalent of 8 kilograms per gallon its Prius hybrid, with nickel–metal hydride utility industry to prepare for the introduction of (kg/gal), compared with the approximately (NiMH) batteries, but will probably switch these vehicles.” 10 kg/gal of today’s gasoline. A PHEV to lighter lithium-ion (Li-Ion) batteries as Nancy Gioia, director of sustainable mobility technologies at Ford, agrees. “PHEVs have great Potential Value of PHEV Adoption promise,” she says, “but they still face signifi cant 60 obstacles to commercialization, including battery Value of GHG reduction costs and charging strategies. Ultimately such ve- 50 hicles must provide real value to consumers. EPRI PHEV electricity value brings our collaborative efforts related to the po- 40 tential of plug-in electric vehicle technology to a new level.” Research and analysis by EPRI, Ford, and SCE 30 on the Ford PHEVs will include data from four pri-

mary areas: battery technology, vehicle systems, ($ billions) Value 20 customer usage, and grid infrastructure. The analy- sis will also explore possible stationary and sec- 10 ondary uses for advanced batteries. The evalua- tion and demonstration trials are expected to 0 provide solid technical information on PHEVs that 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 will enable the development of common standards If greenhouse gas emissions become regulated in the future, the value of PHEVs in reducing GHG among utilities to accommodate the vehicles. emissions may end up being twice that of increased electricity sales, although it is not clear how this value would be shared among power providers, shareholders, government, and customers.

12 EPRI JOURNAL they become available. A small aftermarket has arisen to convert existing Prius cars to PHEV operation, although Toyota does not support this activity. A major psychological breakthrough for the PHEV market occurred when General Motors introduced its Chevrolet Volt elec- tric concept car at the 2007 North Ameri- can International Auto Show, claiming that it “could nearly eliminate trips to the gas station.” According to GM, the Volt can be fully charged from a standard electrical outlet in about 6 hours and deliver 40 miles of city driving from its Li-Ion bat- tery. When the battery’s charge is depleted, a three-cylinder engine recharges the bat- tery and runs the car’s — achieving a gasoline conversion effi ciency of about 50 miles per gallon. If the Li-Ion battery is ready, GM plans to market the Volt by 2010. The company also plans to market a PHEV version of its Saturn Vue

Greenline sport utility vehicle. EPRI is leading a broad inter-industry program to develop a PHEV “trouble truck” for servicing Meanwhile, EPRI, Ford Motor Com- utility distribution systems. Based on a Ford F550, the truck will provide 6 to 8 hours of standby pany, and Edison International—parent work time with minimal engine idling and, in a high-idle mode, will generate up to 5 kW of ac company of Southern California Edison power to provide grid services in the fi eld. (SCE)—have announced a joint program to demonstrate PHEVs as part of an inte- grated system involving the vehicle, home energy systems, and the electricity grid (see PHEV Adoption Rate “EPRI, Ford, and SCE Collaborate on PHEV Integration,” page 12). The pro- gram will evaluate potential benefi ts of using off-peak electricity to reduce costs per mile while increasing grid productivity and reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and pollutants. Eventually, PHEVs might Accelerated Scenario also be considered for use as home-based energy storage units for gener- Shortened time to commercial success ated by rooftop collectors or as a source of stored power that could be tapped as PHEV Market Penetration needed by the utility. A modifi ed Ford Escape Hybrid SUV will provide the PHEV platform for the SCE program. Market-Driven Scenario EPRI is currently leading a broad, inter- industry program to develop a PHEV Time

“trouble truck” with an aerial lift for ser- Market penetration of new automobile technologies tends to grow slowly because of high initial vicing utility distribution systems. Pro- cost and fi rst-of-its-kind risk to early adopters. The involvement of power providers and other gram funders include 36 utilities and two stakeholders outside the auto industry can help PHEVs reach higher penetration faster by California public agencies. Eaton Corpo- providing purchase incentives, special PHEV electricity rates, advanced infrastructure options, and ration is developing the hybrid system on consumer .

SPRING 2008 13 Ask the Expert business. Ultimately, if PHEVs succeed, electric utilities will become re­ An interview with Mark Duvall, manager of technology development for fueling stations for their customers. Utilities can strengthen their creden- EPRI’s Electric Transportation program. tials as good environmental stewards and improve customer satisfaction by proactively addressing this new technology. Q. There appears to be enormous interest in plug-in hybrid technol- ogy. What are the prospects for these vehicles to reach the market by How sure are you regarding the environmental benefits of PHEVs? 2010? We just completed a comprehensive nationwide air quality and green- A. Plug-in hybrid development is at a crossroads. The technology cur- house gas assessment, in cooperation with the Natural Resources De- rently has tremendous momentum, with GM, Ford, Toyota, and others fense Council. We used the most sophisticated modeling tools available vying to be either first to market or “best to market.” The forces driving in order to understand, as closely as possible, what the electricity sys- this interest—pressures to reduce petroleum dependency and the high tem’s response to PHEVs will be in terms of which plants will be dis- cost of fuel and to address climate change—all point in the direction of patched to generate the charging energy, what the net changes to emis- PHEV technology. However, it is important to remember that most trans- sions will be in the electricity and transportation sectors, and how the formational automotive technologies fail—often spectacularly, and many emissions will react chemically in the atmosphere to affect air quality. times when the technology is right on the cusp of commercial viability. Even using what we would very much consider to be a worst-case sce- nario, we found near universal air quality benefits nationwide. This is Why is utility involvement in PHEV commercialization important? not an unexpected result, given the maturity of the electricity sector, its PHEVs are transformational in that they introduce electricity as a mean- closely regulated nature, and declining emissions intensity in the face of ingful automotive fuel to a potentially very large market. The utilities increased regulatory requirements. could have much to gain from a massive shift of cars to PHEV technol- ogy, but the success of this transition will depend heavily on their What about greenhouse gas emissions? There seems to be a lot of involvement. debate on this issue. Under nearly any foreseeable scenario, electricity is a low-carbon fuel, What benefits could utilities expect to receive from participating in compared with gasoline and diesel. A PHEV charged by the most car- PHEV penetration of the auto fleet? bon-intensive generating plants is essentially equal to a conventional The utility value proposition for PHEVs is large and complex. PHEVs, at hybrid in terms of total greenhouse gas emissions. When you actually a minimum, provide predominantly off-peak load—allowing utilities to look at utilities’ responses with respect to new generation, the increased improve system efficiency and utilization. In the long term, however, regional requirements for renewables, and expected responses to future the potential is much greater. Electricity is a low-carbon, clean transpor- carbon constraints, the GHG reductions are considerable. tation fuel, and as utilities increasingly provide electricity as a transporta- tion fuel, their service territories will realize benefits in air quality and What should utilities do next, and how can EPRI help? reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. PHEVs also represent a storage Utilities should consider joining existing EPRI– col- resource that could be managed to optimally suit a utility’s load profile. laborations. These provide opportunities for vehicle manufacturers and fuel providers (electric utilities) to work closely together on the issue, But won’t major infrastructure changes be required? which can help drive successful commercialization of this important tech- It is important to recognize that the market share of PHEVs in the nation- nology. Utilities will have the earliest possible access to prototype vehi- wide automotive fleet will grow slowly over time and that the individual cles, enabling them to get first-hand experience with the performance of load of each vehicle is small. As market share grows, utilities may have the vehicles in real-world driving and—more important—with the inter- to be on the lookout for local impacts, but this is a normal part of their action between the vehicles and their systems.

a Ford F550 chassis and will conduct vehi- utilities, including hands-on experience it can generate up to 5 kW of to cle testing and calibration. Five prototype with the new technology. In addition to provide grid services in the field. Once vehicles—two with diesel engines and reducing fuel consumption and emissions, successfully demonstrated in utility use, three with gasoline engines—will be deliv- the truck will be able to provide 6 to 8 the technology could be adapted for ered for utility fleet demonstration, begin- hours of standby work time with zero or medium-duty vehicles in the 8500- to ning this year. minimal engine idling, minimizing impacts 19,500-pound weight classes. Such vehi- The choice of a trouble truck as a PHEV on neighborhoods and operators. Alterna- cles—including work trucks and vans, test vehicle offers several advantages to tively, when operated in a high-idle mode, shuttle buses, and even medium-sized

14 EPRI JOURNAL Future Intelligent Infrastructure

Utility Communications

Data Management

Photovoltaics

Advanced Meter Distribution Consumer Control Operations Portal Interface

Dynamic Systems Control Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle

With their large, deep-discharge batteries, PHEVs may eventually serve as distributed energy storage units that could support not only the home but the electricity grid as well. The smart infrastructure for such vehicle-to-grid setups would require advanced metering and two-way energy and information exchange, similar to that currently used in home photovoltaic electricity sales to utilities. motor homes—cover an array of applica- nection with the utility would permit fur- Duvall. “But they need to control V2G, tions suitable for electrifi cation. ther savings by providing remote control and that would require careful study and of the charging load. The concept of smart considerable expense. Meanwhile, we hope Next Steps charging, which determines the best charg- our new demonstration program will help EPRI can serve a crucial role in fostering ing regime in real time, will also be given develop a sustainable business case that collaboration between the automotive and consideration. Utilities have a direct stake can foster PHEV penetration of the North electric power industries and in integrat- in uniform connection standards that meet American vehicle fl eet while benefi ting ing PHEVs with the grid. EPRI is organiz- the needs of all parties. both vehicle manufacturers and utilities.” ing a nationwide demonstration program Over a longer period, PHEVs may pro- to place early production prototype vide the capabilities for load leveling and/ This article was written by John Douglas. PHEVs into utility fl eets. This effort or grid support. The vehicle-to-grid, or Background information was provided by involves General Motors, Ford, and vari- V2G, option faces substantial hurdles that Mark Duvall ([email protected]). ous U.S. and Canadian utilities in devel- will require long-range research to resolve. oping critical information on the impacts Although conceptually V2G is an example of PHEVs on utility operations. Eventu- of , in practice it dif- ally utilities are expected to include some fers from most small power sources, which Mark duvall is manager of of their larger commercial customers in are stationary and professionally operated. EPRI’s Electric Transportation testing the vehicles and to create profi les of In addition, integrating this option into program, focusing primarily customer needs and preferences. EPRI will the grid would probably require signifi cant on plug-in hybrid electric ve- manage the demonstration program and infrastructure investment in order to pro- hicle R&D and advanced coordinate data collection and analysis. tect against potential hazards and the pos- battery system development and testing. Be- This program will also apply so-called sibility of degrading battery performance fore coming to EPRI in 2001, he was principal smart grid concepts to help optimize the in the quest to obtain a still-uncertain eco- development engineer at the Hybrid Electric value of PHEVs for system operations. nomic payoff. Vehicle Center at the University of California at Smart meters will enable customers to “Utilities want to manage the charging Davis. Duvall holds BS and MS degrees in me- charge vehicles when lower rates are in of PHEVs, which will involve gradual, chanical engineering from UC Davis and a effect, and a two-way communication con- evolutionary grid adaptation,” says Mark PhD in the same fi eld from Purdue University.

SPRING 2008 15

The Story in Brief Power industry workers are subject to a variety of health and safety risks tied to specific work environments and tasks. The stakes are high. For workers, a single accident or injury can lead to a lifetime of disability, career disruption, and other serious consequences. A single injury can also cost an a million dollars, and ergonomic-related injuries alone are estimated to cost the electric power industry hundreds of millions of dollars each year. Guided by EPRI risk data and safety handbooks, utilities are now able to target improvements in work practices and equipment that reduce injuries and illness, increase productivity, and control medical expenses. ob-related illness and accidents can ers. Overall, meter readers have the highest Ergonomics for Productivity be devastating for workers and have rate of injuries of all types, followed by and Safety Jbecome increasingly expensive for welders and line workers. on OHSD analyses, EPRI has their employers. Although the U.S. Bureau The good news is that the average injury focused on helping utilities develop pro- of Labor Statistics reports that the rate of rate across the companies has decreased grams that prevent the largest class of inju- workplace injuries and illnesses for electric sharply over the study period—from more ries—those involving sprains, strains, and utilities is below the national average for than 4.5 injuries per 100 employee-years related musculoskeletal problems resulting private industry employers, the utility oper- in 1995 to 1.6 in 2006, the last year for from awkward body positions or move- ating environment nevertheless involves a which data are available. Also in 2006, for ments. Fortunately, the rate at which such number of inherent hazards, ranging from the first time, no fatalities were reported injuries occur can be lowered dramatically line workers’ potential for electrical con- for the year. The observed decrease is by improving the ergonomic aspects of tact with live conductors to meter readers’ thought to result largely from a growth in common tasks. This includes changing risks of dog bites. Occupational exposure utility health and safety programs, im- work practices, modifying tools or equip- to a variety of chemical and physical agents proved safety awareness among workers, ment, and using ergonomic design in raises concerns about worker health and and increased management attention to equipment and facilities ranging from has led to industry addressing occupational safety. Some portion of the vehicle fleets to power plants. In many polyaromatic hydrocarbons, heavy metals, decrease may also reflect an increasing use cases, worker productivity also improves fly ash, electric and magnetic fields, noise, of contractors to perform certain types of substantially. and other hazards. Increased awareness and work that go beyond routine mainte- The showcase achievement of this work prevention efforts have resulted in a steady nance—such as new line construction, line has been the publication of a series of EPRI decline in injury rates at electric utilities, renovation, and tree-trimming. Including ergonomics handbooks, developed from and EPRI is currently working with indus- contractor information is a future goal of systematic investigation of a large number try representatives and academic experts this project. of tasks. So far, five handbooks have been through its research programs—in partic- The OHSD differentiates injury rates published, covering overhead distribution ular the Occupational Health and Safety by job classification, worker age, and cause. line work, underground applications, (OH&S) program, which focuses on ways Meter readers had the highest rate of inju- direct-buried cable applications, electrical to further improve the welfare of workers. ries—14.07 per 100 employee-years, com- work in fossil-fired power plants, and the pared with 12.39 for welders and 12.28 for design of new generating stations. Follow the Stats line workers. By far the largest numbers of The first handbook describes 32 ergo- Reducing workplace risks starts with injuries for most occupational groups were nomic interventions to reduce injuries understanding where injury and illness are caused by overexertion and body motions among distribution line workers. Of these most likely to occur. For more than 8 that led to sprains and strains. Meter read- interventions, 19 can be implemented for years, EPRI has analyzed the statistics ers were more likely than other workers to less than $100, and only 7 cost more than needed to make these determinations be injured by an animal or insect bite, and $1000. The investigating team concluded through its Occupational Health and line workers were more likely to be injured that the greatest benefit would be realized Safety Database (OHSD) project. By by falling, being struck, or coming into by providing line workers with two new monitoring trends of injury and illness contact with live electrical conductors. tools: a battery-operated press to crimp the over time and across job characteristics Injury rates tended to decrease with age sleeve connection between two wires, and and demographic factors, EPRI’s OHSD among trade workers, presumably as a a battery-operated cutter capable of cut- has become the industry’s best available result of cumulative experience and a shift ting wire with a diameter greater than source of information concerning risks of into more-supervisory roles. about a quarter of an inch. Line workers workplace injury. “This information is critical for helping have traditionally used a manual crimping Currently, 16 utilities contribute data to individual companies develop targeted press that requires handle force of about OHSD, including 7 whose records go back interventions to reduce injuries and set 70 pounds. Only about 1% of the general to 1995. The full data set now includes benchmarks for specific types of injuries population has the strength to make com- more than one million employee-years of and health problems,” says Gabor Mezei, pression connections with this type of follow-up and more than 35,000 observed EPRI senior project manager for OH&S. manual press; even for the strong, using a lost time and recordable injury/illness “In particular, the analyses provide utilities power tool would greatly relieve stress on events among the companies. The study with the insights they need to adopt suc- the shoulders. A survey of medical and has recorded 41 fatalities, with the largest cessful, innovative approaches to protect workers’ compensation costs shows that number (16) observed among line work- the health and safety of their employees.” preventing just one chronic shoulder

18 EPRI JOURNAL injury, such as tendonitis, could more than Average Injury/Illness Rates pay for the power tools. 9 Similar recommendations of ergonomic Private industry as a whole 8 interventions are made in the handbook OHSD utility data for underground (manhole, vault, and 7 conduit) applications and in the handbook 6 for direct-buried cable applications. Again, improvements call for battery-powered 5 tools to replace the types of manual press 4 and cable cutter commonly used, along with introduction of a modifi ed lever to 3 remove manhole covers, which can weigh 2 between 250 and 500 pounds. This rede- signed manual tool is expected to signifi - 1 Injuries and Illnesses per 100 Employee-Years Injuries and Illnesses per 100 cantly reduce risk factors for strains and 0 sprains affecting the shoulders and lower 19951996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 back. EPRI’s Occupational Health and Safety Database (OHSD) shows that utility safety programs have Electricians at fossil-fi red power plants, consistently kept illness and injury rates signifi cantly below those for private industry as a whole. who are generally responsible for the instal- (Sources: EPRI, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics) lation and repair of throughout the facilities, face a very differ- ent set of health and safety risks. For them, Injury Rates and Worker Age recommended ergonomic interventions 5 50 focus on changing work practices. Hand- 4.2 Injury rate recommendations range from the 4.0 4.0 4 40 use of knee protection for tasks done while Age distribution kneeling to the use of modifi ed hand of workers trucks for moving heavy loads up or down 3 30 3.0 stairs. A handbook is under development 2.3 for power plant operators and general 2 20 maintenance workers as well. 1.4 New power plants provide opportuni-

1 10 per Age Group (%) Workers ties to apply ergonomic principles to facil- EmployeeInjuries per 100 -Years 0.3 ity design—to build in systems that can 0 0 reduce injuries and increase worker pro- 20 21–30 31–40 41–50 51– 60 61– 65 >65 ductivity. In March, EPRI published a Age of Worker handbook of ergonomic design that According to OHSD analyses, which differentiate injury rates by cause, job classifi cation, and includes guidelines for design engineers worker age, older workers tend to have fewer injuries as a result of longer experience and and a foundation for improving plant eventual shifts to more-supervisory roles. specifi cations. The handbook cites earlier EPRI research indicating that 30–80% of maintenance task time is devoted to set- ting up a job and that an estimated 30% Investigating Hazardous tions. EPRI focuses on investigating par- saving in overall maintenance time could Substances ticular hazardous substances in response to be achieved if access to equipment were Compared with many other workplaces, industry needs, and in a long-term proj- improved, making the most important electric power facilities do not use particu- ect, it is planning to develop an extensive and frequently used components the most larly high levels or large numbers of haz- job-exposure matrix to measure worker accessible. Specifi c guidelines prioritize ardous substances. Nevertheless, utilities exposure to both chemical and physical design to provide adequate room to nego- have to minimize worker exposure to a agents. tiate trouble spots and deploy standard variety of materials, both as a matter of One current concern is how to comply maintenance tools. general safety and in response to regula- with new, more-stringent Occupational

SPRING 2008 19 Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) interact with cells and anatomical struc- with transmission electron microscopy. A regulations regarding exposure to hexava- tures with which they come into contact. report on the preliminary fi ndings is lent —a potentially toxic mate- EPRI research used fl y ash samples to expected by the end of 2008. rial produced by certain types of welding develop a new test protocol using a com- commonly used at power plants, substa- puter-controlled scanning electron micro- EMF and RF Exposure tions, and other facilities. Specifi cally, scope. This approach was able to distin- For more than 30 years, EPRI has con- OSHA now requires employers to evaluate guish these particles much more precisely ducted research into the potential health exposures to this material and stipulates than previous methods. Further research is effects of exposure to electric and magnetic that new prevention measures be taken planned to apply this new test to samples fi elds (EMF), and since 2002, it has led when exposures exceed a level that is one- of fl y ash collected from the air breathed industry efforts to comply with regula- tenth the previous limit. EPRI is develop- by workers during specifi c work tasks. tions related to worker exposure to radio- ing a database to represent and evaluate Although the possible health effects of frequency (RF) fi elds. This research is pur- typical welding exposure scenarios. This breathing airborne nanoparticles (<100 sued under the EMF Health Assessment effort can provide the foundation for nanometers in size) remain unknown, and RF Safety program and has led to sub- determining both the effectiveness of rapid advances in the development and stantial new insights for applying EMF methods to control hexavalent chromium manufacture of these ultrafi ne particles and RF exposure guidelines. RF exposure exposure, which OSHA requires to be have raised questions about potential risks among electric utility line workers is a rel- instituted by 2010, and the need for devel- associated with inhaling them. No studies atively recent development, resulting from oping further methods. have been published regarding concentra- the increasing placement of communica- tions antennas on utility infrastructure. In the 1980s and 1990s, EPRI con- ducted key epidemiological studies and analyses to investigate whether electrical workers might experience an increased risk of leukemia or brain cancer as a result of workplace exposure to EMF. While these and subsequent major studies in several countries provided somewhat confl icting evidence on this issue, they generally did not establish a strong or consistent con- nection between EMF exposure and increased risk of either brain cancer or leukemia. Recent attention has focused on evi- dence suggesting that electrical workers have a higher risk of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a degenerative nerve disor- der commonly known as Lou Gehrig’s dis- ease. No specifi c link to EMF exposure has Musculoskeletal injuries—typically sprains and strains resulting from awkward body positions or movements been established, and the observed increase —account for the largest class of utility injuries. Ergonomic studies in the fi eld and on full-scale mockups in in ALS may be associated with some other the laboratory have identifi ed specifi c causes and solutions, which are outlined in EPRI’s series of ergonomics handbooks. uncontrolled risk factor in electrical occu- pations; experience with electrical trauma OSHA is also considering tighter regu- tions of nanoparticles in power plants, so (such as severe shock) is a leading lation of worker exposure to crystalline EPRI recently began a project under Tech- candidate. silica (quartz), which is present in coal fl y nology Innovation funding to assess their The diffi culty in attributing specifi c ash. It will be necessary to better measure presence and characterize their properties. health effects to EMF exposure—let alone the concentration of quartz particles in fl y Field measurements will rely on a state-of- establishing cause and effect—has renewed ash that are in the respirable size range (less the-art nanoparticle aerosol monitor, and emphasis on methods to improve dose and than 10 micrometers) and to distinguish samples will be subjected to chemical anal- exposure evaluation. High-resolution com- those that are bioavailable—more likely to ysis based on X-ray spectroscopy coupled puter models can show how fi elds interact

20 EPRI JOURNAL with the human body and can estimate occupational exposures, taking into account that workers are most likely to experience fi elds that are highly nonuniform. Whereas uncertainties surround the possible health effects of occupational exposure to low levels of EMF, the current EMF exposure guidelines are intended to prevent well-recognized neural stimulation and other perceived effects, which occur only at very high exposures. Likewise, for RF it is known that absorption of RF Measurements of muscle activity show that a switch energy can heat body tissue and, in some from manual to power tools, such as a battery- circumstances, cause RF burns—a phe- operated cable cutter, can signifi cantly reduce nomenon generally associated with high strain on the shoulders; prevention of a single localized RF current density on the skin’s chronic shoulder injury could easily pay for the surface. As a result, the U.S. Federal Com- power tool. munications Commission has established maximum permissible exposures to RF occurs when workers get close to RF com- behalf of EPRI. “Our goal is to work with fi elds that are related to the specifi c absorp- munications antennas, such as those used both electric utilities and companies from tion rate of energy that would result from for cell phone base stations. Their RF fi elds other industries, such as wireless carriers, exposure. EPRI’s research work on RF are typically nonuniform and may in fact to enhance their compliance efforts and to safety supports electric company compli- be highly focused, complicating efforts to prevent potentially serious injuries.” ance with these exposure limits and helps estimate specifi c absorption rates in per- establish safe work practices. sonnel at nearby locations. EPRI’s RF Sharpening the A major challenge for compliance is safety program, using Technology Innova- Research Agenda determining what energy would likely be tion funding, sponsored the U.K.’s Health EPRI has established a new occupational absorbed by a worker under various cir- Protection Agency (HPA) in-depth dosim- health and safety advisory committee to cumstances. The most intense exposure etry study, which is based on specifi c help guide its research agenda. At its fi rst absorption rate modeling that uses HPA’s meeting, in 2007, the committee recom- highly detailed, three-dimensional com- mended that all of EPRI’s OH&S-related puter model of a man exposed to RF fi elds. research be linked more closely across the EPRI has also published practical - Institute’s technical disciplines, bringing a tion that electric utilities can use to develop comprehensive approach to defi ning re- their own RF safety programs and ensure search priorities. These will include the ill- compliance with regulations. nesses and injuries that are the most com- Beginning in 2008, additional research mon in the utility workforce—with an is examining RF burn hazards in the elec- emphasis on risk prevention—and specifi c tric power industry. Such burns can occur areas of concern that require targeted when workers touch bare communications research. antennas or metallic utility towers that are “The committee’s guidance has been located near transmitting antennas. This extremely helpful,” says Robert Kavet, research will focus on identifying exposure senior program manager for both EMF/ criteria related to RF burns, work practices RF and OH&S research. “We are already that may lead to such burns, and methods better integrating information from a vari- to mitigate the effects. ety of areas and putting new emphasis on “This research is already helping electric preventive measures, as the committee

Designs for new facilities often fail to ade- utilities develop training programs for their advised. This effort includes collaborative quately consider ergonomics and maintenance line personnel who work near RF anten- work between the EMF/RF and OH&S access. This valve could easily have been re- nas,” says Michael Silva, an engineering programs to develop a job-exposure matrix oriented in the design stage to face the worker. expert who manages RF safety research on that will provide utilities a way to estimate

SPRING 2008 21 Safety Research Across EPRI EPRI conducts safety-related research in all of its business sectors, provid- revision, will join EPRI’s “Color Book” series as the Tan Book, while the ing the electric power industry with a comprehensive, coordinated effort LWRC will be a living web site, periodically updated with new materi- to improve the well-being of workers while also protecting the public at als. Current research is focused on identifying new technologies for, and large. The most broadly applicable areas of occupational health and technological gaps related to, live-line work. Topics include minimizing safety (OH&S) research are addressed in the Environment Sector. The conditions that can lead to arc fl ashovers, protecting workers from arc- other business sectors focus primarily on working with utility members to related thermal exposure in transmission and substation environments, address OH&S problems that most affect their operations in specifi c improving structure to better facilitate live-line maintenance, and areas. In this way, EPRI provides the industry with an unmatched re- improving the protection of workers from induced and currents source for conducting and sharing a wide-ranging portfolio of OH&S while they are working on de-energized lines. work. Another area of concern for both electrical workers and the public is so-called contact exposure, in which people or animals receive Power delivery Applications a shock by touching utility infrastructure or other objects, such as water One safety concern addressed in different ways for more than a decade lines and even swimming pool water. EPRI’s research at its test facilities is the rare but potentially lethal explosion of gases in underground distri- in Knoxville, , and Lenox, Massachusetts, has produced a bution systems. The energy released in such explosions can reach the more comprehensive understanding of conditions that can lead to con- effect of several sticks of dynamite and can blow tact voltage and has resulted in development of standard methods for off manhole covers, causing collateral damage evaluating and mitigating potential sources. This research supports ef- and injury to the public as well as to maintenance forts by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and workers. Over the years, EPRI has performed nu- other industry groups to set contact voltage standards. merous tests involving controlled explosions and EPRI is also analyzing the electromagnetic compatibility of sensitive has explored several mitigation approaches, in- electronic devices that must operate in the electromagnetically “noisy” cluding energy-absorbing tethers for manhole environment of power substations. In the past, standards for ensuring covers, pressure-relief devices, and low-cost gas compatibility have sometimes lagged several years behind equipment detection systems. Recent attention has focused development. EPRI has drawn on its network of international members on using high-speed video to understand and model the dynamics of and experts to develop best practices for electromagnetic compatibility explosions. A fi eld trial is under way in the Midwest of some 1200 for the new solid-state power devices and digital electronic control and manhole covers equipped with a controlled pressure-relief mechanism. communications devices now being installed in substations worldwide. Other power delivery safety work has focused on line workers who perform live-line work—maintenance on energized circuits. Past re- Power Plant Safety search led to development of the EPRI Live Working Guide (1008747) Maintaining safe working conditions at a power plant requires clearly and the on-line EPRI Live Working Resource Center (LWRC), which cover stated goals and procedures, active management participation, and topics ranging from worker training to the proper use of helicopters for enforced accountability. Although these requirements are met in different live-line work on transmission system conductors. The guide, now under ways at different plants, EPRI is well positioned to help identify and com-

the probability of exposure to both chemi- tistics that utilities need to target their pre- reaching deeper into a company’s culture cal and physical agents.” vention programs, and studying important and infl uencing it for the better.” Such efforts are expected to expand the specifi c issues, such as radio-frequency OH&S program’s value for the industry. burns and worker exposure to fl y ash This article was written by John Douglas. “EPRI has played a strategically important components.” Principal background information was role in helping the industry improve Kavet points out that a comprehensive provided by Rob Kavet ([email protected]) worker safety and control health care approach often yields surprising dividends: and Gabor Mezei ([email protected]), with costs,” says Charles J. Kelly, a member of “Our initial focus, of course, is on preven- additional information from George Gela the advisory committee and director for tion of accidents and health problems, but ([email protected]), Wayne Crawford industry human resource issues at the Edi- we are fi nding that companies with good ([email protected]), and Sean Bushart son Electric Institute. “Looking toward the intervention programs might actually be ([email protected]). future, EPRI research can help particularly saving more money through increased pro- in the areas of reducing injury rates through ductivity than through decreased medical ergonomic intervention, providing the sta- costs. Results like that show that you’re

22 EPRI JOURNAL municate industry best practices, as cludes projects to reduce radiation source term in a plant and to protect well as to work with individual utili- workers against radiation from existing sources. A measure of the suc- ties on assessing the safety perfor- cess of this program is that collective personnel exposure levels are cur- mance of their facilities. rently at historic lows, and individual exposure levels are well below As part of this work, EPRI published background for most plant workers. the Operations Assessment Guideline One industry challenge is a lack of international consensus on deter- (1008250), which provided utilities a threshold for releasing workers and materials from radioac- with criteria for conducting assessment activities at their plants and for tively controlled areas, given these reduced exposure levels. Unclear comparing the results with industry best practices. The newly updated regulatory policy and various monitoring standards mean that clearance guideline (1014200) includes application experiences resulting from for exiting a work area is now effectively deter- the use of the initial publication. The Clearance and Tagging Guideline mined by the limits of radiation detection equip- (1014916) was published earlier this year, providing assistance in ment, which may vary signifi cantly from plant to equipment isolation to protect workers and equipment. In addition, the plant. In response, EPRI is developing an indus- Maintenance Excellence Matrix (1004705) gives a solid basis for con- try guideline to help standardize best practices ducting assessments of plant maintenance performance. Future work will for the detection of radioactivity on personnel focus on guidance for corrective action programs to help members ef- and materials entering or leaving a nuclear fectively identify causal factors and correct them to prevent recurrence. facility. Among the most important safety issues at fossil-fi red plants are fail- The Radiation Management program is also ures of high-energy steam and water piping. EPRI’s collaborative interna- facilitating the implementation of advanced soft- tional program to improve boiler life and availability has developed a ware that will help utilities reduce the radiation dose received by work- variety of products, including guidelines and special software, that can ers performing specifi c tasks, such as reactor head inspection. By using help manage piping systems as they age. A related concern is fl ow- virtual reality software, plant operators can determine the dose that accelerated corrosion, which has been implicated in failures of both would be received by workers in particular situations and use these re- piping and turbine blades. Surveys have found that improvements in sults to improve planning and training to minimize exposure during dose- water cycle chemistry that could help prevent corrosion and other failure intensive work. The three-dimensional visualization software will enable mechanisms can be hampered by defi ciencies in the technology transfer engineers to reduce operational costs associated with certain complex process. Through its focus on technology transfer, EPRI’s program has tasks, such as materials inspections. become an effective source of guidance, training, and analytical tools Looking ahead, EPRI is leading an industry effort to apply current in- for managing fl ow-accelerated corrosion. dustry best practices, lessons learned, and technological developments related to radiation management to the next generation of nuclear Radiation Issues power plants. Documentation of this work, including specifi c recommen- OH&S research in the nuclear area focuses on minimizing workers’ ex- dations, will be published later this year. posure to ionizing radiation. EPRI’s Radiation Management program in-

Robert Kavet is senior program manager of both the Gabor Mezei is a senior project manager in the Oc- Occupational Health and Safety program and the cupational Health and Safety program. Prior to join- EMF Health Assessment and RF Safety program. ing EPRI in 1999, he worked as a physician and epi- Kavet’s fi rst tenure at EPRI was from 1978 to 1984, demiologist at the National Institute of Dermatology in after which he worked for two years at the Health Budapest, Hungary, and at the Toronto , Uni- Effects Institute. Following six years as a consultant on EMF health issues, versity of Toronto, Canada. Mezei received a Doctor of Medicine de- he rejoined EPRI in 1992. Kavet received both a BS in electrical engi- gree from the Semmelweis Medical University in Budapest and a doctor- neering and an MEE degree from Cornell University; he earned an MS ate in epidemiology from the School of Public Health at the University of in environmental health sciences and an ScD in respiratory physiology California, Los Angeles. at the Harvard School of Public Health.

SPRING 2008 23

The Story in Brief

Nuclear power’s long-term value as a clean and sustainable generation resource may depend on taking strategic action to close the fuel cycle. Momentum is building toward fully integrated fuel cycles based on fuel reprocessing and reuse, interim storage, secure transport, and geologic dis posal. Closing the fuel cycle will not be easy, but with a global commitment to advanced technology development and demonstration, there is time to “get it right,” leading to more-effi cient resource utilization and waste disposal, along with competitive costs. ncreased concern about greenhouse is time to get it right and make the best the option of nuclear power for the long gas emissions, energy , and decisions, recognizing that technology term,” says Jean-Michel Delbecq, program I volatile prices is driving the must evolve over time. We need a picture manager for future nuclear systems at the development of new nuclear power plants of the advanced fuel cycle that we want 50 French utility EDF. French reprocessing in a number of countries. EPRI’s PRISM/ years from now, and that cycle has to be has helped reduce the quantity of stored MERGE analysis identifies a large role for one we can successfully implement at a spent fuel and optimize interim storage of nuclear energy in reducing electricity sec- cost we can afford.” high-level waste. “The of pluto- tor greenhouse gas emissions, with up to The U.S. nuclear industry is pursuing a nium and uranium to fabricate MOX fuel 64,000 MW of new capacity by 2030. three-part strategy for developing an inte- significantly reduces the spent fuel inven- Nuclear power’s long-term future is tied grated fuel cycle, according to Steven Kraft, tory,” says Delbecq. “We start with seven to the broader issue of sustainability, which senior director of used-fuel management at spent uranium oxide fuel assemblies, and encompasses continued safe, reliable, and the Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI): at the end, we have one spent MOX fuel economic operation; a secure fuel supply; • Research, development, and commercial assembly. The process also substantially effective waste management; and nonpro- demonstration of advanced nuclear fuel reduces the volume of high-level waste liferation of nuclear materials. reprocessing and recycling technologies requiring disposal.” “When we look at sustainability and to close the fuel cycle Recent French legislation mandated three how nuclear power can make substantial • Interim storage until the fuel is recycled studies that could move France toward a contributions to energy supply over the or disposal is available fully integrated closed cycle: long term, we need to carefully reconsider • Disposal of by-products in a geologic • Assess by 2015 interim storage capacity, the nuclear fuel cycle,” says Albert repository including the potential for adapting exist- Machiels, senior technical executive at ing facilities and the need for new ones EPRI. To ensure nuclear power’s long-term Spent Fuel Reprocessing: What • Assess geologic disposal, and develop a viability, the fuel cycle must be integrated. Is the State of the Art? licensing procedure by 2015, with That will mean holistically coordinating Reprocessing spent fuel separates materials implementation by 2025 fuel production and use, spent fuel stor- that can be reused for power production— • Assess by 2012 the transmutation of age, transportation, and disposal. Integrat- uranium, plutonium, and the minor high-level waste in advanced reactors ing the fuel cycle would provide maximum actinides—from fission products, which and the development of a prototype energy recovery with lower quantities of are considered true radioactive waste. Dif- reactor by 2020 waste for disposal. ferences in fuel cycles are largely a matter The 2012 decision on advanced “fast” Spent fuel reprocessing followed by of whether, and how, these materials are reactors that can process plutonium and the recycling is central to advanced fuel cycles, separated and managed. minor actinides into fuel will be important providing the mechanism through which Countries committed to at least partially for reducing the volume and radiotoxicity additional nuclear fuel is created and closing the fuel cycle, including France of reprocessed waste products, according through which the quantities of high-level and Japan, use the PUREX reprocessing to the French Atomic Energy Commission radioactive waste are minimized. Several technology, which separates spent fuel (see “The Status of Advanced Reactor countries, including France, Japan, Russia, constituents into three main streams: Development,” page 29). Deployment of and the , already repro- • Reprocessed uranium (about 94%), the first such commercial reactor is ex- cess nuclear fuel for reuse in existing power which can be stored or reused in existing pected by about 2040. EDF’s goal is to plants, storing the waste by-products until reactors evaluate the technological hurdles that they can be permanently placed in a geo- • Plutonium (about 1%), which can be must be overcome and the R&D programs logic repository. Other countries, includ- used in mixed-oxide (MOX) fuel for that must be undertaken in order to ing the United States, rely on a once- recycling in existing or future reactors develop fast reactors, with a focus on the through, or “open,” fuel cycle, in which • Fission products and minor actinides sodium-cooled fast reactor. Studies indi- spent fuel would be placed in a geologic (about 5%), which are dealt with as cate that the plutonium inventory in spent repository without reprocessing. high-level waste and require geologic fuel from the current fleet of operating Experience in fuel reprocessing will disposal. Fission products include stron- reactors—both spent uranium oxide fuel prove invaluable as the global nuclear tium, cesium, iodine, and technetium. and spent MOX fuel—would be sufficient industry moves to close the fuel cycle. Minor actinides include neptunium, to enable operation of fast reactors by While advanced fuel cycles are key to sus- americium, and curium. 2040, says Delbecq. For this reason, the tainability, there is no need to rush their “France’s strategy of reprocessing and plutonium resource in spent fuel must be deployment, says EPRI’s Machiels. “There recycling enables the country to preserve managed with a view to the long term.

26 EPRI JOURNAL Uranium, In the open fuel cycles, spent fuel is placed in interim storage to MOX Fuel Plutonium Reprocessing cool down prior to disposal in a permanent geologic repository. Fabrication Plant Plant A single reprocessing step can be added to recover the major actinides—uranium and plutonium—to make mixed-oxide

(MOX) fuel, which can be reused directly in a light water H X ig reactor (LWR); subsequently, spent MOX fuel is disposed of O l h e -L M u e F v in the geologic repository. e

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t s t ium Spen Spent Fuel n e Uran t e F p Fuel uel S Sp ent nium F Ura uel

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Partially Closed Fuel Cycle Closed Fuel Cycles Fully Closed Fuel Cycle

Uranium Ore In a partially closed cycle, the uranium and plutonium from spent LWR fuel is reprocessed for use in a fast reactor (FR); this fuel is burned, reprocessed, and refabricated repeatedly in a closed loop. In a fully Uranium closed cycle, the minor actinides are also extracted from the spent LWR Mine fuel and accompany the major actinides in the closed cycle.

Refining/Conversion/ Uranium Fuel Enrichment/Fabrication

Power Station Power Station (LWR) (FR) Makeup Uranium MOX FR Fuel Fuel uel M F t O Fabrication Fabrication X n F O e l u X p e e Plant Plant M S u l F S p

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S Interim p , e n m U Storage of t iu m r F n iu P a Spent Fuel u ra n um lu ni el U to ni t um lu luto on , P , P ium nium M Ura in o r A s c ide tin ctin ide or A s Min Reprocessing Plant for FRs Reprocessing vel Hig h-Le Plant h-Le Hig e W vel ast aste W

High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal

SPRING 2008 27 LWR Spent Fuel Make-Up and deputy chief nuclear offi cer of Tokyo Electric Power Company. “Moreover, recy- Uranium ~94% U-235 ~0.7% cling spent fuel can yield uranium resource U-238 ~93% savings of 10–20%.” Plutonium ~1% Muto expects reprocessing to remain Pu-238 0.04% central to Japan’s nuclear program. In the Pu-239 0.7% Pu-240 0.3% near term, recycled uranium and pluto- Pu-241 0.2% nium will be used in light water reactors. Pu-242 0.1% Over the longer term, the development of Minor Actinides ~0.1% fast reactors is a national technological Np-237 0.07% Am-241 0.03% priority. Cm-244 0.01% The PUREX process presents some dis- Fission Products ~4–5% advantages related to disposal and prolif- Sr-90 0.1% eration. Because PUREX extracts the fi s- Cs-137 0.2% I-129 0.03% sion products and minor actinides in a Tc-99 0.1% single stream, the minor actinides contrib-

Spent fuel from today’s nuclear plants consists mostly of uranium unaffected by nuclear activity ute to waste volume, and their energy con- inside the reactor; this material can be recovered and processed for additional use. Plutonium and tent is thrown away. PUREX also produces the minor actinides, which are formed from uranium in the reactor, are also potentially valuable a plutonium stream, so its use raises prolif- as nuclear fuel. Fission products—more than two dozen elements that can be formed from split eration concerns. Commingling plutonium uranium atoms—are not suitable for power production and must be discarded as high-level waste. with uranium or even small amounts of the minor actinides can increase its prolif- eration resistance. In light of these issues, several technol- Potential Radiotoxicity of Spent Fuel Components ogy variations have emerged or are being 6 actively developed: Uranium • Extraction of plutonium mixed with 5 some uranium, and possibly with some Minor Actinides (Np, Am, Cm, etc.) neptunium 4 • Selective separation of minor actinides (by means of DIAMEX-SANEX in sieverts/t) 8 France, TALSPEAK in the United States, 3 Plutonium TOGDA in Japan) for interim storage, followed by recycling in fast reactors 2 • Group separation of actinides (by GANEX in France, UREX+ in the Radiotoxicity (10 1 United States, NEXT in Japan) specifi - Fission Products cally intended for incorporation in recy- cled fuel for fast reactors. 0 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 105 106 Large-scale implementation of these new Time in Years processes depends on signifi cant research, development, and demonstration and is Uranium, plutonium, and the minor actinides have signifi cantly longer half-lives than most fi ssion products. Removing these elements from spent fuel and burning them in a closed cycle will not likely for several decades. The Future substantially reduce nuclear waste’s radiotoxicity. of Nuclear Power, a 2003 report issued by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, notes that studies of the partitioning and –constrained Japan, and resource enhancement. “Recycling transmutation of long-lived fi ssion prod- whose nuclear plants produce approxi- spent fuel enables nuclear power to play a ucts have not yet shown that such products mately 1000 metric tons of spent fuel major role in energy supply over the long can be dealt with effectively. Moreover, it annually, is pursuing reprocessing to ad- term and also minimizes the waste vol- will be necessary to recycle MOX fuel sev- dress the dual concerns of waste reduction ume,” says Sakae Muto, executive offi cer eral times to optimize economic effi ciency,

28 EPRI JOURNAL says Ernest Moniz, MIT professor of phys- Kraft points out that there is a need to store spent fuel for on the order of a cen- ics and engineering systems and one of the explore the private sector’s role in carrying tury prior to doing whatever is planned. authors of the study. “We are not very far out near-term reprocessing demonstra- This conveniently provides several decades advanced in such multiple recycling.” tions as a way to spur reprocessing devel- to find out if advanced fuel cycles will The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) opment in a real-world business setting. materialize. We favor the idea of a small has proposed the UREX+ reprocessing Communities that host interim storage are number of consolidated storage sites on technology as part of its Global Nuclear obvious candidates for hosting commercial government property. Then, if the country Energy Partnership (GNEP) program. The reprocessing demonstrations. moves toward a research, development, UREX+ process would keep the transuranic The requirements for interim storage and demonstration program for an ad- elements—plutonium, neptunium, ameri- will depend largely on how storage will fit vanced fuel cycle, the pilot-, engineering-, cium, and curium—together, minimizing into efforts to close the fuel cycle. Interim and commercial-scale facilities should be waste and making the separation more storage allows heat and radioactivity levels fostered where there is consolidated spent proliferation-resistant than it is in the to decrease and minimizes worker dose fuel storage.” PUREX process. In general, recycling of rates and industrial discharges from repro- the transuranics turns a potential waste cessing facilities. “To obtain the best results Ultimate Disposal of Nuclear liability into an energy asset, although it for balancing risks and rewards in deploy- Waste Still Essential may involve significantly higher opera- ing advanced-fuel-cycle facilities, it may be In addition to interim storage, a common tional complexity and costs. best to leave spent fuel in interim storage thread in all advanced fuel cycles is the for 60 to 100 years, at least initially” says need for a geologic repository. Although Interim Storage: From Stopgap John Kessler, EPRI’s manager of high-level the volume and toxicity of the waste vary to Solution waste and spent fuel. with the type of cycle, all cycles produce Regardless of which advanced fuel cycles MIT’s Moniz agrees: “It makes sense to fission products and some unrecycled frac- are eventually developed, interim storage will be key to the integrated system. Spent fuel from U.S. nuclear plants is currently stored on-site in spent fuel pools and in The Status of Advanced Reactor Development aboveground dry storage systems, awaiting Fast reactors, known as Generation IV reactors, are critical to advanced fuel cycles. Several the operation of a permanent geologic re- reactor types are being considered for design and development—gas-cooled, sodium- pository or centralized interim storage cooled, and lead-cooled fast reactors, for example. facilities. France currently provides interim A number of countries—including France, Japan, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and storage for three products: spent uranium the United States—organized the Generation IV International Forum to coordinate interna- oxide and spent MOX fuel, stored at tional R&D on promising advanced reactor designs. Recently the U.S. DOE, the French power plant and reprocessing-facility sites, Atomic Energy Commission, and the Japan Atomic Energy Agency agreed to coordinate the and high-level waste from reprocessing, development of a prototype sodium-cooled fast reactor. These countries will establish design stored only at the reprocessing facility. goals for prototypes and identify key technical needed to reduce capital, operat- “The U.S. industry supports an inte- ing, and maintenance costs. grated spent fuel management strategy EPRI analyses reveal that break-even uranium prices for recycling plutonium in fast reactors that includes centralized interim storage are generally lower than those for recycling in light water reactors. But an increase in capital until recycling or permanent disposal—or cost for the fast reactor would possibly offset this difference. MOX recycling in light water both—can be made available,” says NEI’s reactors could dampen, but not stop, uranium price increases, whereas a switch to fast reac- Steven Kraft. “Interim storage sites will tors could stop the rise, according to EPRI. Therefore, a mix of MOX-fueled light water reac- enable the movement of used fuel from tors and fast reactors may prove appropriate, at least for a while. Commercial deployment decommissioned and operating plants to of fast reactors is not likely for several decades. volunteer locations before recycling facili- Fast reactors are able to fission both of the major actinides (uranium and plutonium) and ties or a repository can begin operating. all of the minor actinides (e.g., neptunium, americium, curium). They can be operated in a The short-term goal is to identify and breeder mode or in a burner mode, depending on whether the amount of plutonium is higher develop volunteer sites for interim storage, or lower than the initial amount of plutonium in the fuel. Breeder reactors are most efficient while the medium-term goal is to move when concerns about the adequacy of natural uranium supplies dominate, while burner reac- used fuel to these sites, ideally at locations tors are best suited to progressively destroying actinides, thus removing them from the waste where advanced fuel cycles are being stream. developed.”

SPRING 2008 29 merable scientifi c and engineering analyses and assessments. DOE has coordinated a 20-year effort involving 2500 scientists to construct the world’s largest underground laboratory. Scientists from the Interna- tional Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Organisation for Economic Co-opera- tion and Development’s Nuclear Energy Agency have analyzed and endorsed DOE’s repository performance assessments. Still, the project’s complexity and the continuing resistance from interveners and from some in the public have slowed prog- ress, frustrating industry leaders. “It may take a national imperative to drive a deci- sion on a repository,” says Charles Pardee, chief nuclear offi cer of Exelon Generation. “If all 50 state governors took a united position on the issue, or if the governors and attorneys general of the states with Interim storage is an important part of all fuel cycles, allowing the radioactivity and heat of spent spent fuel stored at nuclear plant sites fuel assemblies to decline before reprocessing or fi nal waste disposal. The Clab facility in started pressing this issue nationally, it Oskarshamn, Sweden, stores about 4000 tons of uranium from Swedish nuclear plants. While would be more meaningful than the same Clab stores the spent fuel in deep water pools, dry storage systems are also an option. actions by industry CEOs.” As the Nevada project moves slowly for- tion of the actinides, and these require ward, questions are surfacing about whether disposal. “Isolation of radioactive by-prod- it will be adequate for future needs. “Yucca ucts, used fuel, or both in a specially de- Mountain has a statutory capacity limit of signed underground repository is consis- 70,000 metric tons, with 90% of that tent with the international scientifi c con- capacity designated for commercial spent sensus that deep geologic disposal is the nuclear fuel,” says Kessler. “Projecting over most effective means of protecting public 50 years, we will need a repository with health and the environment,” says NEI’s twice as much capacity.” Kraft. EPRI analyzed Yucca Mountain’s capac- No country has yet developed, licensed, ity in its 2007 report Room at the Moun- or operated a repository for spent fuel and tain. “We concluded that through design high-level waste, although Finland and the and waste loading modifi cations the reposi- United States have identifi ed sites and tory could handle between four and nine begun development, France and Sweden times the statutory capacity,” says Kessler. have identifi ed likely locations, and Canada This expanded capacity at Yucca Mountain and the United Kingdom are working on would allow time for the research and devel- site-decision methodologies. The United opment to move toward a full-scale and States does have an operating nuclear waste economically competitive closed fuel cycle. disposal facility in southeastern New Mex- EPRI has also assembled technical experts ico, but this facility does not accept spent in climate, hydrology, materials science, AREVA NC’s La Hague plant on the French fuel and high-level waste. geochemistry, seismology, volcanology, and Cotentin Peninsula reprocesses spent reactor fuel to recover uranium and plutonium, which The U.S. Congress in 1987 designated the biosphere to develop models for long- can be recycled as MOX fuel. La Hague is Yucca Mountain, Nevada, as the potential term processes at the site. These processes the world’s largest commercial spent fuel site of a permanent repository for spent include climate change, the slow degrada- reprocessing site, serving the nuclear pro- fuel and high-level radioactive waste. Yucca tion of waste containers, the slow release of grams of half a dozen European nations. Mountain has been the subject of innu- radionuclides, groundwater movement,

30 EPRI JOURNAL Transporting Spent Fuel: New Cycles Bring New Challenges Spent nuclear fuel has been safely transported for decades. According to the IAEA, there have been more than 20,000 shipments of spent fuel and high-level wastes over millions of kilometers since 1971. None has resulted in an accident in which a container was breached. Going forward, however, spent fuel will have to be moved in ever larger volumes. Many U.S. nuclear utilities that store spent fuel at plant sites use canisters designed for both storage and transportation. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has licensed these canisters for use in dry storage, but it has restricted their use for transporting spent fuel that exceeds a certain fuel burnup level. Most spent fuel discharged from reactors today does exceed that level. EPRI is working with the NRC in collaboration with NEI to establish realistic standards for the transportation of spent fuel. Many NRC concerns focus on the possibility that fi ssile material in the spent fuel could undergo an uncontrolled nuclear reaction. Water is a particular concern in this regard. As a moderator for neutrons, water slows them down, making it easier for them to be absorbed by fi ssile mate- rial in the fuel and thus increasing the probability of a chain reaction. NRC regulations require that spent fuel remain subcritical in the presence of water. EPRI is modeling the potential changes in criti- cality posed by the presence of water and the geometric rearrangement of the spent fuel that might occur during a transportation incident. Regulatory concern has been heightened by the trend toward higher-burnup fuel, which may be subject to more damage during certain potential transportation events, such as accidents. EPRI has developed a probabilistic risk assessment of a criticality event occurring during transpor- tation of spent fuel. “Criticality depends on the probability of an initiating event, the presence of a moderator, the fi ssile content of the spent fuel, and the presence of neu- tron ‘poisons’—isotopes that capture neutrons, preventing them from sustaining a nuclear chain reaction,” says Kess- ler. “Because of our work, the NRC is permitting licensees to take partial for certain actinides in the spent fuel that are neutron absorbers and that would shut down a chain reaction. We’re doing similar research on fi ssion products, which are also neutron absorbers.” EPRI research has helped to increase the amount of the so-called burnup credit for spent fuel—the degree to which neutron absorption by radionuclides in spent fuel reduces the risk of a nuclear reaction—that the NRC permits. Use of this burnup credit could increase the amount of spent fuel that could be transported in existing canister designs. “Without the credit, only about 20% of spent fuel could be shipped,” says Kess- ler. “With the credit, that fi gure could increase to 90%.” “While encompassing all of the issues relevant to U.S. concerns,” says Kessler, “our work on spent fuel transportation technical issues also applies to most spent fuel that international nuclear utilities will be moving.”

and the transport of radionuclides in the tute a multidecade effort. EPRI research • Improved diversion resistance of sepa- groundwater and their impact on public points to a number of technical challenges rated fi ssile materials health. NEI will use the EPRI work in confronting advanced fuel cycles: Progress on these challenges will be these areas when it represents the industry • Remote-control fabrication and testing informed by past and ongoing reprocess- in the Yucca Mountain construction licens- of new fuel types containing minor ing and waste management practices, but ing process. DOE is expected to fi le an ap- actinides some key issues have not yet been resolved. plication for construction by June 2008. • Construction and safe operation of fast The MIT Future of Nuclear Power report reactors argues that the best approach to pursuing Technical Challenges for • Chemical treatments that separate fi s- advanced fuel cycles involves the develop- Advanced Cycles sion products from actinides ment of basic tools and advanced codes: Closing the nuclear fuel cycle will consti- • Conditioning of waste streams “We view the optimization of such fuel

SPRING 2008 31 designs, fuel options, separation technolo- gies, waste forms, and geologic disposal alternatives—and integrating them into a holistic system. Given the many institu- tions and stakeholders involved, planning will need to include a great deal of fl exibil- ity, leading to effective, iterative decision making. “The nuclear community has made a good start in choosing a systems approach to the nuclear fuel cycle issue,” says Machiels. “Now we must get down to the hard work of developing the appropriate technologies and making it happen.”

This article was written by Alice Clamp. Background information was provided by Albert Machiels ([email protected]) and John Kessler ([email protected]). The Yucca Mountain repository in Nevada has been designed to accept a variety of high-level nuclear waste materials for permanent deep geological storage. The U.S. Department of Energy is expected to submit a license application to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission this year, although operation is unlikely for at least a decade. Albert Machiels, previously a senior program manager in the Nuclear Sector’s Mate- cycles as a systems issue, not separate issues modeling codes to simulate a wide spec- rials and Chemistry program, about the fuel form or the reactor or the trum of fuel cycle scenarios, says EPRI’s is currently senior technical separation technology. They must be inte- Machiels. executive. Before joining EPRI in 1982, he grated all the way to the kind of waste In addition to the work at MIT, EPRI is was an associate professor of nuclear engi- form destined for geologic isolation.” collaborating with EDF to develop opti- neering at the University of Illinois, Urbana- EPRI has come to similar conclusions, mal fuel cycle strategies. “EDF will analyze Champaign. Machiels received Ingénieur Civil calling for integrated process models that a scenario in which the current U.S. Chimiste and Ingénieur en Génie Nucléaire dynamically simulate nuclear power sys- nuclear fl eet of light water reactors moves degrees from the University of Liège in Belgium tems—from to fi nal dis- to a future fl eet of evolutionary light water and a PhD in engineering from the University of posal of the wastes—in order to select the reactors and fast reactors,” says Claude California at Berkeley. most promising development paths. To Garzenne, a senior researcher in EDF’s further this approach, EPRI and NEI are R&D division. John Kessler is a program supporting a fi ve-year interdisciplinary re- manager in the Nuclear Sec- search program at MIT carried out under Getting It Right tor’s High-Level Waste and the MIT Energy Initiative. The program Planning out the future shape of nuclear Spent Fuel Management pro- will systematically study the options for power is a daunting task, complicated by gram. He came to EPRI in managing the technical, economic, envi- lead times measured in decades and sub- 1993, having earlier worked at Nutech Engi- ronmental, and institutional aspects of the stantial uncertainties in future technical, neers and as a private consultant on dry spent nuclear fuel cycle and propose a technol- institutional, and policy developments. But fuel storage system design. Kessler earned BS ogy development and deployment plan. while the long time frames can be prob- and MS degrees in nuclear engineering from While this work will consider all aspects lematic, they also offer the opportunity to the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, of both open and closed fuel cycle archi- deal comprehensively with the challenge and a PhD in engineering from the Uni- tectures, it is placing particular focus on of closing the nuclear fuel cycle and to cre- versity of California at Berkeley. the uncertainties in managing commercial ate durable, no-regrets solutions. spent fuel and the ultimate disposal of the Success will depend to a great extent on waste. As part of the study, MIT is cur- developing a robust understanding of all rently assessing the ability of four fuel cycle the elements involved—advanced reactor

32 EPRI JOURNAL Emerging technologies and Innovation cutting-edge engineering

Tools for Engineering XLPE polymer nanocomposites, includ- oxygen environments introduced during Nanodielectrics ing the distribution of oxygen radicals the chemical cross-linking, and their Recent research has shown that the addi- and the distribution of internal charge. relation to polymer chains elucidate the tion of nanoscale spherical fi llers to tradi- One method for probing these electri- oxide nanoparticle/polymer interface in a tional insulation materials such as epoxy cally active sites is electron paramagnetic way that can be generalized beyond the or cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) can resonance (EPR), a powerful technique polyethylene/SiO2 system studied in this produce signifi cant improvements in dc for clarifying the structure of localized project. Further comparison of results dielectric breakdown strength as well as unpaired electrons. In this technique, the obtained via the two techniques is order-of-magnitude improvements in volt- magnetic fi eld on a sample placed in an expected to provide additional insights age endurance. These exciting results are X-band microwave cavity is increased into interface behavior. generating increased commercial interest until the energy difference between the This work will not only impact the in incorporating nanodielectrics into spin-up and spin-down orientations development of nanoparticle-fi lled poly- power industry insulators. At the moment, (which are also affected by the local envi- mer composites for power production and however, the ability to tailor the response ronment) matches the microwave fre- transmission but will also guide the design in these materials requires a better under- quency of the instrument. Strong absorp- and development of nanocomposites in standing of the role of the fi llers. tion is then detected. general—particularly in applications where Specifi cally, there is a need to under- Another technique, pulsed electroacous- the role of interface behavior is critical. stand the role of the extremely large sur- tic analysis (PEA), provides an evaluation Such applications include transparent, face areas in these materials in order to of the space charge density in polymeric make it possible to optimize the design of materials by measuring the sound wave nanoparticle-fi lled polymers. Evidence initiated from the charge when perturbed from prior work suggests that the internal by an electric pulse. Because reducing the interfacial regions play a key role in elec- dimensions of the fi ller in a composite tron scattering, depth and number of has important implications for the distri- trapping sites, and local charge mitiga- bution of space charge, the PEA method Photomicrograph of 12.5% SiO /XLPE unfunctionalized tion. However, there is still a need to can be employed to document the impact 2 nanocomposite at 50,000 X magnifi cation. quantify this behavior and to conduct of particulate size and interfacial activity systematic studies of the effects of inter- on the injection and storage of internal conducting polymer/nanotube composites, face chemistry, polarity, and geometry on charge as well as on the underlying which are under development as solar cell these mechanisms. dynamics. In particular, it has been found electrodes, and nanoparticle-fi lled amor- Electron transport in polymer dielec- that the distribution and nature of the phous polymers, which are being used as trics takes place by “hopping” conduction trapped charge are affected in a funda- scratch-resistant, transparent coatings in —that is, electrons moving between traps, mental way as the embedded particulates cell phones and CD technology. or localized states. Despite the recogni- are reduced to nanometric dimensions. Although interest in nanocomposites tion that this phenomenon is important The EPR and PEA studies of samples of has focused so far on the electrical prop- in dielectrics, and despite exten- SiO2/XLPE polymer nanocomposite fabri- erties of this new class of materials, it is sive literature discussion of the trapping cated under carefully controlled conditions likely that many applications will also of charge in localized sites, the actual have yielded important insights into the take advantage of improvements in other donor and acceptor trap sites have eluded identities of the ions responsible for impu- attributes, particularly thermal conductiv- direct spectral and structural identifi ca- rity conduction and the acceptor/donor ity, coeffi cient of thermal expansion, and tion. The EPRI project team at Rensselaer mechanisms of charge storage and trans- thermal endurance. Polythechnic Institute is investigating the port in high-voltage insulation systems. For more information, contact use of two experimental techniques to The experimental results on the nature Steven Eckroad, [email protected], study the interface behavior of SiO2/ of the donors/acceptors, their relation to 704.717.6424.

SPRING 2008 33 Energy developments International around the globe

The Materials Aging Institute: rials science and technology, ensuring that of materials aging at the molecular and A New International efforts focus on atomic levels. Collaborative Aims to critical issues with widespread industry “In general, MAI activities are geared Prolong Plant Lifetimes impact.” toward understanding the fundamentals EPRI has joined forces with the French of materials aging issues,” says Mohamad utility EDF and Tokyo Electric Power Modeling Studies Sharpen Understanding Behravesh, the EPRI program manager Company (TEPCO) on a long-term Many aging processes infl uencing the assigned to the facility. “This means research effort to better understand and performance and life span of plant com- sequentially peeling off layers of ambigu- anticipate how materials in power plants ponents occur at the molecular and atomic ities. For example, in investigating corro- age and contribute to plant component levels, making diagnosis and mitigation sion, one may start from the macroscopic degradation. Scientifi c fi ndings from the extremely challenging. Despite recent effects that are visible to the naked eye, new Materials Aging Institute proceed to the crystalline grain (MAI) will help power compa- structure, to the molecular state, nies optimize the operations and and then on to the atomic level lifetimes of existing plants and to try to understand what hap- will support the design of next- pens there and what physical generation plants. Although laws are at play and govern the the MAI’s primary focus is on corrosion process. The objective nuclear materials issues, research is to move from investigation to results will also benefi t fossil understanding to simulation to and hydropower facilities. eventual prediction.” EDF is recognized as a global Of particular promise are the authority on nuclear plant The Materials Aging Institute’s governing board: Shunichi Suzuki results of studies on materials materials aging. The utility’s (TEPCO), Jean-Pierre Hutin (EDF), and Chris Larsen (EPRI). aging of secondary-side equip- fl eet of 58 pressurized water ment, including steam genera- reactors has accumulated more than 1000 progress, the mechanisms of materials tors, turbines, condensers, and feedwater reactor-years of operation, providing a aging are not suffi ciently understood to systems. Findings could help researchers wealth of data on aging phenomena as enable researchers and plant operators to and plant operators to optimize second- well as hundreds of components on predict, for example, a component’s re- ary system chemistry to minimize aging. which to perform detailed analyses. The maining life or when it will require repair An improved understanding of the phe- MAI, based at EDF’s facilities in Les or replacement in cases where there are no nomena underlying corrosion (pH, tem- Renardières, France, will pool and lever- visible or detectable signs of degradation. perature, and other variables) might age the resources of materials research To investigate these processes and enable more-accurate prediction of cor- programs in Europe, Japan, and the improve operational decision making, rosion rates. United States. MAI researchers are turning to computa- “The founding of the Materials Aging tionally intensive modeling studies and Initial Research Program Institute refl ects both the global nature of other powerful tools. The institute The institute will initially be staffed by the electric power industry and the com- recently took delivery of three highly members of EDF, EPRI, TEPCO, utility mon challenges facing power plants specialized electron and an organizations, national laboratories, and around the world,” says Chris Larsen, IBM supercomputer with Blue Gene universities. The MAI offi cially opened vice president of EPRI’s Nuclear Sector. architecture and 8000 parallel processors. on January 1, 2008, and currently “By teaming with research organizations The sophisticated hardware will enable operates out of the existing EDF R&D such as EDF and TEPCO, we will be researchers to study aging phenomena as facilities at Les Renardières. EDF broke working with recognized experts in mate- they occur, and to run digital simulations ground on a dedicated MAI facility on

34 EPRI JOURNAL March 26, 2008; completion is scheduled • Aging of Coating on Reactor role in training new generations of engi- for late 2008 or early 2009. Containment neers and scientists to meet global con- Among the areas that will be analyzed • Source Term Control and Reduction cerns over the availability of a capable at the facility are equipment corrosion, • Reactor Pressure Vessel Cladding workforce for the electric power industry. component and materials degradation due • Failure Properties of Fuel Rod Cladding There are and will be additional opportu- to irradiation, and performance of non- “The selected projects span a number nities for graduate students from a number metallic materials. With an initial budget of operating and design issues for power of affi liate universities in France and other of $13.1 million, the MAI has selected plant owners,” says Behravesh. “It is European countries to do thesis work at nine projects to establish the 2008 R&D gratifying to know that we will bring the MAI in partial fulfi llment of their program: together the best talent in the industry to advanced degree requirements. This effort • Environmentally Assisted Cracking in address the challenges of investigating, will not only keep the MAI at the fore- Nickel-Base Alloys and Stainless Steel understanding, simulating, and predict- front of research activities in areas of inter- • Radiation Effects Prediction for Reactor ing how key components in power plants est to the utility industry but also develop In-Core Materials will perform over extended periods.” a generation of engineers and scientists in • Secondary-Circuit Optimization tune with utility industry issues—a genera- • Organic Materials in Nuclear Plants Training New Generations tion that may consequently gravitate to • Lower-Core Internals The MAI will also perform an important careers in the nuclear industry.

The MAI’s Research Themes Research at the Materials Aging Institute has been organized into three Interdisciplinary Issues Common to All Studies of major areas: understanding and modeling of physical phenomena; Materials Aging issues related to specifi c materials; and interdisciplinary issues com- Understanding and Modeling the Barrier Behavior of Surface Ox- mon to all studies of materials aging. ides, with emphasis on understanding the dynamics of the nucleation and growth of the oxide Understanding and Modeling of Physical Phenomena Behavior, Damage, and Aging of Surfaces and Interfaces, including Thermal Aging, including phase transformations, changes in morphol- modeling the behavior and damage of grain boundaries and micro- ogy, and the strong interaction between the microstructure of alloys structural interfaces and creep behavior Morphology and Calculations of Representative Elementary Volumes, Irradiation, including the reliability of aging-prediction formulas, the to enable MAI researchers to supply pertinent parameters for predic- evolution of the mechanical properties of alloys, and the relationship tive models needed to estimate the lives of structures between irradiation and dimensional change Diffusion, with a focus on predicting diffusion effects to identify mar- Physical Modeling of Corrosion, including stress corrosion cracking, gins and corresponding component lifetimes fatigue corrosion, and general corrosion Prediction of Chemical and Radiochemical Behavior, including pri- mary and secondary chemistry of pressurized water reactors, chemis- try of -based materials, and geochemistry

Research Related to Specifi c Materials Concrete: research on the behavior of different concretes, supporting the development of a numerical tool for modeling concrete morpholo- gies and characteristics Polymers: research that focuses on chemical aging and on predicting the participation of oxidation in the weakening of macroscopic properties New Materials: research on nanomaterials and materials that are re- sistant to extreme operating conditions at high temperature

SPRING 2008 35 Member applications of EPRI Technology at Work science and technology

CPS Energy and Con Ed the company’s critical —primarily maintenance work as well. The worksta- Optimize Programs With power and circuit breakers. tion’s access to supervisory control and Maintenance Management MMW allows the staff data acquisition (SCADA) trip records Workstation to access and analyze a wealth of network and other data enables engineers to deter- Controlling operation and maintenance data on equipment condition, such as mine whether the maintenance effort has costs is becoming more diffi cult as utili- loading or circuit breaker in fact measurably reduced the problem. ties, operating with tighter budgets and operation. With this information and the In addition to SCADA records, a circuit leaner staff, strive to provide customers insight it provides into system operation, breaker database is data-mined for spe- with an ever more reliable supply of eco- CPS and EPRI have developed approaches cifi c work activities to validate the infor- nomical power. CPS Energy has become to streamline and improve maintenance, mation gathered. an industry leader in this art of doing reliability, and staff productivity. MMW has proved especially successful more with less. Its customer bills rank In one recent example, Johnson worked in improving staff productivity and re- among the lowest of the nation’s 20 larg- with EPRI to develop a function in MMW ducing the work-hours needed for report- est cities, and the company has earned the that tracks and reports on the company’s ing tasks. For example, CPS Energy is highest fi nancial rating of any required to submit an annual load electric system in the nation. distribution report to the Electric Maintaining that performance Reliability Council of Texas record means working smarter (ERCOT). In the past, the devel- and adopting more-effi cient opment of this report would approaches to managing and require an engineer to sift through maintaining power system SCADA-generated text fi les to assets. extract the pertinent informa- A pioneer in asset optimiza- tion—around three weeks of tion, CPS Energy is applying tedious effort each year. With EPRI’s Maintenance Manage- MMW’s automated reporting ment Workstation (MMW) in capabilities, the data are accessible novel ways to improve service in seconds or minutes, and the reliability, automate data time required to develop the entire acquisition and analysis to ERCOT report has been collapsed improve productivity, and streamline entire fl eet of circuit breakers. The con- from three weeks to one hour. preventive maintenance. MMW—a cern is that when breakers don’t operate “MMW is a powerful asset manage- powerful software platform for company- for an extended interval, their reliability ment tool that enables us to access and wide data integration—provides a single declines. By reporting on the last time analyze a huge amount of information,” tool through which analysts can access each breaker has opened, the new MMW says Johnson. “It has the capability to information from many different applica- function enables CPS Energy to direct create reports and graphs quickly, to tions: operational data, work manage- maintenance crews to long-inactive break- target maintenance, and to aid in the ment information, and outage informa- ers to ensure they will operate reliably decision-making process to improve tion. Those data can then be analyzed to when needed for fault protection. This system reliability while maximizing pro- illuminate new ways to improve mainte- effort is a key step in the development of ductivity. We’re just beginning to appreci- nance, system reliability, and interdepart- approaches for identifying at-risk trans- ate how well it’s designed and how pow- mental coordination. formers and areas that may be at risk for erful it is.” Indeed, CPS Energy staff are Clint Johnson, a programmer/system an outage. working further with EPRI to develop analyst at CPS Energy, is using MMW as MMW is helping CPS Energy engi- MMW applications that will enable risk- an asset management tool to globally assess neers the success of overhead line based preventive maintenance, equipment

36 EPRI JOURNAL condition trend analysis, and eventually, ance with applicable laws and codes,” says information, records of lightning-related dynamic risk assessment. Con Ed’s Matthew Walther. “The ability outages, relay settings, and so forth. Meanwhile, Consolidated Edison, to send out customized, timely e-mail Armed with these data in spreadsheet another industry leader in maintenance messages to all the groups involved has format, the EPRI project team ranked optimization, has used MMW to develop raised awareness of our goal of 100% approximately 80 intertie, substation, and a new and improved automated work- completion and has helped remove generator transformers with respect to order notification system for its internal impediments to its achievement.” each operating parameter and then com- inspection compliance program. Con Ed’s For more information, contact Bhavin bined the rankings to compare all the Substation Operations Department per- Desai, [email protected], 704.595.2251. units. The result was an overall relative forms thousands of inspections and tests ranking of LES transformers according to on substation equipment and safety sys- Lincoln Electric System their susceptibility to failure and potential tems every month as part of the program. Uses EPRI Methodology to impact on customers. LES is now evaluat- This work is driven by internal proce- Improve Transformer ing results from more-detailed tests on dures and external regulations and is Condition Assessment the ten highest-risk transformers. The critical for safe operations and confor- Assessing the condition of in-service next technical steps include validating the mance with laws and codes. transformers is essential to developing findings with a risk-of-failure analysis The department’s goal with its com­ cost-effective maintenance and replace- using EPRI’s transformer expert system pliance work is to achieve a 100% com- ment strategies. While utilities have tradi- software XVisor, and conducting a load- pletion rate every month. This effort is tionally considered age to be the driver of ing analysis using EPRI’s PTLoad central to the department’s performance transformer condition, age doesn’t tell the dynamic rating tool. indicators and is enforced through corpo- whole story: a 30-year-old unit with a In addition to identifying the trans- rate audits. During a recent review, it was history of light duty may operate reliably formers most likely at risk, the project noticed that some of the compliance for decades to come. provided valuable lessons for LES and tasks were not getting done in the allowed Lincoln Electric System (LES), faced raised awareness of what parameters time frame and that some were not being with a large group of transformers that influence the transformer fleet, and in done repeatedly. As a result, Con Ed were nearing the end of their design life, what way. One finding, for example, was turned to EPRI to help it set up an auto- turned to EPRI for a better approach to that the fleet’s insulation degradation is mated method to extract information on assessing their condition. EPRI has devel- very low as a result of conservative load- pending inspections and tests and to oped a systematic methodology for rank- ing and cooling practices. This finding notify the staff responsible for their ing transformer health—not on the basis indicates that higher-temperature opera- timely completion. of age, but according to operating envi- tion may be both safe and economical. EPRI helped Con Ed capitalize on ronment and life history. The methodol- “Focusing maintenance resources on MMW’s powerful data-mining and ogy distills years of EPRI research and high-risk units is far more cost effective scheduling capabilities to develop a pro- development into a practical, quantifiable than performing blanket inspections on cess that meets the company’s specific tool to support informed transformer an entire transformer fleet in which most needs. The new notification feature estab- replacement/refurbishment decisions. units are in good operating condition,” lishes linkages among the various work LES provided EPRI with detailed says Joe Lang, system planning engineer types, the due dates of compliance tasks, transformer condition data, including at LES. “The EPRI methodology allowed and the personnel responsible for per- information on thermal aging resulting us to identify the ten highest-risk units the tasks in each of five boroughs from loading conditions, data on short and perform our detailed analysis on only in Con Ed’s service area. The system sends circuit and lightning exposure in the those units most likely to have problems. concise, targeted e-mail notices to specific operating environment, condition indica- Taking a detailed, quantified look at a individuals or groups, providing custom- tions provided by dissolved gas analysis, transformer’s design and operating envi- ized, clearly formatted information in the and criticality data for the load connected ronment helps us to better understand subject line and body of the message. to the units. This information was ob- the integrity of our fleet and to make “MMW has helped us streamline and tained from a number of disparate but better decisions regarding transformer strengthen our substation inspection and readily available sources: the utility’s repair and replacement.” testing program, ensuring safe and reli- maintenance management and SCADA For more information, contact Bhavin able power system operation and compli- systems, GIS maps of connected kVA Desai, [email protected], 704.595.2251.

SPRING 2008 37 Enhancing member use Tech Transfer News of EPRI technology

EPRI Conference Promotes CEO of SA Technologies, led off with a The most gripping sessions were those Power Switching Safety keynote presentation on the benefi ts of that focused on real power industry and Reliability applying situation awareness techniques events. Pat Budler, technical training Despite the expertise and close attention to complex operations of power switch- team leader at Nebraska Public Power of operations personnel, variations in ing in dynamic control room environ- District, detailed how his utility coped day-to-day power switching dynamics ments. According to Endsley, 60–80% of with the devastating December 2006 can lead to errors and accidents that errors in complex systems are the result ice storm that downed 10 transmission endanger lives, cut off customer service, of human error, and 80% of all human lines. Some lessons learned: stagger and compromise overall system reliabil- error is the result of problems with shifts at the control center; man critical ity. While serious errors and accidents situation awareness. “Generally, system substations; communicate with neigh- are rare, continued efforts to improve operators don’t need more information— boring systems; keep an adequate training, tools, and procedures are they are inundated with information,” in ventory of parts and materials; expect key to the industry’s goal of error-free said Endsley. “However, we need to bring aftereffects from stretched conductors; operation. the available information together in a and include storm structures in the The EPRI Power Switching Safety & way that fi ts the human brain. Designing system—they work. Reliability Conference, held annually control rooms and systems to meet the Steve Millican, a project manager at since 1997, focuses on exchanges of indi- needs of the operators is the key to high Oklahoma Gas & Electric, discussed vidual utilities’ experiences and fi ndings, levels of performance.” three near misses his company experi- as well as data and industry best practices Human performance issues were fur- enced with high-voltage lines during the developed through EPRI research. The ther examined in the second day’s key- past three years; in one case, the event most recent conference took place at the note by L. D. Holland of Global Tech- could have caused multiple fatalities. Radisson Plaza in Lexington, Ken- nical Training Services. Holland, who Millican described not only the cause tucky, in September 2007. For two days, appeared in a full-dress ship captain’s of the events—improper blocking and 165 utility representatives from the uniform, described in vivid detail the locking of motor-operated switches—but United States and nine other countries numerous human and process errors that also what OG&E is doing now to ensure met to hear experts in situation awareness led to the sinking of the RMS Titanic, error-free switching. and human performance describe how pointing out that the same errors also Perhaps the most riveting presentation utilities can redesign their control rooms threaten safe power switching today. of the entire conference was given by and procedures to ensure safe and reliable According to Holland, the Titanic disas- Andy Cooper, transmission safety and power switching operations. ter highlights fi ve principles of human training manager at the Lower Colorado “This was the most successful confer- performance that continue to be critical River Authority. Cooper detailed the ence to date,” said Jerry Willms, 2007 in modern systems operation: (1) people events that led to the deaths of two line- chairman of EPRI’s Power Switching are fallible; (2) situations where error is men, noting that complacency and short- Safety & Reliability Task Force and likely are predictable, manageable, and cuts very likely were the principal causes superintendent of system operations at preventable; (3) individual behavior is of this tragedy. the Lower Colorado River Authority. infl uenced by organizational processes The Twelfth Annual Power Switching “Participants tell me they always learn and values; (4) people achieve high levels Safety & Reliability Conference will something they can take back and apply of performance largely through the take place September 15–16, 2008, at right away. That’s certainly been the case encouragement and reinforcement the St. Anthony Hotel in San Antonio, with me.” received from leaders, peers, and sub- Texas. Registration for the conference can In all, there were fi ve major presenta- ordinates; and (5) events can be avoided be handled through Cvent, the EPRI tions to the full conference and 22 after- through an understanding of the reasons on-line registration system. noon breakout sessions over the two days mistakes occur and the application of For more information, contact George of the conference. Dr. Mica Endsley, lessons learned from past events. Gela, [email protected], 413.499.5710.

38 EPRI JOURNAL Technical Reports & Software

For more information, contact the EPRI Occupational Health and Safety Annual Report Introduction to Radio Frequency Measurements Customer Assistance Center at 800.313.3774 2007 dVd ([email protected]). Visit EPRI’s web site to 1014041 (Technical Report) 1014933 (Software) download PDF versions of technical reports Program: Occupational Health and Safety Program: EMF Health Assessment and RF Safety (www.epri.com). EPRI Project Manager: Gabor Mezei EPRI Project Manager: Robert I. Kavet

EPRI Ergonomics Handbook for the Electric Pilot Study for the Replication of the draper Power Industry Study of Leukemia, Brain Tumors, and distance Environment 1014042 (Technical Report) to Power Lines in California Program: Occupational Health and Safety 1014939 (Technical Report) PISCES database EPRI Project Manager: Gabor Mezei Program: EMF Health Assessment and RF Safety 1014011 (Software) EPRI Project Manager: Gabor Mezei Program: PISCES—Plant Multimedia Toxics The Costs of Reducing Electricity Sector Characterization CO2 Emissions EPRI Ergonomics Handbook for the Electric EPRI Project Manager: Naomi Lynn Goodman 1014044 (Technical Report) Power Industry Program: Greenhouse Gas Reduction Options 1014942 (Technical Report) EMF Workstation 2007 EPRI Project Manager: Thomas F. Wilson Program: Occupational Health and Safety 1014012 (Software) EPRI Project Manager: Gabor Mezei Program: EMF Health Assessment and RF Safety A New dosimetric Basis for RF Exposure EPRI Project Manager: Brian Cramer Compliance Assessment Ohio River Ecological Research Program 1014048 (Technical Report) (ORERP): 2005 Ohio River Monitoring Results Laboratory Screening Tests for Permeable Program: EMF Health Assessment and RF Safety 1015422 (Technical Report) Reactive Barrier Media EPRI Project Manager: Robert I. Kavet Program: Fish Protection at Steam Electric 1014018 (Technical Report) Power Plants Program: Coal Combustion Products— Assessment of Treated Wood and Alternate EPRI Project Manager: Douglas A. Dixon Environmental Issues Materials for Utility Poles EPRI Project Manager: Kenneth J. Ladwig 1014064 (Technical Report) Kentucky Transmission Line Siting Methodology Program: T&D Facilities and Equipment: 1016198 (Technical Report) Management of Non-Cooling Water Releases Environmental Issues Program: ROW: Siting, Vegetation Manage- 1014023 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Mary E. Mclearn ment, and Avian Issues Program: Watershed and Water EPRI Project Manager: John Goodrich-Mahoney Resource Sustainability Multimedia Fate at Coal-Fired EPRI Project Manager: Robert A. Goldstein Power Plants Equipped With SCR and Wet FGd Controls Generation Methodologies for Cross-Pollutant Trading 1014095 (Technical Report) 1014025 (Technical Report) Program: PISCES—Plant Multimedia Toxics ESPM (Electrostatic Precipitator Model) Program: Watershed and Water Characterization Version 4.0 Resource Sustainability EPRI Project Manager: Babu Nott 1012686 (Software) EPRI Project Manager: Jessica Anne Fox Program: Particulate and Opacity Control Program on Technology Innovation: Economic EPRI Project Manager: Ralph F. Altman Water Use for Electric Power Generation Analysis of California Climate Initiatives, An 1014026 (Technical Report) Integrated Approach, Volume 2—Full Report Steam Turbine Bolting Maintenance Guide Program: Watershed and Water 1014862 (Technical Report) 1013341 (Technical Report) Resource Sustainability Program: Global Climate Change Policy Costs Program: Steam Turbines, Generators, and EPRI Project Manager: Robert A. Goldstein and Benefi ts Balance-of-Plant EPRI Project Manager: Geoffrey Blanford EPRI Project Manager: Alan Joseph Grunsky Long-Term Performance of a Passive Waste- water Treatment System: The Albright Project Program on Technology Innovation: Economic BLESS 5.0 Boiler Life Extension and 1014029 (Technical Report) Analysis of California Climate Initiatives, An Simulation System Program: Effl uent Guidelines and Water Integrated Approach, Volume 3—Modeler’s 1014102 (Software) Quality Management Appendices Program: Boiler Life and Availability EPRI Project Manager: John Goodrich-Mahoney 1014863 (Technical Report) Improvement Program Program: Global Climate Change Policy Costs EPRI Project Manager: Kent K. Coleman and Benefi ts EPRI Project Manager: Geoffrey Blanford

SPRING 2008 39 Compilation of EPRI Boiler Guidelines Condensate Filtration Technologies for Electric Status of Particulate Matter Continuous 1014103 (Technical Report) Power Generating Stations Emission Monitoring Systems 2007 Program: Boiler Life and Availability 1014129 (Technical Report) 1014180 (Technical Report) Improvement Program Program: Boiler and Turbine Steam and Program: Continuous Emissions Monitoring EPRI Project Manager: Kent K. Coleman Cycle Chemistry EPRI Project Manager: Charles E. Dene EPRI Project Manager: James A. Mathews Compilation of EPRI Fossil Plant Cycle Continuous Mercury Monitoring Demonstration Chemistry Guidelines Condensate Polishing Performance 1014181 (Technical Report) 1014105 (Technical Report) Assessment: Use of Separate Bed Single Program: PISCES—Plant Multimedia Toxics Program: Boiler and Turbine Steam and Vessel Designs Characterization Cycle Chemistry 1014130 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Charles E. Dene EPRI Project Manager: James A. Mathews Program: Boiler and Turbine Steam and Cycle Chemistry Technical Assessment Computer-Based Training Course: Fossil EPRI Project Manager: James A. Mathews Guide—TAG-RE: 2007 Planners Guide, Version 1.0 1014182 (Technical Report) 1014107 (Software) Simulated Boiler Corrosion Studies Using Program: Renewable and Hydropower Program: Maintenance Management Electrochemical Techniques: AVT(O) Generation and Technology Contaminant Limits EPRI Project Manager: Charles R. McGowin EPRI Project Manager: Stephen H. Hesler 1014133 (Technical Report) Program: Boiler and Turbine Steam and Metallurgical Guidebook for Fossil Power Overhaul Plan (GTOP) for GE 9FA Cycle Chemistry Plant Boilers 1014109 (Software) EPRI Project Manager: James A. Mathews 1014183 (Technical Report) Program: Combustion Turbine (CT) and Program: Fossil Materials and Repair Combined-Cycle (CC) O&M Boresonic Inspection Primer EPRI Project Manager: David W. Gandy EPRI Project Manager: John R. Scheibel 1014140 (Technical Report) Program: Steam Turbines, Generators, and Shutdown Protection of Steam Turbines Using CTCC O&M Cost Analyzer, Version 7.0 Balance-of-Plant Dehumidified Air 1014111 (Software) EPRI Project Manager: Paul Zayicek 1014195 (Technical Report) Program: New Combustion Turbine/Combined- Program: Heat Recovery Steam Generator Cycle Design, , and Risk Mitigation 2007 Workshop on Selective (HRSG) Dependability EPRI Project Manager: Dale S. Grace Catalytic Reduction EPRI Project Manager: Charles Thomas Alley, Jr. 1014168 (Technical Report)

Compilation of EPRI Heat Recovery Steam Program: Postcombustion NOx Control Guidelines on Optimizing Heat Recovery Generator (HRSG) Guidelines EPRI Project Manager: David R. Broske Steam Generator Drains 1014114 (Technical Report) 1014196 (Technical Report) Program: Heat Recovery Steam Generator 2007 Status of Multi-Pollutant Program: Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) Dependability Process Development (HRSG) Dependability EPRI Project Manager: Charles Thomas Alley, Jr. 1014170 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Charles Thomas Alley, Jr. Program: Integrated Environmental Controls ® Technical Assessment Guide (TAG )—Power (Hg, SO2, NOx, and Particulate) Burner Management System Maintenance Generation and Storage Technology Options EPRI Project Manager: Charles E. Dene Guide for Fossil Power Plant Personnel 1014115 (Technical Report) 1014198 (Technical Report) Program: Technology-Based Business Planning Mercury Control Technology Program: Fossil Maintenance Applications Information and Services (TAG) 1014172 (Technical Report) Center (FMAC) EPRI Project Manager: Gopalachary Program: Integrated Environmental Controls EPRI Project Manager: Ray Henson Chambers

Ramachandran (Hg, SO2, NOx, and Particulate) EPRI Project Manager: Ramsay Chang Emergency Management Guideline for Technical Assessment Guide (TAG®)— Fossil Generating Stations Advanced Technologies Guidelines for Obtaining Compliance 1014199 (Technical Report) 1014116 (Technical Report) Assurance Monitoring Permits Program: and Program: Technology-Based Business Planning 1014175 (Technical Report) Technology Information and Services (TAG) Program: Particulate and Opacity Control EPRI Project Manager: C. Wayne Crawford EPRI Project Manager: Gopalachary EPRI Project Manager: Ralph F. Altman Ramachandran Updated Operations Assessment Guideline Optimizing Ash Handling—SmartAsh™ 1014200 (Technical Report) Boiler Water Deposition Model for Fossil- System Evaluation Program: Operations Management and Fueled Power Plants 1014176 (Technical Report) Technology 1014128 (Technical Report) Program: Particulate and Opacity Control EPRI Project Manager: C. Wayne Crawford Program: Boiler and Turbine Steam and EPRI Project Manager: Ralph F. Altman Cycle Chemistry EPRI Project Manager: James A. Mathews

40 EPRI JOURNAL Root Causes of Circumferential Cracking Drivers of New Generation Development— Fossil Plant High-Energy Piping Damage: in Waterwalls of Supercritical Units: A Global Review Theory and Practice State-of-Knowledge 1014920 (Technical Report) 1015505 (Technical Report) 1014205 (Technical Report) Program: Coal Fleet for Tomorrow—Future Coal Program: Boiler Life and Availability Program: Thermal Fatigue Cracking in the Generation Options Improvement Program Waterwalls of Supercritical Boilers EPRI Project Manager: Jeremy B. Platt EPRI Project Manager: Kent K. Coleman EPRI Project Manager: Anthony Facchiano Global Market Analysis Instrument Development for Continuous Flux Work Management Guidelines for Fossil 1014921 (Technical Report) Monitoring in Hydrogenerators Power Plant Personnel Program: Coal Fleet for Tomorrow—Future Coal 1016148 (Technical Report) 1014208 (Technical Report) Generation Options Program: Renewable and Hydropower Program: Operations Management and EPRI Project Manager: Jeremy B. Platt Generation Technology EPRI Project Manager: Jan Stein EPRI Project Manager: C. Wayne Crawford International Coal Market Analysis 1014922 (Technical Report) Flame Doctor for Cyclone Boilers Risk-Informed Maintenance Decision Program: Coal Fleet for Tomorrow—Future Coal 1016149 (Technical Report) Analysis Methodology Generation Options Program: Cyclone Interest Group (CIG) 1014243 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Jeremy B. Platt EPRI Project Manager: Richard Marshall Himes Program: Maintenance Management and Technology State of Knowledge: Grades 92 and 122 Steel Program on Technology Innovation: Improved EPRI Project Manager: Stephen H. Hesler for Fossil Power Plants Probability of Failure Analysis Using On-Line 1014929 (Technical Report) Equipment Condition Monitoring Data Understanding Mercury Chemistry via the Program: Fossil Materials and Repair 1016173 (Technical Report) Reaction Engineering International (REI) EPRI Project Manager: David W. Gandy Program: I&C and Automation for Improved ProMerc™ Model Plant Operations 1014893 (Technical Report) Diagnostic Advisor Module Process EPRI Project Manager: Aaron James Hussey Program: Integrated Environmental Controls Specification

(Hg, SO2, NOx, and Particulate) 1015180 (Technical Report) EGEAS—Electric Generation Expansion EPRI Project Manager: George R. Offen Program: Maintenance Management and Analysis System, Version 9.02BW Technology 1016192 (Software) Creating Incentives for Electricity Providers to EPRI Project Manager: Stephen H. Hesler Program: Technology-Based Business Planning Integrate Distributed Energy Resources Information and Services (TAG) 1014899 (Technical Report) Program on Technology Innovation: EPRI Project Manager: Gopalachary Program: Distributed Energy Resources Interlayer Mixing in Selective Catalytic Ramachandran EPRI Project Manager: David Thimsen Reduction Systems 1015438 (Technical Report) Fossil Plant High-Energy Piping Damage:

Negative Sequence Effects on Generator Rotors Program: Postcombustion NOx Control Theory and Practice 1014910 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: David R. Broske 1016212 (Technical Report) Program: Steam Turbines, Generators, and Program: Boiler Life and Availability Balance-of-Plant Productivity Improvement for Fossil Steam Improvement Program EPRI Project Manager: Paul Zayicek Power Plants, 2007 EPRI Project Manager: Kent K. Coleman 1015445 (Technical Report) Generator Control Testing to Certify Reactive Program: Steam Turbines, Generators, and Guidelines for Reducing the Time and Cost of Power Capability, Excitation System Functions Balance-of-Plant Turbine-Generator Maintenance Overhauls and Frequency Response EPRI Project Manager: Alan Joseph Grunsky and Inspections, Volume 2—Repair Procedures 1014911 (Technical Report) 1016345 (Technical Report) Program: Steam Turbines, Generators, and Intelligent Sootblowing at NRG Texas W. A. Program: Steam Turbines, Generators, and Balance-of-Plant Parish Plant Balance-of-Plant EPRI Project Manager: Jan Stein 1015483 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Alan Joseph Grunsky Program: Combustion Performance and

Review of Combustion Modification NOx Control Guidelines for Reducing the Time and Cost of Emerging Technologies EPRI Project Manager: Jeffrey Stallings Turbine-Generator Maintenance Overhauls 1014912 (Technical Report) and Inspections, Volume 4—Turbine Generator Program: Combustion Performance and Assessment of Secondary Air Distribution Component Procurement Specifications

NOx Control on an Opposed-Fired Unit 1016346 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Richard Marshall Himes 1015498 (Technical Report) Program: Steam Turbines, Generators, and Program: Combustion Performance and Balance-of-Plant

Clearance and Tagging Guideline for Fossil NOx Control EPRI Project Manager: Alan Joseph Grunsky Electric Generating Stations EPRI Project Manager: Jose C. Sanchez 1014916 (Technical Report) Program: Operations Management and Technology EPRI Project Manager: C. Wayne Crawford

SPRING 2008 41 Demonstration of On-Line Elemental Coal PDD/QDA Version 4.0 Performance Computer-Based Training Module for Analyzer at TVA’s Cumberland Fossil Plant Demonstration Database/Qualified Data Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC) 1016364 (Technical Report) Analyst for UNIX 1014967 (Software) Program: Combustion Performance and 1014495 (Software) Program: Nuclear Power

NOx Control Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Shane Findlan EPRI Project Manager: Jose C. Sanchez EPRI Project Manager: Steven M. Swilley PM Basis Version (Preventive Maintenance Online Coal Flow ORSIM, Operational Risk Simulation Model, Database) 2.0 Adjustable Riffler Test Version 1.0 1014971 (Software) 1016365 (Technical Report) 1014553 (Software) Program: Nuclear Power Program: Combustion Performance and Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Leonard Loflin

NOx Control EPRI Project Manager: Nicholas Ronald Camilli EPRI Project Manager: Jose C. Sanchez Program on Technology Innovation: Prediction EOOS, Equipment Out of Service, Version 3.5 and Evaluation of Environmentally Assisted Austenitic Stainless Steel Handbook 1014786 (Software) Cracking in LWR Structural Materials 1016374 (Technical Report) Program: Educating Risk Staff 1014977 (Technical Report) Program: Fossil Materials and Repair EPRI Project Manager: Frank J. Rahn Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: David W. Gandy EPRI Project Manager: Rajeshwar Pathania Operations and Maintenance Development: Remaining-Life Assessment of Austenitic Preventive Maintenance Program Implementa- Pressurized Water Reactor Hideout Stainless Steel Superheater and Reheater tion Self-Assessment Guidelines for Nuclear Return Sourcebook Tubes Subjected to Long-Term Overheat- Power Plants 1014985 (Technical Report) Creep Damage 1014798 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power 1016375 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Keith Paul Fruzzetti Program: Fossil Materials and Repair EPRI Project Manager: Lee Alvin Rogers EPRI Project Manager: David W. Gandy Pressurized Water Reactor Primary Water Seismic Qualification Case Study for a Chemistry Guidelines New Inverter 1014986 (Technical Report) Nuclear 1014870 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Keith Paul Fruzzetti Plant Support Engineering: Guidelines for EPRI Project Manager: Robert Kassawara Optimizing the Engineering Change Process Application of Raman Spectroscopy to for Nuclear Power Plants, Revision 2 Plant Support Engineering: Temperature Evaluate Lead Species Under Pressurized 1008254 (Technical Report) Stability Criteria for Heat Exchanger Testing Water Reactor Secondary Chemistry Program: Nuclear Power 1014882 (Technical Report) Conditions EPRI Project Manager: Leigh Aparicio Program: Nuclear Power 1014987 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Timothy Eckert Program: Nuclear Power Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: EPRI Project Manager: Samuel S. Choi Considerations for Developing a Critical-Parts SG Degradation Database and Program at a Nuclear Power Plant Progress Report Pressurized Water Reactor Steam Generator 1011861 (Technical Report) 1014956 (Software) Layup: Corrosion Evaluation Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power 1014988 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Lee Alvin Rogers EPRI Project Manager: Heather M. Feldman Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Samuel S. Choi BWRVIP-183: BWR Vessel and Internals ChemWORKS Tools, Version 1.0 Project, Top Guide Grid Beam Inspection and 1014959 (Software) Steam Generator Management Program: Flaw Evaluation Guidelines Program: Nuclear Power Thermal-Hydraulics and Studies of Foreign 1013401 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Keith Paul Fruzzetti Objects in Steam Generators Program: Nuclear Power 1014989 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Robert G. Carter CIRCE—PWR Secondary Water Chemistry Program: Nuclear Power Optimization Tool, Version 1.0 EPRI Project Manager: Heather M. Feldman BWRVIP-180: BWR Vessel and Internals 1014960 (Software) Project, Access Hole Cover Inspection and Flaw Program: Nuclear Power Factors Affecting PbSCC in 600/Alloy Evaluation Guidelines EPRI Project Manager: Keith Paul Fruzzetti 690 Steam Generator Tubing 1013402 (Technical Report) 1014990 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power Boron-Induced Offset Anomaly (BOA) Risk Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Robert G. Carter Assessment Tool, Version 2.0 EPRI Project Manager: Heather M. Feldman 1014961 (Software) BWRVIP-181: BWR Vessel and Internals Program: Nuclear Power Project, Steam Dryer Repair Design EPRI Project Manager: Jeffrey Charles Deshon 1013403 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Robert G. Carter

42 EPRI JOURNAL Steam Generator Management Program: Elevated pH Demonstration at Comanche Peak Visual Inspections and Initial Characterizations PWR Steam Generator Tube Wear— Unit 2 of IFA-649 Rods Alloy 690/Supports 1015022 (Technical Report) 1015041 (Technical Report) 1014991 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power Program: Fuel Reliability and Margins Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Jeffrey Charles Deshon EPRI Project Manager: Suresh Yagnik EPRI Project Manager: Heather M. Feldman Corrosion Product Transport Model for PWR Fuel Fragmentation Scoping Studies TR-105696-R10 (BWRVIP-03) Revision 10: Primary Circuit Applications 1015042 (Technical Report) BWR Vessel and Internals Project 1015023 (Technical Report) Program: Fuel Reliability and Margins 1014993 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Suresh Yagnik Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Jeffrey Charles Deshon EPRI Project Manager: Robert G. Carter Program on Technology Innovation: EPRI Yucca Performance Assessment of High-Burnup Fuel Mountain Spent Fuel Repository Evaluation Materials Reliability Program: Testing the From Limerick 1015045 (Technical Report) Resistance to Stress Corrosion Cracking of 1015026 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power Alloy 690 and its Weld Metal in Supercritical Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: John Kessler

Boron/Lithium/H2 Solutions (MRP-225) EPRI Project Manager: Erik Mader 1015004 (Technical Report) Spent Fuel Transportation Applications— Program: Nuclear Power Eddy Current Method to Determine Hydrogen Assessment of Cladding Performance EPRI Project Manager: Kawaljit Singh Ahluwalia in Fuel Rods and Fuel Assembly Components 1015048 (Technical Report) 1015027 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power Materials Reliability Program: Effects of Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Albert J. Machiels Dissolved Hydrogen, Temperature, and EPRI Project Manager: Erik Mader Hydrogen Peroxide on Low-Temperature Crack Nondestructive Evaluation: Surface Examina- Propagation (LTCP) Fracture Resistance of Weld Hot Cell Examination of GE11 and GE13 BWR tion of Nickel Alloy Welds—Examination of Metals 182, 52, and 152 (MRP-209) Fuel Exposed to 52 and 65 GWd/MtU at the Welds With Difficult Access 1015005 (Technical Report) Limerick 1 and 2 Reactors 1015051 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power 1015028 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Kawaljit Singh Ahluwalia Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Pedro Felipe Lara EPRI Project Manager: Erik Mader Materials Reliability Program: Development of Nondestructive Evaluation: Boiling Water Alternate ASME Section XI Appendix G Hot Cell Examination of AREVA Fuel Channel Reactor Bottom Head Drain Line Examina- Methodology—Validation and Verification of Coupons From LaSalle 2006/2007 tion—Field Trial FAVOR, V06.1 (MRP-226) 1015030 (Technical Report) 1015052 (Technical Report) 1015012 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Erik Mader EPRI Project Manager: Pedro Felipe Lara EPRI Project Manager: Jack C. Spanner BWR Zircaloy Shadow Corrosion and Nondestructive Evaluation: Nondestructive Materials Reliability Program: PWR Internals Hydriding Meeting July 26–27, 2006, Evaluation for Material Characterization Age-Related Material Properties, Degradation Freeport, Maine 1015053 (Technical Report) Mechanisms, Models, and Basis Data—State 1015034 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power of Knowledge (MRP-211) Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Kenji J. Krzywosz 1015013 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Boching Cheng Program: Nuclear Power Nondestructive Evaluation: Enhanced EPRI Project Manager: Anne Genevieve Demma Solubility of Silicate and Zinc Ferrite in Ferromagnetic Tubular Inspection Techniques Aqueous Solution at Light Water Reactor for High-Performance Thin-Walled Ferritic Evaluation of Altering the Hydrogen Concen- Temperatures Stainless Steel and Carbon Steel Tubing tration for Mitigation of Primary Water Stress 1015035 (Technical Report) 1015055 (Technical Report) Corrosion Cracking Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power 1015017 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Boching Cheng EPRI Project Manager: Jeganathan Program: Nuclear Power Maruthamuthu EPRI Project Manager: Keith Paul Fruzzetti Investigation of Browns Ferry 2 Reactor Cycle 12 Fuel Corrosion Failures, Volume 3: Nondestructive Evaluation: Examination Dispersants for Tube Fouling Control, Assessment of Results of Large-Diameter Buried Piping for Volume 5: PWR Application Sourcebook 1015038 (Technical Report) Small-Pit Detection and Preferential Weld 1015020 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power Corrosion Attack Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Erik Mader 1015056 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Keith Paul Fruzzetti Program: Nuclear Power Hot Cell Examination of Failed and Sound EPRI Project Manager: Pedro Felipe Lara Sibling Fuel Rods From Hatch-1 Cycle 21 1015040 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Erik Mader

SPRING 2008 43 Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Plant Support Engineering: Large Motor End of Option 2, 10CFR50.69 Special Treatment Isolated Phase Bus Maintenance Guide Expected Life and Planning Considerations Guidelines 1015057 (Technical Report) 1015076 (Technical Report) 1015099 (Technical Report) Program: Equipment Degradation Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: James P. Sharkey EPRI Project Manager: Gary John Toman EPRI Project Manager: Patrick Joseph O’Regan

Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Plant Support Engineering: Aging Effects for Program on Technology Innovation: Condenser Air Removal Equipment Mainte- Structures and Structural Components Probabilistic Risk Assessment Requirements nance Guide (Structural Tools) for Passive Safety Systems 1015058 (Technical Report) 1015078 (Technical Report) 1015101 (Technical Report) Program: Equipment Degradation Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Martin L. , Jr. EPRI Project Manager: Gary John Toman EPRI Project Manager: Stephen Michael Hess

Nuclear Maintenance Applications Plant Support Engineering: Replacements for Risk-Informing Construction and Operating Center: Condenser Cleaning Equipment Obsolete ASCO Red Hat Series Solenoid License (COL) Plants—A Scoping Study Maintenance Guide Valves on CD-ROM, NQA Safety Related 1015102 (Technical Report) 1015059 (Technical Report) 1015079 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power Program: Equipment Degradation Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Patrick Joseph O’Regan EPRI Project Manager: Martin L. Bridges, Jr. EPRI Project Manager: Marc Howard Tannenbaum Program on Technology Innovation: Education Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: of Risk Professionals Maintenance Guide for Fluid Drives and Other Clearance and Tagging Guideline for Nuclear 1015103 (Technical Report) Variable-Speed Drives Electric Generating Stations Program: Nuclear Power 1015060 (Technical Report) 1015082 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Frank J. Rahn Program: Fossil Maintenance Applications Program: Nuclear Power Center (FMAC) EPRI Project Manager: David Ziebell MAAP Applications Guide EPRI Project Manager: Martin L. Bridges, Jr. 1015104 (Technical Report) On-Line Monitoring: Univariate Methods for Program: Nuclear Power Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Statistical Analysis of Plant Data EPRI Project Manager: Ken Canavan Guide for the Storage and Handling of Fuel 1015086 (Technical Report) Oil for Standby Diesel Generator Systems, Program: Nuclear Power Program on Technology Innovation: Revision 3 EPRI Project Manager: Richard Lee Rusaw Effects of Spatial Incoherence on Seismic 1015061 (Technical Report) Ground Motions Program: Equipment Degradation Guidance on Use of Simulation to Support 1015110 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Wayne Johnson Digital I&C and Control Room Modifications Program: Nuclear Power 1015088 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Tom J. Mulford Fatigue and Capacity Testing of High-Density Program: Nuclear Power Polyethylene Pipe and Pipe Components EPRI Project Manager: Joseph A. Naser Program on Technology Innovation: Fabricated From PE4710 Validation of CLASSI and SASSI Codes to 1015062 (Technical Report) Handbook on Regression Testing of Treat Seismic Wave Incoherence in Soil- Program: Nuclear Power Digital Systems Structure Interaction (SSI) Analysis of Nuclear EPRI Project Manager: Shane Findlan 1015090 (Technical Report) Power Plant Structures Program: Nuclear Power 1015111 (Technical Report) Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: EPRI Project Manager: Raymond C. Torok Program: Nuclear Power Airborne/Structure-Borne Ultrasound EPRI Project Manager: Tom J. Mulford Technology Sourcebook Nuclear Asset Management (NAM) 1015064 (Technical Report) Process Model Program on Technology Innovation: Program: Equipment Degradation 1015091 (Technical Report) New Plant Deployment Program Model EPRI Project Manager: James P. Sharkey Program: Nuclear Power 1015113 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Stephen Michael Hess Program: Nuclear Power Turbine-Generator Auxiliary Systems, EPRI Project Manager: Tom J. Mulford Volume 3: Generator Hydrogen System Investigation of Inter-System Common- Maintenance Guide Cause Failures Waste Class B/C Reduction Guide 1015066 (Technical Report) 1015096 (Technical Report) 1015115 (Technical Report) Program: Steam Turbines, Generators, and Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power Balance-of-Plant EPRI Project Manager: Ken Canavan EPRI Project Manager: Phung Kim Tran EPRI Project Manager: Jan Stein Review of Current Practices for Configuration Application of Continuous Electrical Deioniza- Plant Support Engineering: Life Cycle at Nuclear Power Plants tion for Liquid Radwaste Processing at Management Planning Sourcebooks—Chillers 1015098 (Technical Report) Braidwood Generating Station 1015075 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power 1015116 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Ken Canavan Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Gary John Toman EPRI Project Manager: Dennis Hussey

44 EPRI JOURNAL Program on Technology Innovation: Nuclear Maintenance Applications Materials Reliability Program: Corrosion and Development of the EPRI Magnetic Center: Maintenance Engineer Funda- Fracture Toughness Testing of BOR-60 Molecules Technology mentals Handbook Irradiated Materials (MRP-223) 1015117 (Technical Report) 1015307 (Technical Report) 1015479 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power Program: Equipment Degradation Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Sean P. Bushart EPRI Project Manager: Lee Alvin Rogers EPRI Project Manager: Hui-Tsung Tang

Groundwater Protection Guidelines for MAAP Version 4.07 (Modular Accident Materials Reliability Program: Analysis of Nuclear Power Plants Analysis Program) for Windows 2000/XP on IASCC Initiation Data for Irradiated Stainless 1015118 (Technical Report) CD-ROM, Nuclear Safety Related Steels (MRP-224) Program: Nuclear Power 1015309 (Software) 1015480 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Sean P. Bushart Program: Educating Risk Staff Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Frank J. Rahn EPRI Project Manager: Hui-Tsung Tang Application of the EPRI Standard Radiation Monitoring Program for PWR Radiation Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: An Interim Review of the Field Reduction Bolted Joint Fundamentals Irradiation-Assisted Stress Corrosion Cracking 1015119 (Technical Report) 1015336 (Technical Report) Research (CIR) Program—Revision 1 Program: Nuclear Power Program: Equipment Degradation 1015493 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Dennis Hussey EPRI Project Manager: Martin L. Bridges, Jr. Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Rajeshwar Pathania Pro-Active Exposure Reduction Practices to Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Improve Process Efficiency and Reduce Assembling Gasketed Flanged Bolted Joints Rancho Seco Reactor Vessel Segmentation Personnel Exposure for Emergent PWR/BWR 1015337 (Technical Report) Experience Report Material Inspection and Mitigation Activities Program: Equipment Degradation 1015501 (Technical Report) 1015120 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Martin L. Bridges, Jr. Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Sean P. Bushart EPRI Project Manager: Phung Kim Tran HRA Calculator 4.0 1015358 (Software) CAFTA, Computer-Aided Fault Tree Analysis, Rancho Seco Nuclear Generating Station Program: Educating Risk Staff Version 5.3 Decommissioning Experience Report EPRI Project Manager: Frank J. Rahn 1015513 (Software) 1015121 (Technical Report) Program: Educating Risk Staff Program: Nuclear Power Proceedings: 2007 Condensate Polishing EPRI Project Manager: Frank J. Rahn EPRI Project Manager: Sean P. Bushart Workshop 1015447 (Technical Report) CAFTA, Computer-Aided Fault Tree Analysis, Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Program: Water Chemistry Control DEMO Version 5.3 Emergency Diesel Generator Governing EPRI Project Manager: Keith Paul Fruzzetti 1015514 (Software) System Maintenance Guide for Nuclear Program: Educating Risk Staff Applications Fuel Reliability Guidelines: PWR Fuel Cladding EPRI Project Manager: Frank J. Rahn 1015157 (Technical Report) Corrosion and Crud Program: Equipment Degradation 1015449 (Technical Report) CAFTA 5.3, Educational Version EPRI Project Manager: James P. Sharkey Program: Fuel Reliability and Margins 1015515 (Software) EPRI Project Manager: Kurt W. Edsinger Program: Educating Risk Staff Operations and Maintenance Development: EPRI Project Manager: Frank J. Rahn Work Planning Assessment Guidelines for BWRVIP-177: BWR Vessel and Internals Nuclear Power Plant Personnel Project, Analysis of a Noble Metal Surface/ A History of the Maintenance Rule 1015253 (Technical Report) Crack Deposition Monitoring Specimen—2007 10CFR50.65 Program: Nuclear Power Update 1015517 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Lee Alvin Rogers 1015468 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Leonard Loflin Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: EPRI Project Manager: Rajeshwar Pathania Lube Notes Compilation, 1989–2007 Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: 1015254 (Technical Report) Materials Reliability Program: Corrosion Preventive Maintenance Basis Database, Program: Fossil Maintenance Applications Testing of Decommissioned PWR Core Internals Version 1.5—User’s Manual Center (FMAC) Material Samples (MRP-222) 1015519 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Nicholas Ronald Camilli 1015478 (Technical Report) Program: Staff Expertise Loss Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Martin L. Bridges, Jr. Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: EPRI Project Manager: Hui-Tsung Tang Material Handling Application Guide Data Transfer Tool for ChemWorks, V4.0 1015271 (Technical Report) 1015525 (Software) Program: Equipment Degradation Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Martin L. Bridges, Jr. EPRI Project Manager: David Perkins

SPRING 2008 45 Risk Impact Assessment of Extended Integrated Experience-Based Seismic Equipment Hot Cell Examination of AREVA Fuel Channel Leak Rate Testing Intervals Qualification Coupons From Susquehanna 2006/2007 1015529 (Technical Report) 1016125 (Technical Report) 1016325 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Frank J. Rahn EPRI Project Manager: Robert Kassawara EPRI Project Manager: Erik Mader

Materials Reliability Program: Stress Corrosion Review of High Frequency Conducted BWRVIP-34-A: BWR Vessel and Internals Cracking of Stainless Steel Components in Susceptibility Limits for Electromagnetic Project, Technical Basis for Part Circumference Primary Water Circuit Environments of Compatibility Testing Weld Overlay Repair of Vessel Internal Core Pressurized Water Reactors (MRP-236) 1016158 (Technical Report) Spray Piping 1015540 (Technical Report) Program: Combustion Performance and 1016377 (Technical Report)

Program: Nuclear Power NOx Control Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Gabriel O. Ilevbare EPRI Project Manager: Raymond C. Torok EPRI Project Manager: Robert G. Carter

Program on Technology Innovation: BWRVIP-182: BWR Vessel and Internals Graphite Waste Separation Project, Guidance for Demonstration of Steam Power Delivery 1016098 (Technical Report) Dryer Integrity for Power Uprate Program: Nuclear Power 1016166 (Technical Report) TFlash, Version 5.0 EPRI Project Manager: Sean P. Bushart Program: Nuclear Power 1012315 (Software) EPRI Project Manager: Robert G. Carter Program: Overhead Transmission Groundwater Protection Guidelines for EPRI Project Manager: Fabio Bologna Nuclear Power Plants ETTM—Seismic Analysis, CBT Module, 1016099 (Technical Report) Version 1.0 MSM (Motor Starting Module) Version 1.0 Program: Nuclear Power 1016238 (Software) 1013731 (Software) EPRI Project Manager: Sean P. Bushart Program: Nuclear Power Program: Power Quality EPRI Project Manager: Kenneth R. Caraway EPRI Project Manager: Bill Howe Nondestructive Evaluation: Assessment of Reactor Internal Loss of Bolt Pre-Load— ETTM—Material Properties of Metals, FastFit (FFit) Version 3.0 Feasibility CBT Module, Version 1.0 1013735 (Software) 1016101 (Technical Report) 1016248 (Software) Program: Value and Risk in Energy Markets Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Art M. Altman EPRI Project Manager: Pedro Felipe Lara EPRI Project Manager: Kenneth R. Caraway EBS (Energy Book System) Version 6.0 Materials Reliability Program: Fracture Materials Reliability Program: Development of 1013736 (Software) Toughness Evaluation of Highly Irradiated Preemptive Weld Overlay (PWOL) for Alloy Program: Value and Risk in Energy Markets PWR Stainless Steel Internal Components 600 Primary Water Stress Corrosion Cracking EPRI Project Manager: Art M. Altman (MRP-210) (PWSCC) Mitigation (MRP-208) 1016106 (Technical Report) 1016252 (Technical Report) OTLOT (Overhead Transmission Line Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power Inspection—On-Line Training) Version 3.0 EPRI Project Manager: Anne Genevieve Demma EPRI Project Manager: Kawaljit Singh Ahluwalia 1013738 (Software) Program: Overhead Transmission ETTM—Instrument Uncertainty Determination, Advanced Nuclear Technology (ANT) Margins EPRI Project Manager: John D. Kile CBT Module, Version 1.0 and Monitoring Project Description 1016108 (Software) 1016265 (Software) EPIC (EPRI Software for Polymer Insulators Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power Electric Field Calculations) Version 1.0 EPRI Project Manager: Kenneth R. Caraway EPRI Project Manager: Tom J. Mulford 1013740 (Software) Program: Overhead Transmission An Evaluation of Alternative Classification Program on Technology Innovation: Evaluation EPRI Project Manager: Timothy Shaw Methods for Routine Low Level Waste From the of Wear Characteristics of a Nanofluid in a Nuclear Power Industry Pressurized Water Reactor PSTSR, Power System Transient Stability 1016120 (Technical Report) 1016281 (Technical Report) Region Version 1.0 Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power 1013744 (Software) EPRI Project Manager: Phung Kim Tran EPRI Project Manager: Heather M. Feldman Program: Grid Operations EPRI Project Manager: Pei Zhang BWRVIP-108NP: BWR Vessel and Internals BWRVIP-184: BWR Vessel and Internals Project, Technical Basis for the Reduction of Project, Proceedings—BWRVIP Symposium in ESVT (Energy Storage Valuation Tool)— Inspection Requirements for the Boiling Water Orlando, Florida, December 13–14, 2007 Modeling Stakeholder Costs and Benefits, Reactor Nozzle-to-Vessel Shell Welds and 1016322 (Technical Report) Version 2.0 Nozzle Blend Radii Program: Nuclear Power 1013749 (Software) 1016123 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Randal Stark Program: Energy Storage for DER, Renewable Program: Nuclear Power and T&D Applications EPRI Project Manager: Robert G. Carter EPRI Project Manager: Daniel M. Rastler

46 EPRI JOURNAL DTCR (Dynamic Thermal Circuit Rating Performance-Focused Maintenance Methodol- Distribution Fault Location Software) Version 4.1 ogy for High-Voltage Circuit Breakers and 1013825 (Technical Report) 1013761 (Software) Transformers—Volume I Program: Distribution Systems Program: Increased Utilization of Transmission 1013795 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Matthew G. Olearczyk Corridors Program: Substations EPRI Project Manager: Bernard Arthur EPRI Project Manager: Bhavin Desai for Enterprise Asset Clairmont Management Testing and Technical Issues Resolution Within 1013860 (Technical Report) Justification and Prioritization of Reliability IEC 61850 Program: Enterprise Asset Management Improvement Projects 1013798 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Paul T. Myrda 1013767 (Technical Report) Program: Substations Program: Power Quality EPRI Project Manager: Joseph William Assessment of Wireless Technologies for EPRI Project Manager: Bill Howe Hughes, Jr. Advanced Automation 1013864 (Technical Report) Voltage Sag Direction Solid State Load Changer Program: Strategic T&D Systems 1013770 (Technical Report) 1013800 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Joseph William Program: Power Quality Program: Substations Hughes, Jr. EPRI Project Manager: Daniel Sabin EPRI Project Manager: Gordon Luke van der Zel Using Outage Data to Improve Reliability Mitigating the Effects of Temporary Integration of Advanced Automation and 1013874 (Technical Report) Overvoltage on Electronic Devices Enterprise Information System Infrastructures: Program: Power Quality 1013771 (Technical Report) Harmonization of IEC 61850 and IEC EPRI Project Manager: Tom Short Program: Power Quality 61970/61968 Models EPRI Project Manager: Brian D. Fortenbery 1013802 (Technical Report) Guide for Transmission Line Grounding Program: Substations 1013900 (Technical Report) Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Performance EPRI Project Manager: Joseph William Program: Overhead Transmission Analysis Hughes, Jr. EPRI Project Manager: Fabio Bologna 1013779 (Technical Report) Program: Electric Transportation Utility Application Experiences of Probabilistic Utility Documentation of Switching and EPRI Project Manager: Mark Duvall Risk Assessment Method Clearance Procedures 1013808 (Technical Report) 1013924 (Technical Report) Advanced Diagnostics Program: Grid Planning Program: Substations 1013782 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Pei Zhang EPRI Project Manager: George Gela Program: Underground Distribution Systems EPRI Project Manager: Matthew G. Olearczyk Best Practices Guide to Securing Wireless Interoperability Test #10 of the Common Substation Appliances Information Model (CIM) and the Generic Overhead Transmission Inspection and 1013810 (Technical Report) Interface Definition (GID) Standards Assessment Guidelines—2007 Program: Energy Information Security 1013958 (Technical Report) 1013784 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Madhava Sushilendra Program: Wide-Area Power Systems Program: Overhead Transmission EPRI Project Manager: David Becker EPRI Project Manager: John D. Kile Asset Management Practices Survey 1013813 (Technical Report) Life Extension Guidelines of Existing TL Workstation Tools (Tools and Software for Program: Power Delivery Asset Management HVDC Systems Transmission Line Design) Version 1.0 EPRI Project Manager: Paul T. Myrda 1013976 (Technical Report) 1013785 (Software) Program: HVDC Systems Program: Overhead Transmission Case Study—Asset Management Strategies for EPRI Project Manager: Rambabu Adapa EPRI Project Manager: John Kar Leung Chan Distribution Equipment 1013815 (Technical Report) Issues in Print Management EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book: Program: Power Delivery Asset Management 1014952 (Technical Report) 115–345-kV Compact Line Design EPRI Project Manager: Paul T. Myrda Program: Substations 1013787 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: George Gela Program: Overhead Transmission Data Specifications for Asset Management EPRI Project Manager: John Kar Leung Chan 1013816 (Technical Report) Manhole Cover Tests for Con Edison at Program: Power Delivery Asset Management the EPRI Manhole Testing Facility Substation Ground Grid Impedance EPRI Project Manager: Paul T. Myrda 1015220 (Technical Report) Measurement Program: Underground Distribution Systems 1013793 (Technical Report) Distribution Fault Anticipation EPRI Project Manager: Matthew G. Olearczyk Program: Substations 1013824 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: George Gela Program: Advanced Distribution Automation Measurement of Air Exchange in Intercon- EPRI Project Manager: Christopher Melhorn nected Underground Structures for Con Edison 1015221 (Technical Report) Program: Underground Distribution Systems EPRI Project Manager: Matthew G. Olearczyk

SPRING 2008 47 Rain Shedding and Rainwater Runoff Tests Technology Innovation Program on Technology Innovation: New Plant on Cast Iron Vented Manhole Covers for Deployment Program Model Con Edison Program on Technology Innovation: Economic 1015113 (Technical Report) 1015222 (Technical Report) Analysis of California Climate Initiatives, An Program: Nuclear Power Program: Underground Distribution Systems Integrated Approach, Volume 2—Full Report EPRI Project Manager: Tom J. Mulford EPRI Project Manager: Matthew G. Olearczyk 1014862 (Technical Report) Program: Global Climate Change Policy Costs Program on Technology Innovation: Final Report on Explosion Tests of Clogged and Benefits Development of the EPRI Magnetic Vented Covers for Con Edison at Lenox EPRI Project Manager: Geoffrey Blanford Molecules Technology 1015223 (Technical Report) 1015117 (Technical Report) Program: Underground Distribution Systems Program on Technology Innovation: Economic Program: Nuclear Power EPRI Project Manager: Matthew G. Olearczyk Analysis of California Climate Initiatives, An EPRI Project Manager: Sean P. Bushart Integrated Approach, Volume 3—Modeler’s PowerSec Generic Security Analysis Report Appendices Program on Technology Innovation: 1015531 (Technical Report) 1014863 (Technical Report) Interlayer Mixing in Selective Catalytic Program: Energy Information Security Program: Global Climate Change Policy Costs Reduction Systems EPRI Project Manager: Thomas Edward Kropp and Benefits 1015438 (Technical Report)

EPRI Project Manager: Geoffrey Blanford Program: Postcombustion NOx Control CSM (Capacitor Switching Module), EPRI Project Manager: David R. Broske Version 1.0 Program on Technology Innovation: Prediction 1016151 (Software) and Evaluation of Environmentally Assisted Program on Technology Innovation: Graphite Program: Power Quality Cracking in LWR Structural Materials Waste Separation EPRI Project Manager: Bill Howe 1014977 (Technical Report) 1016098 (Technical Report) Program: Nuclear Power Program: Nuclear Power Flicker Analysis Module (FAM) Version 1.0 EPRI Project Manager: Rajeshwar Pathania EPRI Project Manager: Sean P. Bushart 1016153 (Software) Program: Power Quality Program on Technology Innovation: EPRI Yucca Program on Technology Innovation: Improved EPRI Project Manager: Bill Howe Mountain Spent Fuel Repository Evaluation Probability of Failure Analysis Using On-Line 1015045 (Technical Report) Equipment Condition Monitoring Data Program on Technology Innovation: Program: Nuclear Power 1016173 (Technical Report) Learning to Recognize Vulnerable Patterns EPRI Project Manager: John Kessler Program: I&C and Automation for Improved of Cascaded Events Plant Operations 1016197 (Technical Report) Program on Technology Innovation: Probabilis- EPRI Project Manager: Aaron James Hussey Program: Grid Operations tic Risk Assessment Requirements for Passive EPRI Project Manager: Pei Zhang Safety Systems Program on Technology Innovation: 1015101 (Technical Report) Learning to Recognize Vulnerable Patterns Critical Operating Constraints Forecasting Program: Nuclear Power of Cascaded Events 1016221 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Stephen Michael Hess 1016197 (Technical Report) Program: Grid Operations Program: Grid Operations EPRI Project Manager: Stephen Ting-Yee Lee Program on Technology Innovation: Education EPRI Project Manager: Pei Zhang of Risk Professionals Load Modeling Using a Measurement- 1015103 (Technical Report) Program on Technology Innovation: Technol- Based Approach Program: Nuclear Power ogy R&D Strategy for the Electric Power 1016255 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Frank J. Rahn Industry—“Wild Cards” Program: Grid Operations 1016239 (Technical Report) EPRI Project Manager: Daniel Brooks Program on Technology Innovation: Program: Technology Innovation Effects of Spatial Incoherence on Seismic EPRI Project Manager: Stan Rosinski

CBT—SF6 () Handling, 1.0 Ground Motions 1016370 (Software) 1015110 (Technical Report) Program on Technology Innovation: Evaluation Program: Substations Program: Nuclear Power of Wear Characteristics of a Nanofluid in a EPRI Project Manager: Gordon Luke van der Zel EPRI Project Manager: Tom J. Mulford Pressurized Water Reactor 1016281 (Technical Report)

CBT—SF6 (Sulfur Hexafluoride) Analysis, Program on Technology Innovation: Validation Program: Nuclear Power Version 1.0 of CLASSI and SASSI Codes to Treat Seismic EPRI Project Manager: Heather M. Feldman 1016371 (Software) Wave Incoherence in Soil-Structure Interaction Program: Substations (SSI) Analysis of Nuclear Power Plant Program on Technology Innovation: Develop- EPRI Project Manager: Gordon Luke van der Zel Structures ment of a Conductivity/Corrosion Probe 1015111 (Technical Report) for Use in Boiler Water at Temperatures up Program: Nuclear Power to 360°C EPRI Project Manager: Tom J. Mulford 1016361 (Technical Report) Program: Technology Innovation EPRI Project Manager: Charles Thomas Alley, Jr.

48 EPRI JOURNAL

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